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Nancy M. Sullivan
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“Having used Essential Grammar for five semesters and with roughly 350 students— mostly pre-service educators, I value the clear presentation of a functional approach to grammar. Over the course of the semester, as students apply the ‘tests’ that Sullivan includes for analysis, their understanding of the relationship between form and function develops considerably.”
—Dr. Shannon Fitzsimmons-Doolan, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi
“Nancy Sullivan’s Essential Grammar for Today’s Writers, Students, and Teachers provides a fresh, clear approach to grammar for students in all disciplines, but particularly for future language arts teachers. Beginning with and building on the basics and working through verbal phrases and dependent clauses, Sullivan methodically explores the way English works. This reasonably-priced book includes virtually all the concepts needed for teaching English. Teachers will appreciate its streamlined approach: less reading and more doing is always good in a grammar class.”
—Elizabeth Ruleman, Tennessee Wesleyan College
“Nancy Sullivan’s Essential Grammar for Today’s Writers, Students, and Teachers achieves what few grammar texts accomplish: it presents its subject in a thorough, yet accessible style and format to vanquish the common fears both students and teachers have about learning and teaching this timeless topic. Equally important, the text is grounded in contemporary contexts across cultures, genres, and media, with examples that appeal to a range of audiences and alleviate the traditional assumption that the parts of speech and the way we use them to make meaning are a mystery to be mastered only by experts. In this way, Essential Grammar for Today’s Writers, Students, and Teachers will remain a valuable reference for its readers long after a course has ended; in other words, the book is indeed essential.”
—Kristine L. Blair, Duquesne University
“This textbook positions itself perfectly for pre-service teachers who may not have a strong background in grammar yet need to know these critical concepts in order to pass the certification exams. For that niche market, this book is more than adequate. The text is written to a general audience, however, so its usage is in no way confined to pre-service teachers and would be appropriate for anyone wanting to enhance their understanding the basic structure of English.”
—Catharine M. Welch, University of North Texas at Dallas
Essential Grammar for Today’s Writers, Students, and Teachers
This innovative grammar text is an ideal resource for writers, language students, and classroom teachers who need an accessible refresher in a step-by-step guide to essential grammar.
Rather than becoming mired in overly detailed linguistic definitions, Nancy Sullivan helps writers and students understand and apply grammatical concepts and develop the skills they need to enhance their writing. Along with engaging discussions of both contemporary and traditional terminology, Sullivan’s text provides clear explanations of the basics of English grammar, guides to punctuation, and a practical, hands-on approach to mastering the use of language. Complementing the focus on constructing excellent sentences, every example and exercise set is contextually grounded in language themes. This updated edition includes new sections in each chapter on Writing Matters (addressing key tools and concerns for writers) and Language Matters (addressing issues of social and regional dialect variation).
This is an ideal textbook for any writing course across disciplines where grammatical precision is important.
Online resources including additional exercises, links, and an answer key are available at www.routledge.com/9780367148683. Instructor materials accompanying the text provide teachers with activities designed for face-to-face, hybrid, and online instruction to enliven these basic grammar lessons as well as writing activities to integrate these concepts into students’ own writing.
Nancy M. Sullivan retired from the Department of English at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi (TAMUCC) in 2015. She started her teaching career as a Peace Corps volunteer in Togo, West Africa. Other countries where she has taught include Puerto Rico, Japan, China, and Hong Kong, where she was a Fulbright Scholar. She received a master’s degree from Ohio University and a doctorate from the University of Texas at Austin. She was a member of the TAMUCC English Department for over twenty years; she occasionally teaches online for the department to stay current with grammar. Her research on the intersection of language attitudes, language usage, and identity has been widely published. Sullivan’s keen interest in grammar usage has been inspired by her students, who continue to spark her curiosity with their insights and questions.
Essential Grammar for Today’s Writers, Students, and Teachers
Second edition
Nancy M. Sullivan
This edition published 2021 by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
The right of Nancy M. Sullivan to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition (2014) published by ME Sharpe
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Sullivan, Nancy, 1949– author.
Title: Essential grammar for today’s writers, students, and teachers / Nancy M. Sullivan.
Description: Second edition. | London ; New York : Routledge, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005238
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005239
ISBN: 978-0-367-14866-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-14868-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-05367-2 (ebk)
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Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9780367148683
Preface
Introduction
Commonly Used Abbreviations
1 Word Classes 1
Nouns 3
Adjectives 5
Determiners 7
Articles 7
Demonstratives 8
Quantifiers 8
Possessives 9
Numbers 9
Descriptive Adjectives 9
Pronouns 11
Personal Pronouns 12
Reflexive Pronouns 13
Demonstrative Pronouns 14
Indefinite Pronouns 16 Verbs 18
Three Verb Tenses 20
Auxiliary Verbs, Aspect, and Modality 20
The Perfect Aspect 21
The Progressive Aspect 21
The Perfect Progressive Aspect 21
Modality 23
Adverbs 24
Adverbs Modifying Verbs 25
Adverbs of Manner 25
Adverbs of Time, Place, and Frequency 26
Adverbs Modifying Adjectives and Adverbs 27
Adverbs of Degree 27
Prepositions 29
Conjunctions 31
Coordinating Conjunctions 32
Correlative Conjunctions 34
Interjections 35
Writing Matters 36
Language Matters 37
Chapter Review 38
2 Extending the Basics 43
Extending Nouns 44
The Pronoun Substitution Test 45
Noun Phrase Appositives 48
Extending Prepositional Phrases 51
Adjectival Prepositional Phrases 54
Adverbial Prepositional Phrases 57
Prepositional Phrases Versus Phrasal Verbs 60
Extending Verbs with Active and Passive Voice 62
Extending Conjunctions with Conjunctive Adverbs 68
Writing Matters 71
Language Matters 72
Chapter Review 73
3 Sentence Patterns 77
Verb Classes 78
Linking Verbs 78
Intransitive and Transitive Verbs 81
Intransitive Verbs 82
Transitive Verbs 83
Sentence Patterns 86
Linking Verb Patterns 86
Intransitive and Transitive Verb Patterns 88
Intransitive Verb (IV) Pattern 89
Transitive Verb (TV) Patterns 89
Writing Matters 96
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4
Language Matters 97
Chapter Review 97
Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives 101
Gerunds 102
Identifying Gerunds 102
Tests for Gerunds 104
Pronoun Substitution Test 104
Possessive Subject Test 106
Verb Conjugation Test 107
Participles 111
Identifying Participles 112
Differences Between Gerunds and Participles 118
Infinitives 121
Identifying Infinitives 121
Infinitives as Nouns 122
Infinitives as Adjectives 124
Infinitives as Adverbs 125
Adverb Infinitives Modifying Verbs 126
Adverb Infinitives Modifying Adjectives 127
Writing Matters 129
Language Matters 131
Chapter Review 131
5 Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses 135
Adjective Clauses 138
Relative Pronouns 138
Adjective Clauses with Relative Pronouns “Which” and “That” 139
Relative Pronoun “Which” 139
Relative Pronoun “That” 142
Adjective Clauses with Relative Pronouns “Who,” “Whom,” and “Whose” 143
Relative Pronoun “Who” 144
Relative Pronoun “Whom” 144
Relative Pronoun “Whose” 146
Adjective Clause Quirks 152
Relative Pronoun Deletion 152
Adjective Clauses with Relative Adverbs 154
Adverb Clauses 156
Subordinating Conjunctions 156
Adverb Clauses Modifying Verbs 157
Adverb Clauses Modifying Adjectives and Adverbs 159
Adverb Clauses Introduced by “That” 159
Adverb Clauses Introduced by “Than” 162
Noun Clauses 165
Noun Clause Slots 165
“That Type” Noun Clause 167
“Wh–Type” Noun Clause 170
Writing Matters 175
Language Matters 176
Chapter Review 177
Answers to Exercises
Preface
The purpose of this second edition remains the same as the first: Make basic grammar concepts and terminology accessible to future teachers who will need this knowledge for their own classrooms. The book is also designed to aid writers and students who are not pursuing teaching certification to analyze their grammatical choices and to make informed decisions based on the goals of their texts. Essential punctuation rules that support those structures and clarify meaning are provided. Essential Grammar for Today’s Writers, Students, and Teachers remains a semester-long course book that does not assume a strong background in grammar.
