Israeli national security: permanent interests and evolving practices
DOI: 10.4324/9781003407256-1
A country’s national security interests may be defined as the set of interests—some permanent and essential, others transient and dependent upon circumstance—that bear on its fundamental welfare at any given moment. Every country in the international system has a set of such interests. Among the permanent and essential national security interests are the protection of a country’s territorial integrity, the promotion of its economic prosperity, and the preservation of its national identity as manifested through the expression of its unique culture, institutions, values, and symbols.
Countries employ a wide range of means in order to advance their national security interests. They enter into diplomatic relationships with other countries in order to enhance their influence around the world. They enter into trade agreements with other countries in order to boost their wealth. They build armies in order to defend their territorial integrity, not to mention their other essential interests. And they enter into alliances or patron–client relationships with other countries in order to supplement their domestic military power with that wielded by their allies, patrons, or clients.
Not all countries, of course, are equally concerned about their national security interests. Countries like Costa Rica, Sweden, and Switzerland—that is, countries enjoying a rather placid existence— are generally less concerned (though by no means unconcerned) about these interests than countries like the United States, India, and Pakistan—that is, countries burdened with a far more turbulent
existence. Countries whose very existence has never been assured, naturally, are among the most concerned about their national security interests.
The State of Israel certainly falls into this last category. Since its establishment in 1948, Israel has fought no fewer than six interstate wars against Arab countries and three asymmetrical wars against Arab insurgent/terrorist organizations. It has been engaged in a nearly constant string of low-intensity conflicts (LICs) with these same countries and organizations. Furthermore, since the early 1960s, when Egypt employed chemical weapons during the civil war in Yemen, Israel has faced the prospect of coming under attack by weapons of mass destruction (WMD).1 The threat in this arena of conflict, nowadays represented first and foremost by Iran’s nuclear weapons/ballistic missile programs, is today more ominous than at any point in the past. Consequently, if the duration and intensity of the violence to which Israel has been subjected over its brief history is combined with the fact that significant elements of the Arab (and Islamic) world still contest, in word and deed, its right to exist, it becomes rather easy to understand why the country has focused so unremittingly on defending its national security interests.
An unofficial “white paper”—but a document that reflects closely official thinking—issued under the auspices of one of Israel’s leading think tanks concisely delineates the country’s permanent and essential national security interests as follows:
ensuring the survival of the State of Israel and protecting its territorial integrity and the security of its citizens and inhabitants; protecting the values and national character of the State of Israel, as a Jewish and democratic state and as the home of the Jewish people; ensuring the State of Israel’s ability to maintain its socioeconomic strength, like any other state; reinforcing the State of Israel’s international and regional standing; and seeking peace with its neighbors.2
A leading authority on the history of Israeli national security policy concurs, identifying these interests as follows:
preserving Israel’s character as the democratic nation state of the Jewish people and constituting a national home and spiritual center for [that people]; ensuring Israel’s existence, territorial integrity . . ., the security of Israel’s citizens, and the effective functioning of its core governmental systems and critical infrastructure, both civilian and military; achieving peace with Israel’s neighbors, or at least coexistence; [and] promoting the socioeconomic well-being of Israeli society.3
Israel, perhaps needless to say, has other permanent national security interests, which are generally connected in one way or another to these essential interests, and it has also had transient interests that have changed over time in response to the evolution of its domestic and foreign environments.4 Repatriating Jewish communities in distress to Israel is an example of the former, while removing Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) forces from Lebanon is an example of the latter.
Yet, rather strangely for a country so concerned about its national security interests, Israel has never adopted a formal national security doctrine. In the words of the aforementioned authority:
. . . Israel does not have a formal national security strategy, or defense doctrine, to this day, despite its overwhelming preoccupation with such affairs. Israel has not issued the equivalent of American Presidential Policy Directives, National Security Strategies, Quadrennial Defense Reviews, British-style White Papers, or other overall strategic statements, . . .5
The long-standing absence of a governmental requirement to prepare such an official national security doctrine and clashing priorities among different elements within the Israeli national security establishment are the main reasons behind the failure to produce such a doctrine.6
Various members of the national security establishment, to be sure, have prepared documents outlining, in whole or in part, the
elements of a national security doctrine.7 David Ben-Gurion, Israel’s first prime minister, laid down in writing a set of general national security principles during the early 1950s; however, while these principles have informed Israeli government policy in the national security arena since that time, they fall well short of constituting a formal national security doctrine. In the late 1990s, the Israeli government attempted to formulate an official national security doctrine, but this effort did not ultimately bear fruit. During the first decade of the 2000s, the so-called Meridor Committee, authorized by the Israeli government to draft a formal national security doctrine for the country, prepared a comprehensive document on the subject, complete with recommendations moving forward, but its work never received an official stamp of approval.8 During the second decade of the current century, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) prepared a document laying out its strategic, operational, and tactical modus operandi and objectives in case of full-scale war or lower-level conflict; however, though it has received an official stamp of approval from the IDF, this document is narrowly focused on military matters and is not meant to constitute a comprehensive national security doctrine.9 Parenthetically speaking, Benjamin Netanyahu, Israel’s current prime minister (as of early 2023), is thought to be keen to articulate publicly an official national security doctrine and apparently has even prepared one himself in private, so the coming years could see a break with past practice in this regard.
The lack of a formal national security doctrine notwithstanding, the country’s response to its national security predicament has never been haphazard. Israel has always had a de facto national security doctrine, one that has been driven by the complex interactions among a set of underlying national security variables, including deterrence, warning, and decision; defensible borders and strategic depth; quantity and quality of fighting men and fighting machines; intelligence activities; military self-reliance; foreign policy orientation; and demographic, societal, economic, and other domestic trends. Parts of the country’s de facto national security doctrine have remained quite stable over time, while other parts
have evolved dramatically over the years in order to adjust to the equally profound changes in the country’s domestic and foreign environments.