Based on valuable feedback, some changes were made to the second edition. First, the “Did you know …” boxes that developed the linguistics topics were removed but are now available in the Companion Website. In Chapter 3, the adverbial subject complement has been removed, leaving predicate adjectives and predicate nominatives as the two subject complements. I am most excited about the two new sections: Writing Matters, designed to help understand the grammatical choices available to us, and Language Matters, developed to provide opportunities to explore the language around us. Additional attention is paid to punctuation in this new edition with sections called Punctuation Patterns. Special highlighted boxes provide Notes on …, which focus on information related to the grammar topic being explored. For example, in the section on pronouns in Chapter 1, “Notes on Gender Inclusive Language” addresses the use of the universal pronoun “they” in professional writing. Additionally, numerous exercises have been added to provide more practice activities. Answers to the first five questions in each exercise are provided at the back of the book. The others are online at the Companion Website (www.routledge.com/9780367148683) This e-Resources link will also contain a trove of valuable resources for students.
The Instructors’ Manual offers a rich resource of creative and engaging activities that support the learning of grammar. Included are pedagogical suggestions that can be used to connect grammar to a writer’s own texts. For example, at the beginning of
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the semester, I ask students to write a “Grammar Literacy Paper”—a personal essay in which each student reflects on his or her own grammar journey. This paper is used throughout the semester to explore the grammar concepts that we are discussing in class. Activities related to this initial assignment are available on the website. There are also worksheets and games connected to each chapter. Instructors decide what, if any, additional activities to incorporate into their courses.
Finally, I hope you will agree with me that this book offers writers, students, and teachers relevant and interesting insights into language while exploring essential grammar terminology and punctuation. Please feel free to email me with your comments and suggestions. My email address is available on the instructors’ website.
Introduction
There are most likely a variety of reasons why you are reading this introduction. You may be taking a grammar course required for teacher certification or a degree in English, or you may be convinced that a good foundation in grammar is essential for your career. My goal in writing this book is to provide you with the basics of English grammar that you will need to address grammar in your own future classroom or workplace. As a result of your grammar study, I promise that you will develop a stronger “metalinguistic” awareness (the ability to reflect on and analyze language) that will support better reading and writing.
In 2014, I wrote the first edition of Essential Grammar for Today’s Writers, Students, and Teachers with my students in mind. Most were pursuing certification in TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), elementary language arts, or secondary English. Knowledge of basic grammar is particularly important for future classroom teachers, who will be confronted with grammar terminology in the textbooks used in their own classrooms. Instructors and their students need a shared vocabulary to communicate clearly and effectively about their texts. When I first started to teach it, the course’s goal was to provide a review of grammar. However, I found that many of my students had little or no experience with grammar terminology and concepts prior to taking the class. (So much for the course being a review!) Many students reported that their primary and secondary school teachers avoided discussions of grammar. If grammar was addressed at all, their teachers appeared to be uncomfortable with the material. As a result, many students no longer have the language required to discuss grammar related issues. I had an interesting experience one semester when I walked by a university classroom where basic Spanish was being taught. I heard the teacher explaining to the students that the objeto indirecto is similar to an indirect object in English. I chuckled and thought, “Good luck with that explanation!” Grammar knowledge can impact areas other than reading and writing, such as second language learning.
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Our lack of grammar knowledge stems from the status of grammar as a classroom subject, which has been controversial over the past fifty years. After a report in the 1970s argued that grammar had little to no value in developing writing skills, the subject was dropped or greatly decreased in many schools. Now that students of that era are in their own classrooms teaching English, they tend to avoid grammar because they do not have the background or confidence to teach it.
The UK has acknowledged that ignoring grammar was a bad idea and has resulted in students not acquiring the skills needed for academic or professional writing. Their entire curriculum has been revised with required grammar standards for each grade. Teachers are given opportunities to learn or review grammar through classes and workshops. A comprehensive website (Englicious) provides grammar exercises and suggestions for classroom activities to incorporate grammar in different contexts to enhance the students’ understanding. Of course, there are some who disagree with the new curriculum. I don’t want to spend time debating the various viewpoints; however, it is important to note that there is a great deal of new research underscoring the value of grammar in the curriculum. Research has also shown that grammar instruction positively impacts both reading and writing skills. (See Companion Website for citations and helpful grammar websites.)
Descriptive Versus Prescriptive Grammar
Introductions to grammar books typically describe their approach to the study of grammar as either prescriptive or descriptive. A prescriptive grammar is grounded in rules found in traditional grammar handbooks, such as “Never end a sentence with a preposition” (Why not?), “Don’t start a sentence with a conjunction” (It’s legal!), and “Don’t split an infinitive” (What does that mean?). A descriptive grammar aims to describe the system of grammar used by native speakers.
In the field of linguistics, all dialects are considered legitimate forms of communication. In the real world, however, we all know that people judge some dialects as “better” than others. The term “Standard English” is generally applied to the dialect spoken by educated speakers; “Nonstandard English” can be described as dialectical varieties that follow other rules. Some dialects are stigmatized as being “incorrect” or “bad” English, to the point where speaking such a dialect can limit an individual’s career opportunities. My South Texas students often talk about how extremely selfconscious they are about their “bad” speech, but, generally, it is simply their accent and not their grammar that is being pointed out as “different.” Nevertheless, years of criticism have left a mark.
Some grammar books claim to be purely descriptive and not prescriptive, but the differences between the two approaches are not that clear-cut. In this book, I often point out the traditional definitions of terms and prescriptive rules because many of
those are still used in language arts books. I also point out that “use” and “rules” can differ; for example, would you use the word “whom” at a party with your friends just because you’re educated? Only if you wanted to be referred to as a show-off or a snob—or possibly worse. So, even though I fall into the descriptive camp, I am still describing the rules of the dialect used by educated speakers of English in the United States.
In this book, I provide both traditional and contemporary grammar terminology and definitions. When future teachers enter their own classrooms, they may find the traditional terminology still being used in textbooks. Therefore, I feel it is important to equip them with the language that they will need to be able to work with a variety of texts. In this book, I strive for consistency and keep to the basics of English language structure. For those of you who plan to teach, you should be able to apply what you learn here to any grammar book that you use in the future.
Essential Grammar for Today’s Writers, Students, and Teachers focuses on the function of the grammatical unit in the sentence, not its form. By contrast, you may have found that some books look primarily at the form. For example, in school, you probably learned that a noun is a person, place, or thing, right? So you would analyze the word “classroom” as a noun (thing). But what about the sentence “He had a great classroom experience”? Is “classroom” still a noun? If we are examining the function of a word, “classroom” would be labeled an adjective because it is modifying the noun “experience.” We look at words in context, and we analyze them by their functions within that context. (Your awareness of this approach is so important that I will mention it numerous times.) By studying grammar, you gradually will discover new ways to think about sentence structure. Punctuation plays an important role in clarifying that structure; therefore, I also point out important punctuation rules throughout the book.