The purpose and content of this book
Predictably, this de facto national security doctrine, either in whole or (far more often) in part, has been the subject of much commentary by informed observers of Israel. One might reasonably ask, therefore, why yet another inquiry into the country’s national security experience? The best way to address this question is to begin by clarifying what the present book is not intended to be. It is not intended to be a comprehensive examination of the history of the Israeli national security experience. Nor is it intended to be a normative guide to the direction in which Israeli national security doctrine ought to head in the future. If one is interested in a truly exhaustive assessment of the Israeli national security experience from the country’s birth through the second decade of the current century, as well as in a very sensible normative guide to the direction in which the country’s national security doctrine ought to head moving forward, one should consult Chuck Freilich’s superb Israeli National Security. The author, the aforementioned leading authority on Israeli national security, has compiled the most comprehensive, incisive, and persuasive work on the Israeli national security experience as of the end of the first two decades of the twenty-first century. Furthermore, the present book is not intended simply to be a rehash of earlier literature on this national security experience.10
Rather, the purpose of the present monograph is twofold. First, this work aspires to be a concise, accessible, and up-to-date introduction to the Israeli national security experience and is, therefore, aimed at that audience which is interested in this subject but which possesses a rather limited knowledge about it. And, second, this work aspires to generate new insight into the Israeli national security experience by examining the country’s national security history in the context of a novel descriptive and analytical
framework and is, therefore, also aimed at that audience which possesses a more thorough knowledge of the subject but which may benefit by examining it from a new perspective. The author acknowledges at the outset that the present monograph focuses mainly on the military and diplomatic components of the Israeli national security experience. Demographic, societal, economic, cultural, water and food security, public health, and other components of this experience—indeed, just about every facet of national life has implications for national security, however modest and indirect—are covered either briefly or not at all. Nor does this work tackle the crucial issue of national security decision making— that is, the process behind and the effectiveness of that decision making.11
Chapter 1 reviews the Israeli national security experience from the 1947–49 War of Independence to the present day, tracing the major changes in the country’s national security doctrine across time in light of the country’s evolving strategic environment. This chapter, which divides the Israeli national security experience into four distinct time periods, also lays out the set of “basic,” “intermediate,” and “current” (in Israeli parlance) national security challenges that Israel has faced over the course of its lifetime, providing the historical background necessary to illuminate the rest of the chapters.
Chapters 2–5 describe and analyze central components of the country’s national security doctrine by breaking them down in light of the aforementioned national security challenges. Chapter 2 tackles the three long-standing foundational components of deterrence, warning, and decision, as well as the recent adoption of a fourth foundational component, homeland defense, whose emergence stems from the country’s experience with the other three foundational components. Chapter 3 looks at how the component of territory—that is, notions of defensible borders and strategic depth— has shaped Israeli national security doctrine over time, demonstrating that control of land has been viewed by the Israeli national security establishment as both a valuable asset and a
serious liability, depending upon the order of severity of the country’s various national security challenges. Chapter 4 addresses the component of quality versus quantity, the higher-quality Israeli few versus the lower-quality Arab many, revealing that this juxtaposition has been irrelevant with respect to some of the national security challenges faced by the country. And Chapter 5 investigates how the intelligence community has bolstered Israeli national security interests by examining this community’s contributions in two different arenas: on the “kinetic”—that is, physical—battlefield and on the cyberspace—that is, ethereal— battlefield.
The three remaining chapters are organized differently than the preceding four because the components of Israel’s national security doctrine under review here do not readily lend themselves to description and analysis by breaking them down in light of the country’s various national security challenges; therefore, these chapters instead focus primarily on the major subcomponents of the particular components under review. Chapter 6 probes the longstanding Israeli quest to become as militarily self-reliant as possible as a consequence of the country’s preference for patron–client relationships over alliances; its emphasis on building a large domestic arms industry; its stress on mobilizing domestic manpower rather than relying on foreign manpower; and its commitment to the development of a nuclear weapons option. Chapter 7 explores the contributions of foreign policy to Israeli national security interests by examining the country’s special relationships with (West and, later, post-unification) Germany and, in particular, the United States; its past and present “peripheral” partnerships with like-minded countries; its quest for peace with its neighbors; its arms sales policies around the world; and its “ingathering of the exiles,” which here means the fostering of Jewish immigration to the country, especially with respect to Jewish communities whose welfare in the Diaspora has been uncertain at best. And Chapter 8 traces in cursory fashion the extent to which four very important nonmilitary and nondiplomatic components of the Israeli national security experience —demographic shifts, societal resilience, economic growth, and
water usage—have been and continue to be connected to that experience.
Lastly, while the present monograph does not pretend to offer an integrated and expansive vision of Israeli national security doctrine with respect to the future, the conclusion is forward-looking in that it highlights—in a descriptive, non-normative manner—the country’s national security challenges moving ahead.
A final note about chapter endnotes
The present monograph does not contain new facts about the Israeli national security experience; therefore, many of the chapter endnotes are general in nature, included mainly in order to alert readers to relevant literature that they may consult for in-depth and well-researched treatments of the particular topics under consideration. In cases where direct quotations are cited in or lesserknown facts are introduced into the text, of course and the chapter endnotes are more specific in nature.
Notes
1. On the Egyptian intervention in the civil war, including the use of chemical weapons, see Jesse Ferris, Nasser’s Gamble: How InterventioninYemen CausedtheSix-Day War andtheDecline of Egyptian Power (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012).
2. Dan Meridor and Ron Eldadi, Israel’s NationalSecurity Doctrine: TheReportoftheCommitteeontheFormulationoftheNational Security Doctrine (Meridor Committee) Ten Years Later (Tel Aviv: Institute for National Security Studies, 2019), 19.
3. Charles D. Freilich, IsraeliNationalSecurity: ANewStrategyfor an Era of Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 327.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid., 6.
6. Jacob Nagel and Jonathan Schanzer, From Ben-Gurion to Netanyahu: The Evolution of Israel’s National Security Strategy (Washington, DC: Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, 2019), 3. This research memo may be found at the foundation’s website at www.fdd.org.
7. For a concise overview of these efforts, see Nagel and Schanzer, FromBen-GuriontoNetanyahu, 2–6.
8. Meridor and Eldadi, Israel’s National Security Doctrine. This document offers a brief and declassified review of the original,
which remains shrouded in secrecy.
9. Israel Defense Forces, Deterring Terror: How Israel Confronts the Next Generation of Threats (Boston, MA: Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, 2016).
10. In addition to Freilich’s book, the more prominent Englishlanguage (though, in some cases, now dated) works on this subject include: Yaakov Amidror, Israel’s National Security Doctrine (Jerusalem: The Jerusalem Institute for Strategy and Security, 2021); Uri Bar-Joseph (ed.), Israel’s National Security Towards the 21st Century (London: Frank Cass, 2001); Yoav Ben-Horin and Barry Posen, Israel’s Strategic Doctrine (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 1981); Eliot A. Cohen, Michael J. Eisenstadt, and Andrew J. Bacevich, Knives, Tanks, and Missiles: Israel’s Security Revolution (Washington, DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1998); Stuart A. Cohen and Aharon Klieman (eds.), Routledge Handbook on Israeli Security (London: Routledge, 2019); Michael Handel, Israel’s Political–Military Doctrine (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973); idem., “The Evolution of Israeli Strategy: The Psychology of Insecurity and the Quest for Absolute Security,” 534–578, in Williamson Murray, MacGregor Knox, and Alvin Bernstein (eds.), The Making of Strategy: Rulers,States,andWar (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Mark Heller, Continuity and Change in Israeli Security Policy (London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies/Oxford University Press, 2000); Israel Defense Forces, Deterring Terror; Ariel Levite, Offense and Defense in Israeli Military Doctrine (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989); Zeev Maoz, Defending the Holy Land: A Critical Analysis of Israel’s Security and Foreign Policy (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2006); Meridor and Eldadi, Israel’s National Security Doctrine; Bard E. O’Neill, “Israel,” 497–541, in Douglas J. Murray and Paul R. Viotti (eds.), The Defense Policies of Nations:AComparativeStudy, third edition (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Israel Tal, National Security: The IsraeliExperience (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000);
and Avner Yaniv, Deterrence Without the Bomb: The Politics of Israeli Strategy (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1987). Two works that focus more narrowly on the subject of Israeli counterterrorism doctrine, but are still worth mentioning in this context, are Daniel Byman, A High Price: The Triumphs and FailuresofIsraeliCounterterrorism(New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), and Boaz Ganor, Israel’s Counterterrorism Strategy:OriginstothePresent(New York: Columbia University Press, 2021).
11. For an incisive treatment of the process behind and effectiveness of Israel’s national security decision making, see Charles D. Freilich, Zion’s Dilemmas:HowIsraelMakes National SecurityPolicy(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012).
1 A brief history of Israeli national security Settings and responses
DOI: 10.4324/9781003407256-2
David Ben-Gurion, the first prime minister of the State of Israel, said of the 1947–49 War of Independence as the hostilities drew to a close:
Let us not be intoxicated with victory. To many people[, ] and not only among ourselves, it would appear to be a miracle: a small nation . . . stood up against six nations. . . . However, none of us knows whether the trial by bloodshed has yet ended. The enemy forces in the neighboring countries and in the world at large have not yet despaired of their scheme to annihilate Israel in its own land[, ] or at least to pare away its borders, and we do not yet know whether the recent war, . . . which ended in victory for the [Israel Defense Forces (IDF)], is the last battle or not[;] and as long as we cannot be confident that we have won the last battle, let us not glory.1
Ben-Gurion’s cautious tone with respect to the country’s national security predicament would prove to be spot on. Israel had not fought its last battle during its War of Independence. But even an observer as astute as Ben-Gurion could not have predicted that the country would still be embroiled in hostilities with its adversaries 75 years after its establishment. Indeed, Israel has been involved in a total of nine wars to the present day: the War of Independence, the 1956 Sinai Campaign,
the 1967 Six-Day War, the 1969–70 War of Attrition, the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the 1982 Lebanon War, the 2006 Second Lebanon War, the 2008–9 Gaza War (Operation Cast Lead), and the 2014 Gaza War (Operation Protective Edge). The first six of these wars fall largely or entirely into the category of interstate wars, which are high-intensity wars fought mainly between or among states, while the last three wars fall into the category of asymmetrical wars, which are medium-intensity wars fought mainly between or among states, on the one hand, and nonstate entities, on the other hand. Israel has also faced a steadily growing threat that its adversaries might engage in weapons of mass destruction (WMD) warfare against it since at least the early 1960s when the Egyptian army initially employed chemical weapons against Arab villagers during the civil war then raging in Yemen. Furthermore, between wars, the country has been almost continually caught up in various types of lowintensity conflict (LIC), including cross-border infiltration, border skirmishing, terrorism, and mass civil unrest in Judea, Samaria, and Gaza.
The Israeli national security establishment has traditionally divided these different national security challenges into two broad categories: “basic” national security challenges and “current” (or, more aptly, “chronic”) national security challenges.2 The former category incorporates those challenges that represent fundamental threats to the integrity of the country (primarily interstate warfare and WMD warfare), while the latter category incorporates those challenges that represent significant threats to the populace but not to the country itself (primarily the various kinds of violence associated with LIC). To these two types of national security challenge, a third “intermediate” type has been added during the twenty-first century—the challenge represented by asymmetrical warfare. Though such warfare does not represent an existential threat to Israel, it does represent a considerably greater threat to the country’s general well-being than LIC.
National security challenges through the Six-Day War
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—— (Virgil’s), xi. 492.
Ænobarbas (in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra), see Enobarbus.
Ænone, v. 203.
Æschylus, i. 194; iv. 216; v. 56; vi. III; viii. 12; x. 33; xi. 284, 506; xii. 240, 260.
Æsop. See Fables by Æsop.
Ætna, v. 122.
Afrancesadoes (Spaniards), i. 428.
African (or Negro), i. 69.
Agamemnon (Æschylus), i. 221; v. 54; x. 81, 94, 98; xi. 284, 421; xii. 240, 260.
Agar (Welbore Ellis), vi. 369.
Agatha Friburg (in Kotzebue’s Lovers’ Vows), viii. 335.
Age of Elizabeth, The Lectures on, etc.; Lecture I.—Introductory, v. 175.
Agincourt, i. 285, 289, 425.