Organization of the Book
The book is organized into five chapters. We start small with word classes in Chapter 1 and end with larger constructions in Chapter 5—sentences with two or more clauses. Each chapter builds on the content of the previous chapters. Therefore, it is important to make sure that you have a good grasp of the material in each chapter before moving on to the next.
Each chapter begins with the important concepts (in bold) followed by a Language Focus box, which highlights an area of linguistic studies, for example, sociolinguistics and language acquisition. This language topic is expanded in the examples and exercises throughout that chapter, adding another layer of learning opportunities to the book. Of course, as a linguist, I tend to be biased about the linguistic topics, and I am convinced that you will find them interesting and relevant as well. At the very
least, I expect that you will gain a better understanding of language as a by-product of your grammar study.
Numerous exercises help you practice what you are learning and provide checkpoints to assess understanding. The answers to the first five questions in each exercise (with a few exceptions) are located at the end of the book. The answers to those beyond number 5 are located online at the Companion Website.
Throughout the book, Punctuation Patterns highlight punctuation associated with the grammar under discussion, such as comma patterns of essential and nonessential phrases and clauses. Notes on … provide relevant information in shaded boxes; for example, Notes on Prepositional Phrase Structure in Chapter 2 points out the problem associated with confusing prepositional phrases with infinitive phrases.
At the end of each chapter are two new sections: Writing Matters and Language Matters. The Writing Matters sections are designed to help you make informed choices in your own texts. For example, Chapter 2 expands active and passive voice. We are often told not to use passive voice in our texts with little explanation; however, there are legitimate reasons to use passive based on the flow of information and focus. Those reasons are examined and the concept is practiced in the Writing Matters section of Chapter 2. The Language Matters sections allow you to critically examine the language around you. For example, Language Matters, Chapter 3, asks you to consider a specific dialectal variation, the rules of that variety, and its consequences, e.g., should it be considered incorrect English.
After the Language Matters section, Chapter Review exercises provide additional opportunities to engage with the material. Also included are a useful Glossary of the terminology used in this book and an Index to help you navigate to various subjects. Throughout the book, important terms and major headings are in bold, and examples are in italics.
An e-Resource link provides answers to exercises as well as a list of relevant online websites and materials that support learning and teaching grammar. An Instructors’ Manual details activities that can enhance a grammar course such as a grammarwriting portfolio and focused grammar activities, which include a number of games. The purpose and challenges of each chapter are highlighted and additional multiple choice review tests are provided.
What You Will Not Find in This Book
Let me briefly address what elements are not included in this book because there are reasons for their elimination. You will not find evidence of the grammar police trying to enforce the prescriptive rules of grammar. I realize that there are many ways of speaking and writing, and we choose the appropriate level of formality or informality based on our audience and communication goals. I am simply providing you with
the structures and terminology of English grammar based on educated native speaker usage.
You will not find a highly academic tone in this text. My goal is to communicate with you as I communicate with my students in the classroom. I may break the rules of formal academic writing, for example, by using a contraction, like I’m doing right now. Contractions are grammatical, but their usage in formal writing is discouraged because they give an informal tone to the text. Once you know the rules, you can choose to manipulate them to fit your communication goals. Here, my goal is to present grammar concepts not as a series of disjointed items but rather as an ongoing discussion that allows you to build on what you already know. With more knowledge, you can make grammatical choices that fit with what you are trying to achieve in your text.
You will not find a comprehensive examination of all grammar concepts, all exceptions to rules, or all of the possible sentence patterns of English. I made some difficult decisions about which grammar concepts to exclude from this book and what exceptions to point out. For instance, you will not diagram a sentence (although I do think there is a place for diagramming in some classrooms). As a result of such decisions, you are not paying for a book that covers too much material for a one-semester course. Additionally, by providing you with the essential foundation of English grammar, you are empowered to continue to explore more advanced grammar concepts according to your interest level.
What I Think About Grammar
Even after twenty-plus years, I am continually amazed at how interesting grammar study can be. I learn something every semester from the questions that students ask and the knowledge and insight that they bring to the discussions. More importantly, I can always use the brain massage that I get when I investigate a perplexing grammar problem.
Finally, please take advantage of this book. Use it to build confidence in your own ability to teach or use grammar for professional and personal purposes. I hope you gain a new interest in grammar or at least develop a new respect for it as a topic worthy of intellectual pursuit.
Commonly Used Abbreviations
There are a number of terms abbreviated in this book with acronyms or shortened forms. I provide explanations within the text, but here is another reference point for those terms:
A appositive
ADJ adjective/adjectival
ADV adverb/adverbial
DO direct object
FANBOYS coordinating conjunctions—for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
IO indirect object
IV intransitive verb
LV linking verb
N noun
NP noun phrase
OC object complement
OP object of preposition
P preposition
PA predicate adjective
PN predicate nominative
PP prepositional phrase
PRO pronoun
PST pronoun substitution test
TV transitive verb
V verb
Commonly Used Abbreviations
VCT verb conjugation test
Ved past tense form of verb (e.g., walked, ate)
Ven past participle verb form (e.g., walked, eaten)
Ving present participle verb form (e.g., walking, eating)
VP verb phrase
* indicates that the sentence is considered ungrammatical
? indicates grammaticality is questionable
Word Classes 1
In case you did not read the introduction (I recommend that you do), let me quickly point out some of the features of this book before you get started. At the beginning of each chapter, you will see a Language Focus box, which provides an engaging, language focused context for the grammar examples and exercises. Throughout the book, you will discover “Notes on …” sections, which highlight significant issues, such as gender neutral language, Punctuation Patterns discussions, which point out important punctuation rules, and numerous exercises, which provide checkpoints to show where more work is needed. At the end of each chapter, you will see two critical sections that provide context for a deeper consideration of the grammar you are learning: Writing Matters and Language Matters. These are followed by Chapter Review exercises. The term “linguistics” is used throughout this book to refer to the study of language. As students of grammar, you are budding linguists!
This chapter focuses on major word classifications. These classifications traditionally were referred to as the eight parts of speech, but they are now more commonly called word classes. Understanding these classifications is critical to your success in this course. Important grammatical concepts to learn in this chapter are noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.
Language Focus: Language and the Brain
Researchers in the fields of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics investigate how languages are learned, lost, produced, understood, and stored in the brain. Some of the questions that these linguists ask include the following: How do we learn a first or second language? How do our short- and long-term memories affect language processing? What processes are involved in making the sounds that form words? Where do we store word meaning, and how do we access this information? How do we take a series of sounds and get meaning from them?
Before we begin our exploration of these individual word classes, it is important to look at the bigger picture—the sentence, also referred to as a clause. Using traditional terminology, a clause is divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate When a clause functions alone as a grammatical unit, we refer to it as a complete sentence. Clauses are independent (can function alone) or dependent (cannot function alone, for example “after we took the test”). We explore clauses in great detail in Chapter 5. Until then, we will be examining independent clauses, or what we will refer to as sentences. Sentences need a subject and predicate (the exception being a command with an understood subject “you,” e.g., “Sit down”), and, for the most part, they must be in this order:
Brains evolve subject predicate
Above, the subject is Brains, and the predicate is evolve. The predicate must contain at least a verb. No matter how long it is, a grammatical sentence will have a recognizable subject and predicate:
The complex human brain has stimulated much research into its design subject predicate
In the example above, the subject is The complex human brain, and the predicate is has stimulated much research into its design, with has stimulated as the verb. Following traditional terminology, brain would be considered the simple subject within the complete subject (The complex human brain), and has stimulated would be the simple predicate within the complete predicate (has stimulated much research into its design).