Aglaura (Suckling’s), viii. 57.
Agli, Messer, x. 300.
Agnes, or the Triumph of Principle, iv. 243 n.
—— (Mrs Radcliffe’s), viii. 126
—— (in Lillo’s Fatal Curiosity), ii. 212.
—— (in Molière’s School for Wives), viii. 76; xi. 276.
Agnese (opera by Paer), viii. 540.
Agnolo, Andrea d’. See Andrea del Sarto.
Agreeable Surprise, The (O’Keeffe’s), viii. 166, 167, 319, 387, 463.
Agriculture, On (Cowley), viii. 60.
Aickin, James, ii. 197, 199, 201.
Aikin, Dr John (Dr A.), ii. 198; xi. 505.
Ailsa, Craig of, ii. 64.
Aimwell (Farquhar’s Beaux’ Stratagem), viii. 10, 88.
Airy, Sir George, viii. 503.
Ajax, x. 94; xii. 10.
Akenside, Mark, i. 114; ii. 79; iii. 222; v. 68, 119, 375; xi. 573.
Aladdin, ix. 269.
Alastor, or the Spirit of Solitude (Shelley’s), x. 261, 265.
Albano, Francesco, i. 77; vi. 441; ix. 34, 111, 236.
—— Hills of, ix. 234, 254, 376.
Albany, The, xi. 486.
—— Duke of, ii. 80.
Albemarle Street, i. 370; iii. 217; iv. 367; xi. 423, 486, 487.
Albergo di Venezia (an inn), ix. 264.
Alberigi, Frederigo, i. 163, 331; vii. 303; x. 68; xi. 501.
Albigeois, The Civil Wars of the, x. 56.
Alcæus, iv. 271.
Alcamenes (painter), ix. 466.
Alcantara (town), iii. 290 n.
Alceste (in Molière’s Misanthrope), ix. 150–1
Alcestis, vi. 179; x. 97.
Alchymist, The (Ben Jonson’s), viii. 45, 227; x. 117, 171.
Alcibiades, i. 211 seq.; vii. 213; xi. 228.
Alcides, The (acrobats), vi. 442.
Alcinous, Gardens of, ix. 325; xi. 514.
Alderman Gripe (Wycherley’s Love in a Wood), viii. 78.
Aldermanbury, xi. 441.
Aldobrand (in Maturin’s Bertram), viii. 306–7.
Aldridge’s, ii. 174.
Ale-house Door (Wilkie’s), viii. 140; ix. 15; xi. 252.
Aleman, Mateo. See Guzman D’Alfarache.
Aleppo (referred to in Shakespeare’s Othello), xi. 283.
Alexander and Campaspe (John Lyly’s), v. 197, 201, 202.
—— Battle of (a picture), ix. 41.
—— of Aberdeen, ii. 209.
—— I. of Russia, iii. 56, 160, 306; iv. 189; ix. 479; xi. 415.
—— the Great, i. 291; ii. 67, 173; iv. 71; v. 124; vi. 106, 107; x. 15, 17, 26, 329; xi. 3, 234, 553; xii. 37, 204.
Alexander the Great (by Lee, Nathaniel), v. 357; vi. 342; vii. 301.
—— VI., Pope, Bower’s Life of, ii. 172.
—— the Spy, ii. 154 n.
Alexander’s Feast (Dryden’s), iv. 276; v. 81, 372; vi. 204 n.; xii. 347.
Alfieri, Count, x. 45, 232, 241; xi. 424.
Alfred (Wilkie’s), ix. 389.
Algiers, iii. 335, 442.
Alhambra, The, ix. 349.
Alice (in Scott’s Old Mortality), iv. 247.
—— Bridgenorth (in Scott’s Peveril of the Peak), xi. 540.
Alicia (in Rowe’s Jane Shore), viii. 352.
Alien Bill, The Scotch, ix. 214.
—— Office, The, ii. 248.
Alighieri, Family of the, x. 63.
Alithea (in Wycherley’s adaptation of Molière’s School for Wives), viii. 76, 153, 554; xi. 276.
Allan, The bog of, v. 34.
Allen, Bobbie (Lamb’s schoolfellow), xi. 585.
Allen-a-Dale (in Scott’s Ivanhoe), iv. 209.
Allen, John, M.D., ix. 17.
All Fools (Chapman’s), v. 234.
All for Love (Dryden’s), viii. 190.
All-Foxden, vi. 183; xii. 269, 271.
All in the Wrong (Murphy’s), viii. 164.
Allston, Washington, xi. 189, 190, 456 n.
All’s Well that Ends Well (Shakespeare’s), i. 329; also referred to, iii. 437; viii. 330; xi. 296.
Allworthy (in Fielding’s Tom Jones), vi. 452.
Almack’s, xi. 343.
Almanach des Gourmands, The, xi. 501.
Almeria (Congreve’s Mourning Bride), viii. 75.
Almeyda (in Dryden’s Don Sebastian), v. 357.
Alonzo (in Maywood’s Zanga), xi. 398.
Alphonso VI. of Castile and Leon, x. 57.
Alps, The, iv. 193; vii. 368; ix. 182, 188, 190, 195, 199, 207, 208, 240, 263, 264, 273, 277, 288, 290, 297, 303, 360; xi. 231; xii. 134.
Alpuente, Romero (Landor’s), x. 251.
Alric (in Holcroft’s The Noble Peasant), ii. 110.
Alsop, Mrs, viii. 252, 355, 361, 369, 370, 412, 524; xi. 277, 305.
Alsop’s Rosalind, Mrs, viii. 252.
Altarpiece of St Mark (Tintoretto’s), ix. 113.
Alton (town), vii. 126.
Altona (town), ii. 256.
Alwyn, or the Gentleman Comedian (Holcroft’s), ii. 95 seq., 280.
Amadis de Gaul (early romance), i. 133; vii. 253; x. 14, 19, 20, 57; xii. 62.
Amadis of Greece, x. 57.
Amanda (Vanbrugh’s Relapse), viii. 83.
Amanthis (in Mrs Inchbald’s Child of Nature), viii. 196.
Amaryllis, vii. 41.
—— (in Fletcher’s Faithful Shepherdess), v. 255.
Ambrogetti, Signor, viii. 365; xi. 308.
Ambrose Lamela (in Le Sage’s Gil Blas), vii. 380.
Ambrose (Wilson’s Noctes Ambrosianæ), xii. 367.
Amelia (Fielding’s), i. 130; vi. 457; vii. 84; viii. 114, 115, 152, 555; x. 32, 33; xi. 501; xii. 64.
—— Mammonton (in Ups and Downs), xi. 385, 387.
Amelia, the Princess (George II.’s daughter), x. 159.
—— Carolina Wilhelmina Skeggs (in Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield), iii. 313.
—— Wildenheim (in Lovers’ Vows, Mrs Inchbald’s adap. of Kotzebue’s Natural Son), viii. 249, 336.
American Farmer’s Letters, The, x. 314.
—— Lion (Kean’s), xi. 332.
—— Literature—Dr Channing, x. 310.
—— Revolution, ii. 133; iii. 32 n., 279, 302, 304; vii. 52.
—— War, The, iii. 250, 420, 422, 424; vi. 385; x. 150–2; xii. 263, 293.
Americans, ix. 257.
Amiens, ii. 216; iii. 6, 61, 83, 99; vii. 227 n.
—— (Shakespeare’s As You Like It), xi. 367, 378; xii. 122.
Amine (in Arabian Nights), viii. 14.
Aminta (Tasso’s), x. 73.
Amintor (in Beaumont and Fletcher’s Maid’s Tragedy), v. 251, 252.
Amlet, Mrs (Vanbrugh’s Confederacy), viii. 14, 80.
Ammerbach (philosopher), x. 143.
Amory, John, i. 52.
Amours of Peter the Long (L. E. Billardson de Sauvigny), ii. 107.
Amphion, xi. 282.
Amphitheatre of Titus, ix. 234.
—— The (at Verona), ix. 277.
Amsterdam, vii. 100; ix. 295, 300, 301.
Amy Robsart (in Scott’s Kenilworth), ii. 314; iv. 248, 251.
Anabaptists, x. 360.
Anacharsis (traveller), vii. 255.
Anacreon, iv. 356; vii. 372 n.
Anacreon (Herrick’s translation), v. 312.
Anacreontics (Cowley’s), v. 372; viii. 59.
Anah (Byron’s), vii. 85.
Analogy (Butler’s), vi. 224; ix. 415; xii. 266, 346.
Analytical Review, The, ii. 116.
Ananias (Raphael’s), ix. 272 n.
Anastasius, vii. 220.
Anatomy of Melancholy (Burton’s), iv. 365; vi. 225.
Ancient Britons (the corps), ii. 176.
—— Mariner (Coleridge’s), iii. 205; iv. 218; v. 166, 377; viii. 14; xii. 236, 273, 319, 460.
—— Pistol (Shakespeare’s Henry IV., etc.), i. 425; iii. 54.
—— and Modern Literature, On Spirit of; On German Drama contrasted with that of Age of Elizabeth, v. 345.
Ancona, View of (Wilson’s), xi. 199.
Andalusia, Castle of (O’Keeffe’s), viii. 329.
Anderson, Dr, v. 124.
Andes, iv. 193; vii. 255; viii. 415.
Andrea del Sarto, vi. 11; ix. 25, 51, 226.
Andromache (Racine’s), viii. 334.
Andromeda (Guido’s), vi. 441; viii. 253; ix. 61, 237.
Andrugio (in Marston’s Antonio and Mellida), v. 225.
Angelica (Congreve’s Love for Love), i. 133; viii. 15, 152, 555.
—— and Medora (a picture), ii. 212, 227; v. 3; x. 71.
Angelo (in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure), i. 346, 347.
—— Michael. See Michael Angelo.
Angerstein, John Julius, vi. 174, 346; ix. 9, 35, 75, 113, 439.
Angerstein’s Collection, ix. 7.
Angiers, i. 311.
Anglade Family (or Accusation, by Payne), viii. 279.
Anglaises pour rire (a play), xi. 366.
Angler. See Complete Angler.
Angrisani (Signor), viii. 365, 371; xi. 308.
Anhalt (in Lovers’ Vows, Mrs Inchbald’s version of Kotzebue’s Natural Son), viii. 249.
Anjou, Charles of, x. 56.
Anlaff the Dane (in Holcroft’s The Noble Peasant), ii. 110.
Anna, Verses upon (Gifford’s), iv. 302; vi. 221.
—— St Ives (Holcroft’s), ii. 128, 132, 136, 201, 279.
Annabel (in Holcroft’s The Man of Ten Thousand), ii. 160.
Annabella (in Ford’s ’Tis a Pity She’s a Whore), v. 269.
Anne Page (in Shakespeare’s Merry Wives), i. 350; ix. 36.
—— Queen, i. 8, 138; iii. 405; iv. 212, 217, 367; v. 82, 104, 105; vi. 113, 322, 323, 376, 445; viii. 96; x. 73, 205, 310, 358, 373, 374, 377, 378; xii. 405.
Annecy (town), i. 17; v. 100; vii. 304.
Annesley (a novel), x. 392.
Annual Anthology, iii. 211.
—— Register, ii. 56.
Annunciation (Guido’s), ix. 111.
Annus Mirabilis, The (Dryden’s), v. 81.
Anselme (in Molière’s L’Avare), xi. 379.
Anstey, Christopher, viii. 560.
Antæus, i. 160; iv. 38.
Antigone (Sophocles), x. 81, 97.
Antigonus (Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale), i. 324.
Anti-Jacobin Review, i. 401; iii. 219, 238, 261, 262, 295; v. 164; x. 139, 158, 225.
Antinous, The (statue), vii. 167; viii. 149; ix. 107, 350, 378; xi. 228, 486, 542.
Antipholis (in Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors), i. 351; iv. 341; vi. 58; viii. 401.
Antipodes, xii. 279.
Antiquary (Scott’s), iv. 248; vii. 156; viii. 413, 425; ix. 202; xi. 558.
Antiquaries, Society of, viii. 335.
Antiquity, On, vii. 252.