In more contemporary approaches, the terminology differs slightly. The sentence is divided into the subject noun phrase and the verb phrase: head noun head verb
The complex human brain has stimulated much research into its design subject noun phrase verb phrase
A subject noun phrase must have a head noun (brain in the above sentence), and the verb phrase must contain at least a head verb, also referred to as the main verb (stimulated in the sentence above). In this book, we will use the terms subject noun phrase, head noun, verb phrase, and head verb.
Word order is essential for comprehension of English sentences. For example, the sentence The doctor stimulated the patient’s brain would have a different meaning if rearranged as The patient’s brain stimulated the doctor. Understanding the subject noun phrase–verb phrase ordering of an English sentence is vital to understanding
the meaning of the sentence. Let’s rearrange the sentence above to illustrate how this works:
has stimulated the complex human brain into its design much research.
The sentence has not met our expectations for an English sentence and thus fails to convey its intended meaning.
As mentioned in the introduction, this book classifies words by their function in a sentence. This means that we will always consider the function rather than the form of the word. To do so, the word must have context. For example, the word “human” has a noun form, but in the subject noun phrase shown above (The complex human brain), human functions as an adjective describing what kind of brain (a human brain, not a monkey brain). You will get a better understanding of function versus form analysis as we move through this chapter.
Nouns
The traditional definition of a noun is that it names a person, place, thing, or idea. That definition is sometimes useful, but it eventually will lead you astray, as you will discover as we move forward. Instead, we will look at some tests that will help you identify nouns and examine the sentence slots that nouns occupy. First, let’s review some of the terminology associated with nouns.
In traditional grammar, the major classifications of nouns are common and proper, count and noncount. Common nouns are not capitalized (language, brain, symbols). Proper nouns are capitalized; they are, for example, names of specific people (Toni Morrison, Noam Chomsky), places (Budapest, the Vatican, the Center for Applied Linguistics), or holidays and events (Hanukkah, Christmas, Holi, Mardi Gras).
The term number refers to a feature of count and noncount nouns—a distinction between those that can be counted (one brain, two brains) and those that cannot (*one oxygen, *two oxygens; *one ice, *two ices). (The asterisk is used throughout this book to indicate language that would be considered ungrammatical by a native speaker.) Count nouns have both singular forms and plural forms (brain, brains; neuron, neurons; wish, wishes, etc.) and can be used with numbers (two brains; 1,000,000 neurons; three wishes). Noncount nouns (also called mass nouns) do not have plural forms and cannot be counted, but they can be used with words such as “little” and “much” (little oxygen, much ice, much fluency, etc.).
How do you know whether a word is a noun? It is easy if the word is a count noun because it will have both singular and plural forms (language/languages), and it can take an article (a, an, or the), a possessive (his, our, John’s) or a number (one, two, three, etc.) in front of it: a language, her language, two languages. (Articles,
possessives, and numbers are discussed in the next section on adjectives.) You can ONLY do this to nouns. (Note that there may be one or more adjectives between the determiner, possessive, or number and the noun—for example, “the two comprehensive research studies.”)
The challenge is that mass nouns and most proper nouns do not have different singular and plural forms, and you cannot always use articles or numbers to prove their “nounhood.” For example, you cannot make “milk” or “honesty” plural (*milks, *honesties) or put an article (a, an, or the) in front of “honesty” (*the/a honesty is important). But you can put “the” in front of “milk” (The milk turned sour). Even “honesty” could take a determiner in certain contexts: The honesty of her testimony was questioned. Both nouns accept a possessive modifier (his milk, Jane’s honesty).
The ability to change a noun from singular to plural and to use an article, possessive, or number in front of it are just a few tests that can be used to recognize a large number of nouns, but obviously, more noun tests are needed. These will be discussed later in this chapter. In the meantime, let’s practice identifying nouns by using the singular/plural and article/possessive/number tests.
Exercise 1.1 Practice Nouns
Find and underline all words functioning as nouns in the following sentences by using the singular/plural and article/possessive/number tests. The number of nouns is indicated at the end of each sentence.
Example:
Our brains are complex machines. (2) singular/plural test: brain/brains, machine/machines article test: the brains, the machines possessive test: their brains, your machines number test: two brains, sixty machines
1. The brain has a left hemisphere and a right hemisphere. (3)
2. Some psycholinguists study the organization of the brain. (3)
3. Researchers conduct fascinating experiments on people. (3)
4. Brain scanners have facilitated psycholinguistic studies. (2)
5. Linguists may define language as a set of rules. (4)
6. How do adults learn another language? (2)
7. Most people process written language rapidly. (2)
8. One psychologist believed errors in speech reveal repressed emotions. (4)
9. Young children acquire nouns earlier than verbs. (3)
10. Our mental dictionary is interesting to researchers. (2)
Answers to questions 1–5 are in back of book; for all remaining answers, visit: www.routledge.com/9780367148683
Now that you’ve underlined all of the nouns, pay attention to where they are found in the sentences. Did you notice that all the subjects are nouns? (1. brain; 2. psycholinguists; 3. Researchers; 4. scanners; 5. Linguists; 6. adults; 7. people; 8. psychologist; 9. children; 10. dictionary). With few exceptions, subject slots are occupied by nouns or pronouns (pronouns will be discussed later in this chapter after adjectives), and, as subjects, they precede the verb of the sentence (in questions, word order can change, e.g., “Are you happy?”). Nouns are also located in other slots in the above sentences, such as in the object slot after the verb. For example, in both numbers 6 and 7 above, there is one object noun after the verbs learn and process: language. We will look more closely at those noun slots in Chapters 2 and 3.
Adjectives
In this section, we review the most common terminology associated with adjectives. The traditional definition is that an adjective modifies a noun or pronoun. In reality, adjectives do a lot more work than the traditional definition gives them credit for. They can change, expand, qualify, quantify, add to, and enrich the concepts of the nouns and pronouns that they modify. Here, you will learn to recognize words that function as adjectives, and, in the following chapters, you will be introduced to other adjective forms.
There are two types of adjectives: determiners and descriptive adjectives. Determiners include articles (the, an, a), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), numbers (one, two, first, second, etc.), possessives (my, your, John’s, psycholinguist’s, etc.), and quantifiers (some, few, several, many, etc.). Descriptive adjectives represent the largest number of adjectives (tall, short, small, gray, sloppy, difficult, etc.). We add new descriptive adjectives to our language all the time, change the meanings of existing ones, and even invent them for the moment. For example,
That dessert was fabulicious!
I got paid to be part of an experiment at school. What a sweet deal!
You certainly are hiccuppy today.
A noun can have a number of adjectives modifying it, for example,
His severe brain damage can affect some language skills
In the above sentence, his, severe, and brain function as adjectives modifying the noun damage (his damage, severe damage, brain damage), and both some and language function as adjectives modifying the noun skills (some skills, language skills). If we examine brain and language from a traditional perspective (a person, place, or thing), we would label these words as nouns; however, we always look at the function of a word, not what it looks like. These words function as adjectives in the above sentence. Adjectives regularly occupy two slots in relationship to the nouns that they modify (although they can also be found elsewhere as you will discover in later chapters). Most often, an adjective precedes the noun it modifies, for example, “slow speech.” “Slow” is an adjective modifying the noun “speech.” Here are some examples with the adjectives (ADJ) underlined and arrows pointing to the nouns (N) that they modify:
left hemisphere (ADJ N)
your language (ADJ N)
two dialects (ADJ N)
As mentioned above, a noun can have multiple adjectives modifying it:
brain’s left hemisphere (ADJ ADJ N)
your native language (ADJ ADJ N)
two different dialects (ADJ ADJ N)
The other slot where adjectives are often found is after a certain type of verb. In this case, the adjective goes back and modifies the subject, as shown in the following sentence:
Language is complex.