Antonines, The, ix. 366.
Antonio (in Middleton’s Witch), v. 218.
—— (Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice), i. 321; viii. 179, 250, 374; xi. 417.
—— (Godwin’s), iv. 210 n.; xii. 326.
—— and Mellida (Marston’s), v. 224, 225.
Antony (Shakespeare’s Julius Cæsar and Antony and Cleopatra), i. 197; iv. 183; vii. 264.
—— and Cleopatra (Shakespeare’s), i. 228; v. 50, 253; viii. 190; also referred to, i. 195; v. 253; viii. 31, 389; ix. 27.
Antwerp, ix. 110, 300, 302, 492; xii. 48 n.
A. P. E., vii. 124, 207.
Ape, Lines on the Story of the (Merry’s), iv. 309 n.
Apelles (sculptor), vi. 74.
—— (in Lyly’s Alexander and Campaspe), v. 201.
Apemantus (Shakespeare’s Timon of Athens), i. 210 et seq.
Apennines, The, ix. 199, 207, 208, 209, 210, 254, 260, 263, 264, 276, 303; xii. 57, 134.
Apicius, xii. 141.
Apocalypse, The, vii. 199; xii. 280, 441.
Apollo, i. 34, 416; v. 83, 192; vi. 141; vii. 157; x. 349, 350; xi. 544; xii. 341.
—— (statues), iii. 169; v. 164; vi. 141; ix. 28, 107, 147, 164, 165 n., 169 n., 222, 223, 237, 240, 339, 340, 341, 350, 378, 379, 381, 430, 491–2; x. 341, 342, 344; xi. 196, 227, 228, 493.
Apollo and Daphne (Titian’s), ix. 74.
—— giving a Poet a Cup of Water (Poussin’s), vi. 172; ix. 24.
—— and the Seasons (R. Wilson’s), ix. 392; xi. 198.
Apollodorus, x. 100.
Apology for His Own Life (Cibber), viii. 160, 359.
Apostate, The (by Richard Lalor Sheil), v. 345; viii. 538.
Apostates, On Modern, iii. 155.
Apothecary (in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet), ii. 368 n.
Apparitions, History of (Defoe’s), x. 382.
Appeal to Honour and Honesty (Defoe’s), x. 369 n.
—— from the New to the Old Whigs (Burke’s), iii. 32.
Appius and Virginia (Webster’s), v. 234.
Appleby, iii. 423; v. 148.
Application to Study, On, vii. 55.
Apprentice, The (Murphy’s), viii. 514.
Apuleius, Lucius, v. 199; vi. 201; x. 17, 18.
Apullius and Apullia (Turner’s), xi. 190.
Aquapendente (town), ix. 230.
Aquinas, Thomas, iv. 217; xii. 35.
Arabia, v. 88, 340 n.; xi. 560.
Arabian Nights, i. 46; ii. 347; iv. 337; v. 113; vi. 53, 408; vii. 23, 421 n.; viii. 12, 13, 14; ix. 69; x. 46.
Aram, Eugene, vi. 314; xii. 34.
Araminta (Vanbrugh’s Relapse), viii. 83.
Arbaces (in Beaumont and Fletcher’s King and no King), v. 252.
—— (in the opera Artaxerxes), viii. 248, 321, 451.
Arbe, The (river), ix. 292.
Arbela, The Battle of, vi. 107.
Arbuthnot, John, iii. 33; iv. 217; v. 78, 104, 105.
Arcadia, i. 338; ix. 324, 325.
—— Sir Philip Sidney’s, v. 98, 318, 319, 320, 321, 323, 324, 325, 326; ix. 9, 10, 58; x. 14; xii. 282.
Arch of Constantine (Claude), ix. 54.
—— of Constantine, ix. 232.
Archangel, ii. 251.
Archbishop of Grenada, The (in Le Sage’s Gil Blas), x. 31.
Archer (in Farquhar’s Beaux’ Stratagem), viii. 14, 88; xii. 451, 452.
Archimago (in Spenser), v. 36.
Archimedes, iii. 151; vi. 377; x. 13; xii. 36.
Arcite (Chaucer), v. 21, 29, 30, 258.
Arctic Circle, The, xii. 253.
Arden of Feversham (play), i. 357.
—— Forest of, i. 185, 338, 339; xi. 367; xii. 122.
Arethusa, xii. 200.
—— (in Beaumont and Fletcher’s Philaster), v. 262.
Aretine, Peter, iii. 218; iv. 225; v. 186; viii. 10.
Aretino, Pietro (Titian’s supposed portrait of), ix. 354; xii. 30.
Arezzo, ix. 262, 302.
Argenis (Barclay’s), x. 145.
Arguing in a Circle, xii. 285.
Argus, The (a newspaper), xi. 386.
Argyll, Duke of, vi. 521.
—— 2nd Duke of, John Campbell, iii. 415.
—— The Duchess of, vi. 450.
—— in Prison (Northcote’s), vi. 341.
—— Place, vi. 358.
Ariadne, vi. 238; vii. 125; xii. 203.
Ariel (Shakespeare’s Tempest), i. 23, 238, 241, 245; iv. 216; v. 15, 151; viii. 235, 236; ix. 177, 463; x. 116; xi. 179.
Ariosto, i. 161; iv. 257, 356; v. 3, 35, 45, 224; vi. 425; vii. 94, 252; ix. 29, 239, 266, 301; x. 9, 13, 16, 20, 45, 69, 70, 71, 73, 77, 409; xi. 235, 492.
Ariosto (Titian’s portrait of), ix. 270; xi. 30.
—— (Harington’s), v. 186; vi. 319 n.
Aristarchus, iv. 307.
Ariste (should be Valère), (in Molière’s L’Ecole des Femmes), xi. 356.
Aristocracy of Letters, On the, vi. 205.
Aristophanes, v. 56; viii. 28, 166; x. 99, 100, 112 n.
—— of Byzantium, i. 183.
Aristotle, i. 13, 123, 139; iv. 9 n., 143, 144, 283, 285; v. 360; vi. 107, 109, 198; vii. 248, 316; viii. 63, 93, 305; x. 143, 248, 249; xi. 97, 262; xii. 164, 326, 361, 370.
Arkwright (Sir Richard), ii. 175; vi. 456; vii. 165, 186; ix. 243 n.
Armelie (in L. Bonaparte’s Charlemagne), xi. 232, 235.
Armida (Ariosto’s), x. 71.
Armitage (racket-player), vi. 89.
Armstrong, John, ii. 169, 183, 194, 195; v. 119, 376; vi. 332.
Arnaud, Anthony, xi. 289.
—— Daniel, x. 55.
Arne, Michael, ii. 86.
—— Dr Thomas Augustine, ii. 86; viii. 451, 452.
Arno, The, ix. 211, 212, 221; xii. 134.
Arnold, S. J., viii. 224, 243, 244, 314, 322, 323, 463, 476.
Arpasia (in Bajazet), xi. 275.
Arragon, x. 56.
Arruntius (in Ben Jonson’s Sejanus), v. 264.
Arsinoe (in Molière’s Misanthrope), ix. 149.
Art, Fragments on, ix. 489.
—— of Walking the Streets. See Trivia.
Artamène (in Mlle. de Scudéry’s Artamène ou Le Grand Cyrus), xii. 61.
Artaxerxes (F. A. Arne’s), viii. 192; also referred to in viii. 248, 320, 330, 451, 532; xi. 455 n.
Arthur, King, x. 20–21, 56; xii. 221.
—— (in Shakespeare’s King John), i. 306 et seq.; vii. 344.
Arthur’s Seat, ii. 314; ix. 98, 324, 336, 337.
—— —— View of (Nasmyth’s), xi. 247.
Artist, The (a magazine), vi. 416.
Artists, On the Old Age of, vii. 88.
Arts, On the Progress of the, i. 372.
—— are not Progressive, Why the, i. 160; ix. 489; referred to, ix. 478.
Arundel, Thomas Howard, Earl of, ix. 34.
Arviragus (in Shakespeare’s Cymbeline), i. 182 seq.; v. 258; xi. 293.
Ascham, Roger, x. 236–7.
Ascot Heath, ii. 4, 5, 6.
Ashburton, Baron. See Dunning, John.
—— the Inn at, vi. 407.
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, ii. 14.
Ashmole, Elias, iii. 141.
Asia Minor, v. 199.
Aspasia (Landor’s), ii. 396; vii. 299.
Aspatia (in Beaumont and Fletcher’s Maid’s Tragedy), v. 251.
Aspin, Mr, ii. 205.
Ass (of Apuleius), x. 17, 18.
Assembly of the Just (Raphael’s), iii. 142; xii. 208.
—— of Saints (Raphael’s), ix. 380; xi. 227.
Assignation Scene, The (Hogarth’s), viii. 134.
Assizi, ix. 261.
Ass’s Foal, Ode to an (Coleridge’s), v. 164.
Assumption (Titian’s), ix. 273.
Astley, John, vii. 111.
Astley’s, xii. 49.
Astolpho (Ariosto’s), vii. 252.
Astræa, xi. 384.
Astrea and Cleopatra, Histories of, x. 14.
Astronomical Discourses, Dr Chalmers’s, iv. 230; xii. 279.
Asturias, xi. 317.
As You Like It (Shakespeare’s), i. 338; also referred to in i. 185; vii. 260 n.; viii. 513; xi. 396.
Atala at the Tomb (Girodet’s), ix. 132.
At-all (in Abbe’s Double Gallant), viii. 162, 360.
Athalie (Racine’s), x. 106; xi. 452.
Athanasius, Creed of St, iii. 139, 269.
Athenæ Oxonienses (Wood’s), iii. 276.
Athenæum, The, xi. 386.
Athenians, xi. 312.
Athens, i. 4, 212; vi. 188, 448; vii. 95, 185, 254; ix. 381, 379, 466, 492; x. 347; xii. 170.
Atherstone, ii. 14.
Atkins, Mr (actor), viii. 275.
—— Mrs, ii. 219.
Atkinson (in Fielding’s Tom Jones), vii. 214; viii. 114; x. 33.
Atlas (the horse), ii. 22.
—— The, vi. 505, 517, 520, 521, 522; ix. 484–5; x. 403; xii. 320, 339, 342, 346, 348, 350, 353, 354, 357, 360, 363, 364, 367, 369, 370, 377, 381, 386, 391, 394, 402.
Atterbury, Francis, iii. 408; v. 79; vii. 24; viii. 14.
Attica, ix. 325; xi. 495.
Atticus (Pope’s), ii. 79, 199.
Attila, ix. 267.
—— (Raphael’s), ix. 364.
Attributes (Samuel Clarke’s), xi. 118.
Attwood, Mr (actor), ii. 195, 222, 225.
Audrey (in Shakespeare’s As You Like It), i. 185, 340; iv. 348; v. 146; viii. 167, 252, 319; xi. 367, 397.
Aufidius (in Shakespeare’s Coriolanus), i. 217; iii. 435; viii. 375.
Augustus (in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra), i. 230.
—— (statue), ix. 165, 221.
Auld Reekie School, The, viii. 478 n.
Auld Robin Gray (ballad), v. 141; vii. 253.
Aumerle (Shakespeare’s Richard II.), i. 273.
Aurelia, Duchess of Pietro Jacomo (in Marston’s Malcontent), v. 230.
Aurelio and Miranda (Boaden’s), ii. 218.
Aurora (newspaper), xi. 386.
—— (in Le Sage’s Gil Blas), xii. 141.
—— (Guido’s), ix. 237; xii. 36.
—— (Poussin’s), vi. 171.
Ausias (Italian author), x. 56.
Austerlitz, i. 415; iii. 99, 112; vi. 13, 237.
Austria, iii. 14, 104, 179.
—— Archduke of, i. 310, 311.
—— Emperor of, iii. 106, 107; ix. 277.
Austrian Catechism, The, xi. 343–4.
—— Troops, ix. 259.
Austrians, ix. 187 n.
Authors, On the Conversation of, vii. 24.
——, The Royal Society of, vii. 105.
Autolycus (in Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale), i. 155, 326; viii. 230, 388.