This adjective only comes after a specific verb called a linking verb. We will discuss linking verbs in greater detail in Chapter 3. In short, the typical linking verb is what is known as a “be” verb (is, are, was, were, will be, has been, etc.). In the example above, the adjective complex connects back to the subject noun language. Here are some other examples of sentences with adjectives that come after linking verbs and modify the subjects.
The message was garbled. ← The is also an adjective modifying message.
Chinese class is interesting ← Chinese is also an adjective modifying class.
Some accents seem different ← Some is also an adjective modifying accents
Adjectives also generally answer the question “which?” or “which one?” For example, in the sentence above with the subject “Chinese class,” the question “which class?” is answered with the adjective “Chinese.”
Now that we know the two main slots where adjectives are found, let’s look more closely at the two types of adjectives: determiners and descriptive adjectives. We examine determiners first.
Determiners
Adjectives that are determiners generally precede the nouns they modify. These include articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, possessives, and numbers.
Articles
Articles are some of the most commonly used English words. “The” (called a definite article ) assumes reference to a previously mentioned or understood noun, for example, “We wrote down the speech sounds,” while “a” and “an” ( indefinite articles ) refer to nonspecific nouns, as in “We heard a sound.” The article “an” is used if the noun, or the adjective before the nonspecific noun, begins with a vowel sound, e.g., “an observation” or “an annoying sound.” They are great signal words—they tell us, “Heads up! Here comes a noun or pronoun.” They always function as adjectives:
The grammar of a child shows a pattern.
Children learn the rules of grammar in a systematic way.
Demonstratives
Four words can function as demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those. They are used with nouns to point out a specific person (people) or thing(s):
This brain recovered after the stroke.
That brain suffered severe damage.
The researcher read about these studies.
Language behavior was examined in those studies.
Quantifiers
An adjective that quantifies the following noun is labeled a quantifier:
Few children are not able to learn language.
Most children learn language rapidly.
Some children experience language delay
All normal children have the capacity to learn language.
Children are able to learn several languages at a young age.
Other common quantifiers are much, no, more, enough, and many. Which quantifier is used depends on whether the noun is count or noncount. For example, the quantifiers “few” and “fewer” are used with count nouns such as “a few languages, a few researchers, fewer studies.” The quantifiers “little” and “less” are used with noncount nouns, such as “little honesty, little water, less sadness.” However, in spoken English, this standard English rule is often broken. Even in written English this rule is not followed as illustrated in grocery store checkout lines restricted to buyers with “10 items or less.” Since “items” is a count noun, “fewer” would be considered standard English: “10 items or fewer.” In a recent advertisement on television, a doctor boasted that his clinic’s approach to treatment resulted in “less complications.” Again, since “complications” is a count noun (one complication, two complications), the standard grammar choice would be “fewer.” However, I am seeing and hearing the use of “less” with both count and noncount nouns more often. Pay attention to language around you for examples of how quantifiers are used.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Une Française
en Argentine
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Title: Une Française en Argentine
Author: Marguerite Moreno
Author of introduction, etc.: Yvonne Sarcey
Illustrator: H. S. Ciolkowski
Release date: February 21, 2024 [eBook #73010]
Language: French
Original publication: Paris: Crès, 1914
Credits: Laurent Vogel (This file was produced from images generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica))
MARGUERITE MORENO
UNE FRANÇAISE
EN ARGENTINE
PORTRAIT DE CIOLKOWSKI
PRÉFACE DE YVONNE SARCEY
PARIS
GEORGES CRÈS & Cie, ÉDITEURS
116, BOULEVARD SAINT-GERMAIN, 116 MCMXIV
Marguerite Moreno
Quand j’étais toute petite fille, je rêvais souvent de l’Amérique — de celle qu’on connaissait peu — l’Amérique du Sud… Il me semblait que voler à la conquête de ce pays fabuleux était une entreprise pleine de hardiesse et digne de toutes les récompenses. Combien de fois, dans la conversation des grandes personnes, entendis-je résonner comme un refrain ces mots fatidiques : partir à la conquête de l’Amérique ! Cette fameuse « conquête » prenait alors la valeur des choses inouïes qui dépassent l’entendement ; c’était quelque chose comme l’héroïque aventure de la Toison d’Or ou la cueillette des pommes au Jardin des Hespérides. Ma candeur enfantine apercevait volontiers cette moitié d’île comme un lieu mystérieux où tout est miracle.
J’imaginais, à son propos, des histoires qui n’avaient ni queue ni tête. Tantôt c’était un humble garçon qui, mourant de froid et de faim, l’abordait, et puis, un beau jour, de ses grosses bottes de sept lieues, il frappait quelque rocher « enchanté ». Celui-ci se déchirait dans un bruit de tonnerre et… les trésors coulaient à flot. L’humble garçon n’avait plus qu’à rentrer dans ses pénates, où personne ne le reconnaissait plus bien entendu, et il expliquait, en secouant des sacs de dollars : — C’est moi l’oncle d’Amérique !
Tantôt… Mais vous n’attendez point que je vous conte les exploits de tous mes héros d’Amérique.
Je peuplais encore cette terre prédestinée d’animaux féroces et d’innombrables hordes de sauvages à la face cuivrée, la tignasse hérissée de plumes de coq. Et puis encore de serpents boas, de crocodiles anthropophages, de taureaux furieux que de jeunes cavaliers vêtus d’une chemise rouge et bottés à l’écuyère poursuivaient, une ficelle à la main… Pour tout dire, mes notions sur cette contrée étaient si vagues qu’elles ne gênaient en rien les merveilleuses chimères qui illuminent toutes les cervelles d’enfant.
L’Amérique très lointaine, très problématique, était pour moi le pays où l’on rencontre providentiellement des monstres et des fées ; des lions et des nègres tout nus ; des singes qui se grattent le derrière, et la caverne d’Ali-Baba.
Depuis, j’attrapai quelques bribes de sciences plus exactes, et, cependant, je me souviens d’un examen qui faillit tourner à ma honte, parce qu’impudemment je plaçai dans l’Empire du Brésil ce qui revenait de droit à la République Argentine.
Mes ardeurs géographiques trouvaient leurs limites naturelles avec l’Océan. Tout ce qui se passait de l’autre côté de la mer, là-bas, là-bas, derrière l’horizon des grands bateaux, me donnait mal au cœur et il me semblait incroyable que l’on pût s’intéresser sérieusement au cours du fleuve Paraná ou au sort des cannes à sucre d’une ville appelée Tucuman.
Maintenant, mes opinions ont bien changé : je considère l’Amérique presque comme une seconde patrie et la femme argentine comme une amie. C’est que, depuis quelques années, un commerce très affectueux s’est établi entre les deux nations, et je crois bien que les femmes ont beaucoup contribué à cet aimable courant de sympathie. Les Argentines ont commencé par s’engouer de nos modes, et puis elles ont aimé l’esprit de nos écrivains ; et, maintenant, ce qui est mieux, elles comprennent notre cœur comme nous-mêmes essayons de connaître leurs pensées. Des hommes éminents sont partis « à la conquête de l’Amérique », et, encore qu’ils fussent documentés — eux — sur la géographie, l’ethnographie et l’économie du pays, ils revinrent stupéfaits. Hé quoi ! cette nation que l’on croyait à peine civilisée possédait cette
culture intellectuelle !… Des femmes aux grands yeux d’almées, à la taille souple, au teint mat, mères de famille incomparables, se montraient plus au courant de notre littérature que beaucoup de Françaises ! Ils ne tarissaient point sur la grâce de leur hospitalité ni sur l’aisance spirituelle de leur conversation.