Auvergne, Countess of, i. 292.
Avare (Molière). See L’Avare.
Avarice (in Spenser), v. 39.
Avon, v. 297.
Aylesbury, iii. 422.
Ayr, ii. 78.
Ayrton, William, vi. 195, 201; vii. 37.
Ayton, Miss Fanny, xi. 378.
B.
B——, xii. 455 n.
B., Arthur, ii. 211.
B——, Col., ii. 194, 196.
B., Dr, ii. 224.
B., Duke of, ii. 225.
B——ll, ii. 176.
B——r, ii. 215.
Babilonia, La (Salvator’s), x. 301.
Babylon, v. 183, 203, 273; vii. 185; ix. 268; xii. 153.
Baccano (a town), ix. 231.
Bacchus, v. 81; viii. 28, 231; ix. 216, 220.
—— and Ariadne (Titian’s), iv. 276; ix. 72.
Bacon, Lord, i. 23, 82, 123; iii. 293; iv. 45, 200 n., 283, 365; v. 3, 175, 179, 307, 326, 332, 333; vi. 85, 154; vii. 182 n., 262, 306, 320; viii. 58, 100; ix. 28, 186, 243 n.; x. 249, 258, 291, 326; xi. 25, 26, 27, 163, 164, 203, 287, 323; xii. 35 n., 50, 369, 372.
—— Friar, v. 334.
—— Roger, vii. 443 n.
Bacon’s Works, Character of Lord, compared as to Style with Sir Thomas Brown and Jeremy Taylor, v. 326.
Bagdad, iii. 146.
Bagnigge Wells, iv. 108; vii. 70; viii. 140; xi. 252.
Bagot (Henry VI.), i. 295.
Bagshot, xi. 375; xii. 13.
Bailie Bradwardine (Scott’s Waverley), viii. 129; xi. 534.
—— Nicol Jarvie (Scott’s Rob Roy), iv. 248.
Baillie, Miss Joanna, v. 147, 148, 270; viii. 420 n.
Baird, Mr (a mate), ii. 248, 249, 252.
Baker, Mr (actor), viii. 318; x. 382.
—— Sir George, ii. 174, 175.
Bakewell, ii. 18.
Bakhuysen, Ludolf, ix. 20.
Balaam (in Holcroft’s The Exiles), ii. 201.
—— (in Kotzebue’s Indian in England), ii. 196.
Balafre (in Scott’s Quentin Durward), iv. 248.
Balasteros, Francisco, x. 250.
Bal Champêtre (Watteau’s), ix. 22, 23.
Balfour of Burley (Scott’s Old Mortality), iv. 229, 247; viii. 129; xi. 381, 532.
Ball, John, iii. 194, 303.
Ballad on a Wedding (Sir John Suckling’s), v. 371; viii. 56.
Ballads, On the Old English, v. 123.
Ballantyne Press, vii. 222.
Ballets, Two New, viii. 353.
Balmawhapple (in Scott’s Waverley), xii. 91.
Balmerino, Lord, iii. 285 n.; x. 161, 168.
Baltimore, viii. 473; xii. 377.
—— House, viii. 12.
Banbury, ii. 14.
—— Mutton, ii. 246.
Banchieri, Monsignore, iii. 178.
Bandello, Matteo, x. 9.
Bandinelli, Baccio (Correggio’s), ix. 43.
——, Bartolommeo, ix. 219, 229.
Bank of a River (Gainsborough’s), xi. 203.
Banks, Henry, xi. 473.
—— Sir Joseph, ii. 178, 183, 199, 203; vii. 210.
—— Mr, ix. 56 n.
—— Miss, ii. 206.
—— the Miller (in The Merry Devil), v. 294.
—— of the Thames (J. Wilson’s), xi. 247.
—— of the Wye (Wordsworth’s), v. 156.
Bannister, John, i. 155, 326; ii. 160, 162, 165, 195, 196, 197, 198, 202, 368; vi. 273, 417; vii. 76, 127; viii. 230, 234, 317, 387, 388, 514; xi. 366; xii. 24.
Bannister’s Farewell, viii. 229.
Banquo (in Shakespeare’s Macbeth), vi. 410; xi. 316.
Banstead Downs, vi. 12.
Baptistery, The, at Florence, ix. 212.
Barabbas, v. 210.
Barbara Yellowley (in Scott’s Pirate), xi. 534.
Barbarelli, Giorgio. See Giorgione.
Barbarosa (Brown’s), viii. 372.
Barbaroux, vi. 102.
Barbauld, Mrs (Anna Letitia), v. 147.
Barber, Mrs, xii. 139 n.
—— of Bagdad, The (in Arabian Nights), viii. 13.
Barberigo Palace, The, ix. 269, 270.
Barbieri, Giovanni Francesco. See Guercino.
Barcelona, ix. 185.
Barclay, Captain, viii. 203.
Bard (Gray’s), xi. 326 n.; xii. 223.
—— Bracy (in Coleridge’s Christabel), x. 415.
Bardolph (in Shakespeare), ii. 72; viii. 33; xii. 7.
Barebone’s Parliament, iii. 395.
Baretti, G. M. A., vi. 381.
—— Reynolds’ Portrait of, ix. 399.
Bareuth, the Margravine of, vi. 445.
Barker, Benjamin, xi. 248.
Barkley, Sir Robert, ii. 224.
—— Miss, ii. 224.
Barlow, Joel, iii. 460.
Barmecide, The, iii. 139; iv. 337; vi. 53; viii. 13.
Barnaby Brittle (a play founded on Molière), viii. 28.
Barnard, Mr (actor), viii. 241, 279, 280, 302, 399, 460, 475, 525, 532.
—— Sir John, iii. 413.
Barnard’s Inn, ii. 218.
Barnes, Mrs and Mr, viii. 271, 439.
Barney o’ Mulchesen (in Leigh’s Where to Find a Friend), viii. 258, 260.
Baron of Bradwardine (Scott’s Waverley), iv. 247.
—— Wildenheim (in Mrs Inchbald’s Lovers’ Vows), viii. 335.
Barrés, The, iii. 420; iv. 237; xii. 293.