— Elles parlent un français d’une pureté rare, disaient-ils, et leur appétit de s’instruire, de lire nos poètes, nos auteurs, est une chose remarquable !
Pierre Baudin, Anatole France, Georges Clemenceau, Léopold Mabilleau, Paul Doumer, Victor Margueritte, le docteur Pozzi…, tous ceux, enfin, qui tentèrent la fameuse conquête, furent sous le charme et revinrent « conquis ». Ils le dirent, ils l’écrivirent ; et Jules Huret consacra à l’Argentine un livre remarquable.
Mais, s’ils nous révélèrent le pays dans sa gloire triomphante, dans l’apothéose de ses réceptions, dans le spectacle de cette prodigieuse et féconde énergie que l’Argentin résume dans cet aphorisme : « Ce qui importe, c’est de faire quelque chose, le faire imparfaitement, mais le faire »…; s’ils nous transportèrent au galop furieux des étalons à travers les « villes rouges », jusqu’aux sanglants « corrals » où un tueur exercé aligne ses six mille moutons par jour…; s’ils nous montrèrent dans tout son attirail pittoresque et romantique le « gaucho » coiffé du sombrero, les braies ficelées, la chiripa flottant au vent, vivant au campo, abattant un bœuf au passage et se reposant d’exploits dignes d’Hercule en jouant de la guitare, en chantant des vidalidades ou en dansant le péricon…; s’ils firent vivre devant nous cette nation ardente, semeuse d’or, gardant ses pampas aux portes de la civilisation raffinée des villes, il manquait, pour nous faire aimer complètement le pays, ce que des yeux de femmes seuls peuvent découvrir, c’est-à-dire son intimité, quelque chose de son âme et toute l’harmonieuse poésie des vies qui n’ont point d’histoire et représentent la force, la beauté d’une race, je veux dire la Famille.
C’est Marguerite Moreno, avec son livre délicieux : Une Française dans l’Argentine, qui vient de nous faire pénétrer dans ce beau jardin secret.
Mais, au fait, connaissez-vous Marguerite Moreno ?… Je ne parle point de l’admirable artiste dont la voix chaude déroule comme un velours les vers de Racine ou de Rodenbach et dont le talent est légendaire, — mais de la femme, de l’amie.
D’abord, est-elle jolie ?… Évidemment, elle ne ressemble en rien à ces charmantes et banales personnes dont on ne se rappelle plus si on les a rencontrées la veille aux courses, ou si on a aperçu leurs figures dans son dernier journal de modes. Mais elle est belle de toute l’expression ardente et profonde de ses yeux d’Orientale largement fendus, et du caractère étrange de son pâle et mystique et tranquille visage… En la voyant de profil, on songe aux Vierges de Cimabué, à La Fuite en Égypte de Fra Angelico, aux saintes femmes de Ghirlandajo… Ses mains longues, longues…, si longues, si minces, si délicates…, rappellent le geste de la Vierge de Quentin Metzys lorsqu’elle tend ses doigts divins vers la souffrance du Christ. Mais, dès qu’on rencontre le regard de Moreno, la ressemblance cesse… Ce n’est plus un primitif, c’est une femme de la Renaissance aux yeux énigmatiques évoquant la grâce mystérieuse des Florentines de Léonard. Et puis, Moreno parle… et on meurt de rire…
On meurt de rire, parce qu’elle est l’esprit même ; parce que, Parisienne jusqu’au bout de ses ongles effilés, elle trouve des mots qui font image… et des images d’une drôlerie irrésistible qui sont autant de bons mots qu’elle jette dans la circulation.
Personne n’a jamais mieux qu’elle conté une histoire. Elle met en scène personnages, paysages, choses et bêtes avec une verve, un pittoresque étourdissants. Et comme ses grands yeux savent tout voir et son esprit tout retenir et aussi tout juger, elle distribue à miracle la malice, le détail, la vérité au cours de ses récits, et ce n’est qu’après s’être royalement diverti, qu’on s’aperçoit que cette dame au profil hiératique est un critique très fin, un psychologue du XXe siècle et la plus érudite des lettrées…
Quand, en 1908, la nouvelle se répandit que Marguerite Moreno, elle aussi, partait à la « conquête de l’Amérique », ce fut un
désappointement dans le monde des arts. On allait donc perdre cette charmante femme qui, par son intelligence, sa distinction et son esprit, s’était fait dans ce Paris versatile une place à part, une place d’honneur !… On ne savait pas encore qu’on y gagnerait les Impressions de voyage qu’elle devait nous rapporter cette année, sous la forme d’un roman…, roman discret, dont le fil léger n’est qu’un prétexte à nous conduire là où notre curiosité voulait s’introduire… Madame Moreno, on le sait, a fondé à Buenos-Aires un Conservatoire ; elle a enseigné l’art dramatique à de jeunes Argentines ; elle leur a donné le goût des beaux vers et la passion de la poésie. Ceci, son livre ne le dit pas ; ce sont les lettres particulières d’amies que j’ai en Amérique qui me l’ont appris… Mais, tandis qu’elle portait là-bas quelque chose du cœur français, elle apprenait à aimer celui de la Republica Argentina…
Là-bas, elle regarde les nuits transparentes de cristal bleu…, les nuits merveilleuses !… et les rues droites, interminables, composées de blocs de maisons formant les cuadras… Elle étudie le caractère de ces Argentins sachant unir la fougue espagnol à la grâce italienne, et qui dansent éperdument au retour d’une randonnée dans les estancias… Mais, ce qui l’intéresse passionnément, et nous aussi, c’est ce qui se passe dans les demeures cachées sous les palmiers et les roses ; ce qui se dit dans le patio fleuri où les amis sont groupés ; ce que l’on pense dans ces familles hospitalières, égayées de nombreux enfants. Et c’est cette vision intime du pays, ce voyage à travers l’âme argentine, qui rend tout à fait précieuse l’étude de Madame Moreno. Amour et maternité sont deux mots qui résument, dit-elle, la vie de la femme argentine, tandis que la vraie royauté appartient aux jeunes filles. Et rien n’est amusant comme de suivre par la pensée au bois de Palermo…, au théâtre Colon…, au thé de chez Madame Ortiz…, au merveilleux jardin zoologique dont M. Tassistro fait les honneurs avec une grâce zézayante…, à Mardel-Plata, le Deauville argentin…, ou au Tigre, la Venise verte…, l’héroïne du livre, la Française, qui, peu à peu, sent son cœur se dilater dans cette atmosphère amicale et confond dans une même tendresse ses deux patries…
Comme elle la trouve jolie, cette coutume qui consiste à « offrir sa maison », ce qui signifie qu’à toute heure, en toutes circonstances, la maison vous est ouverte et que vous y êtes chez vous. Et quelle émouvante et charmante hospitalité elle découvre dans ces « Tertulias » qui permettent aux intimes de venir chaque soir causer sans façon en buvant du maté… Et combien le traditionnel puchero, pot-au-feu servi à la grande table de Madame Valdez, lui paraît appétissant… Et comme elle aime son escapade chez les gauchos, ses nuits passées dans une cabane de berger, couchée sur des catres… Et la splendeur du jour qui l’éblouit… Et l’odeur composée de tous les parfums portés par le vent, l’odeur de l’espace !…
Mais je ne veux pas déflorer l’intérêt de ces pages évocatrices, révélatrices et charmantes qui sont un délice. Madame Moreno est partie, elle aussi, à la conquête de l’Amérique, et elle vient de remporter une victoire. S’il m’est doux de la marquer ici, c’est qu’elle est de qualité.
Sans pédanterie, sans chiffres rébarbatifs ni l’ombre d’une statistique, une Française supérieurement cultivée a conté, au hasard du souvenir, ce qu’elle a vu, ce qu’elle a senti, les coutumes qui ont touché son cœur, les œuvres littéraires qui ont charmé son esprit, et elle nous a donné une vision si nette de la femme argentine dans le commerce de sa vie quotidienne : charité, amusements, deuils, voyages, qu’il n’est plus possible qu’elle reste pour nous une étrangère… Elle est la fleur merveilleuse, la découverte enchantée, l’amie… que Moreno vient de nous offrir de ses deux mains longues, longues…, si longues, si minces, si délicates, si jolies.
Yvonne S .
UNE FRANÇAISE EN ARGENTINE
Les grosses malles s’entassent dans le camion qui va les emporter à la gare. Le soleil fait briller leurs coins de cuivre polis et bossués ; voici la malle plate qui me suivra dans ma cabine… un sac de cuir jaune… tout y est. Je me sens déjà en voyage, et les pièces me semblent vides maintenant. Des papiers traînent, des clefs pendent aux armoires… Tous ces meubles vont être dispersés… je ne reviendrai plus ici, jamais, jamais…
La résolution que j’ai prise de partir m’effraie maintenant qu’il est trop tard pour me dédire, et c’est avec une douleur aiguë que je dis adieu à tout ce qui m’a entourée pendant tant d’années.
Je ne sais que faire pour échapper aux souvenirs, à ces souvenirs qui me font fuir mon pays aimé et qui s’acharnent à m’y faire rester…
Souvenirs de tendresse et de peine, il faut que je m’en aille pour ne pas mourir de vous.
Si je pars, c’est pour regarder un ciel nouveau que des yeux aimés n’ont pas contemplé en même temps que les miens, pour connaître des êtres différents dont la voix n’aura pas l’écho d’une voix chérie… Et au fond de mon âme s’élève l’espoir indistinct encore, d’une vie nouvelle, sur une terre jeune, saine, accueillante… loin des tombes et des lettres jaunies.
C’est à bord du « Lujan » seulement que je dois retrouver mon cousin Georges Ferrand et Marthe, sa femme, qui se sont embarqués en Angleterre.
J’ai défendu à ceux qui me sont chers de m’accompagner jusqu’au train, je partirai seule, en évitant le déchirement inutile des adieux sur le quai d’une gare : visages rougis, paroles balbutiées parmi le sifflement effaré des locomotives, effacement des figures dans un flot de fumée opaque…
C’est seule que je suis partie…
Les faubourgs lépreux, la banlieue et ses jardinets anémiques, puis, la campagne éclatante, ont défilé devant mes yeux brouillés, panorama indifférent et rapide.
Le train s’est arrêté au port d’où nous devons nous embarquer… un flot cosmopolite et bruyant en est descendu. Le paquebot n’est pas signalé, et nous voici parqués en l’attendant, dans un hôtel d’où l’on voit la mer…
C’est un vieil hôtel aux meubles tendus de reps grenat et aux murailles blanches et or ; tant de voyageurs y ont passé qu’il est devenu banal comme un transatlantique, les garçons répondent dans toutes les langues, et servent des boissons de tous les pays. Il y flotte une odeur exotique mêlée de goudron et d’épices, et je me figure que des marchands d’esclaves ont guetté par cette même fenêtre à laquelle je viens de me pencher, le retour des voiliers
ventrus qui leur apportaient des cargaisons de nègres et de bois des Iles…
Autour de moi, on écrit des cartes postales, on échange des phrases bruyantes et fanfaronnes… Une jeune femme se serre contre son mari, et un beau garçon essaye de persuader à une frêle vieille dame, en capote de deuil, que ce voyage n’est pas si long qu’elle se l’imagine, qu’il ne comporte aucun danger, et que, dans quatre ou cinq mois, au plus tard, il sera près d’elle. Elle écoute, la pauvre petite vieille maman, et fait « oui » de la tête, sachant bien que c’est un sanglot qui remplacerait les mots de résignation et d’espérance que son grand fils attend d’elle…
On a signalé le paquebot, l’hôtel commence à se vider… Les premiers partis sont les Argentins et les Brésiliens ; ils ont hâte de mettre le pied sur le bateau, c’est un pas vers leur pays. A travers les phrases de regret qu’ils profèrent poliment, on sent percer la joie du retour vers la patrie et le foyer, une joie inexprimée et profonde… Je partirai la dernière…
Le grand vapeur se détache du quai en haletant, les amarres tendues s’amollissent, frappent l’eau, et toute la coque vibre sous nos pieds au cri déchirant de la sirène. Le paysage prend une netteté photographique, on distingue les visages de ceux qui sont groupés sur la rive sans en perdre un détail, et voilà que nous partons… nous sommes déjà loin… Les jeunes gens qui se serraient tout à l’heure l’un contre l’autre, dans la salle de l’hôtel, s’étreignent maintenant, pâles et graves ; je vois le beau garçon enthousiaste, secoué d’un sanglot muet, ses yeux fixent éperdument une petite forme noire et cherchent à rencontrer des yeux en larmes sous des bandeaux gris… Il fait presque froid… Clémente, la brume efface enfin les objets, seuls les mouchoirs blancs font des taches animées, puis, plus rien, le crépuscule tombe, le voyage d’espoir commence.
Pendant deux jours, j’ai ignoré mes compagnons de voyage, presque tous sont malades. Une bise aiguë souffle sans arrêt ; nous avons quitté les tiédeurs de mai et ses fleurs, et nous traversons le golfe de Gascogne dans des brouillards d’automne. Il m’est impossible de rester sur le pont, où chaque pas me jette contre un fauteuil de bord ou contre le bastingage, et je me lasse de cet horizon grisâtre, si proche qu’il semble sans cesse que nous allons l’atteindre, et de cette étendue brisée et savonneuse. Ce n’est pas la tempête, c’est l’agitation, sans rythme et sans beauté. Ma cabine est mon meilleur refuge. Elle est propre, nette, presque élégante ; j’y passe de longues heures, un livre que je ne lis pas entre les mains, et la tête pleine de rêves…
Quelle sera mon existence, là-bas ? On m’a dit tant de choses contradictoires… Si j’avais encore la foi de la jeunesse, avec quelle ardeur j’irais vers ce monde nouveau où tout est possible à qui sait vouloir !… Mais mon avenir est court ! J’ai tant souffert ! Où vais-je trouver la force de lutter ? Chères amitiés, je vous regrette, et je vous abandonne pourtant pour l’Inconnu, l’Inconnu attrayant parce qu’il est voilé ! Je fais tourner sur mon doigt le petit anneau d’or qui s’use un peu chaque jour… Je suis toute seule…
Enfin ! voici le beau temps et le soleil ! nous avons quitté Lisbonne étageant ses maisons aux murs de faïence et ses églises ciselées, dans une clarté délicate. Georges et Marthe apparaissent enfin ! Les autres passagers montent un à un sur le pont que balaie un air vif et frais, s’étendent dans les fauteuils d’osier, et dans la paresse heureuse que donnent une houle légère et un ciel radieux, s’établit la vie du bord : on sympathise, on forme des groupes, on fait des projets ; des flirts et des haines s’ébauchent déjà… et tout cela durera vingt jours au plus…
La salle à manger est presque au complet. A la table où j’ai mangé seule depuis le départ, le maître d’hôtel installe Marthe et Georges, puis un couple brésilien, une jeune Anglaise, et un
médecin allemand. Les Brésiliens sont charmants. La jeune femme est si mince qu’elle paraît fragile, ses cheveux sont à peine plus sombres que sa peau bronzée, et deux grosses turquoises caressent son cou brun ; le mari porte, sur un visage allongé aux tempes creuses, un air de sagacité mélancolique, il parle peu et lentement, ses mains délicates ignorent les gestes, il est bilieux, distingué, courtois.
Une famille argentine occupe la table voisine. Les enfants, nombreux et robustes, rient bruyamment, et tous s’interpellent comme des gens qui viennent d’échapper à un péril. Je les compare à d’autres Argentins avec lesquels j’ai échangé quelques paroles sur le pont, et qui m’ont séduite par leur discrète amabilité, une telle différence existe entre les deux groupes, que je ne sais quelle opinion me faire… Attendons.
Nous faisons, mes cousins et moi, des projets que dore le soleil resplendissant : nous nous installerons, — la maison est déjà choisie par un des futurs collaborateurs de Georges, — puis il partira pour ses mines. Pendant les premiers temps de son absence nous connaîtrons Buenos-Aires et la vie argentine, et puis, nous irons le rejoindre… et puis… Marthe écoute, et de tout cela, elle a retenu deux mots : Georges partira…
Les jours se lèvent dans un chaos de nuages roses, et se couchent dans du sang et de la pourpre… Il fait plus tiède chaque matin et les nuits sont plus douces.
Georges a retrouvé à bord un ami, un camarade de l’École Centrale qui va s’installer au Brésil avec sa jeune femme ; il se nomme Paul Perriot ; c’est un garçon aimable, un peu bruyant et gai, gai de cette gaîté de lycée ou de caserne que gardent toute la vie certains hommes ; sa femme est douce et effacée. Les deux ménages forment un groupe heureux ; je m’écarte d’eux, un peu, contente de leur exubérante joie, et c’est de loin que je les écoute.
Des souvenirs s’échangent, vides et aimables comme la jeunesse, incohérents comme elle :
— Te souviens-tu, mon vieux Ferrand, du père Larouque, le professeur de mathématiques, qui hurlait son cours, et perdait dix fois son lorgnon avant d’avoir expliqué le quart d’un problème ? — Et Boudier, tu sais, celui qui avait la photo de Bréval sur laquelle Il s’était inscrit une dédicace flatteuse. Il est dans les autos, maintenant. Et Furrat ? Et le gros Marrol ? — Marrol fait des vers, mon vieux ! — Non ? — On l’a joué à l’Œuvre !… — Georges rit, Marthe est heureuse de sa gaîté, et Madame Perriot, jouant avec sa chaîne de montre, regarde avec une tendre admiration ce mari qui a connu tant de gens, et qui a vu tant de choses qu’elle ignorera toujours.
Je suis ravie de la distraction que cette rencontre apporte à mes cousins, je crains que ma persistante rêverie pèse sur leur insouciance. Quelques années à peine me séparent de Marthe, Georges a le même âge que moi, mais ils commencent, eux, et j’essaie de recommencer…
Nous sommes sous le Tropique, et voici une série de journées cruelles. L’air est brûlant, le pont craque sous les pieds, séché par une chaleur implacable. Les cabines sont inhabitables, malgré les ventilateurs ; les jeux du bord languissent, la danse lasse même les plus intrépides, à peine les passagers ont-ils la force de passer de tribord à bâbord pour fuir le soleil qui lance ses rayons comme des flèches.
Marthe, Georges, leurs amis Perriot sont prostrés sur leurs fauteuils, une citronnade glacée à portée de la main, et contemplent avec stupeur une vieille dame péruvienne qui s’enveloppe soigneusement les jambes dans une couverture de chinchilla.
Je souffre peu de la chaleur, et le calme qu’elle apporte m’enchante ; c’est un répit à la redoutable musique dont on nous
sature, aux jeux bruyants des enfants, aux remontrances des nurses, aux conversations cosmopolites sans imprévu, et surtout aux plaisanteries de deux représentants de commerce qui font servir la subtile langue française à fabriquer sans arrêt des calembours et des à peu près.
Et puis, il y a les nuits : nuits transparentes de cristal bleu… nuits merveilleuses ! Le croissant renversé de la lune flotte comme une barque dans le ciel sombre et profond, chaque vague dessine le dos brillant d’une sirène, il n’y a plus d’horizon, le feu du grand mât est une nouvelle étoile, et le navire, en la fendant de son étrave, éveille dans la mer des lueurs endormies… Je passe des heures sur le plus élevé des ponts, à sentir le vent tiède caresser mon visage et mes mains, et je me dis que, quoique doive m’apporter ce voyage, puisqu’il me donne ces moments incomparables, j’ai eu raison de l’entreprendre.
L’autre matin, la mer paraissait couverte de roses… Chaque vague en portait plusieurs feuilles géantes, les unes d’une couleur tendre, les autres d’un rouge pourpré, toutes doucement arrondies ; elles flottaient dans la houle, ou se perdaient dans l’écume du sillage. J’ai demandé le nom de ces fleurs mystérieuses… Ce sont des Physalies… Je ne veux pas penser que ce sont des mollusques, que des tentacules entremêlés pendent au-dessous comme des racines vermineuses… Je veux croire que ce sont des pétales parfumés, et que leur nom, doux comme un soupir, a été inventé par Aphrodite effeuillant sa couronne dans la mer…
L’équateur, les vents sont morts.
Nous rencontrons des voiliers immobiles dont les marins nous font des signes avec leurs bérets. Combien de jours attendront-ils la brise qui les poussera vers la terre ? La mer est peuplée : de grands cétacés soufflent des jets d’eau que le soleil fait briller, des poissons volants se lèvent comme des oiseaux au passage du vapeur, frôlent la crête des vagues, et en suivent l’ondulation, leurs nageoires irisées étendues droites comme des ailes de mouette…
Le ciel s’est assombri. Il pleut souvent… une pluie épaisse, filante, lourde, qui ne rafraîchit pas. Grâce à ce tiède déluge pourtant, j’ai enfin causé avec une Argentine… Nous nous étions réfugiées toutes deux sous une tente pour éviter l’averse, et elle m’a rappelé la brève conversation qui nous avait rapprochées peu de jours après l’embarquement. J’ai retrouvé la grâce discrète et la distinction qui m’avaient plu, et peu à peu, dans la solitude du pont déserté, nous avons échangé des mots de sympathie, et regretté les jours perdus par sa timidité et ma sauvagerie. Elle s’appelle Carmen Navarro, et vient d’accompagner son père qui est venu en Europe consulter des médecins célèbres ; son mari et son petit garçon vont venir à sa rencontre à la dernière escale avant Buenos-Aires.
— Je suis sûre qu’ils vous plairont, me dit-elle, et que vous allez devenir notre amie…
Cette spontanéité m’étonne un peu, mais ne me rebute pas. J’y sens une sincérité profonde, et l’intelligence brille dans les yeux bruns qui se fixent sur les miens.
Carmen Navarro me parle de la France : — Mon mari doit me ramener à Paris, dans deux ans, me dit-elle, c’est long, deux ans ! Mais j’attendrai avec plus de patience, puisque je vous ai rencontrée et qu’avec vous je pourrai parler du cher vieux monde !… Tout est si neuf chez nous ! ajoute-t-elle avec un petit soupir.
Elle doit avoir raison, cette jeune descendante de la vieille race espagnole qui lui a donné sa beauté délicate et affinée, c’est trop neuf, chez elle… et elle souffre peut-être sans le savoir de vivre dans un pays sans passé… Pourtant, n’est-ce pas tout ce que ce passé m’a légué de sensibilité maladive qui me fait fuir vers sa jeune patrie ?
Depuis notre première causerie, chaque jour nous réunit, Carmen et moi, et l’amitié qu’elle m’a offerte grandit ; elle me guide avec des soupirs vers son pays d’espoir, et j’évoque pour elle, en souriant, ma terre de regrets…
