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Young Children s Play and Environmental Education in Early Childhood Education 1st Edition Amy CutterMackenzie
The 8th edition of this bestselling text provides a framework and instructional strategies for identifying, selecting, and teaching highquality children’s literature for ages 0–8. This new edition’s emphasis on diverse literature will assist in positively impacting the lives of all young people. Effective instructional approaches for using literature as a teaching tool are coupled with developmentally appropriate methods for sharing literature with young children. This book is a foundational text for graduate and undergraduate students in early childhood education, early literacy, literacy methods, children’s literature, and literature instruction.
Cyndi Giorgis is a Professor of Literacy Education and Children’s Literature at Arizona State University, where she teaches courses in children’s literature, multimodal literature, reading, writing, and action research. She is the recipient of the International Reading Association’s Arbuthnot Award for Outstanding Professor of Children’s and Young Adult Literature. Cyndi has served on many children’s book award committees including the Caldecott Medal, Newbery Medal, Theodor Seuss Geisel Award, Pura Belpré Award, and the Orbis Pictus Award for Outstanding Nonfiction.
Literature and Literacy for Young Children
Envisioning Possibilities in Early Childhood Education for Ages 0–8
The right of Cyndi Giorgis to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademarknotice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Pearson Education, Inc. 1981
Seventh edition published by Pearson Education, Inc. 2009
ISBN: 978-1-032-43503-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-43282-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-36763-5 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003367635
Typeset in Palatino by codeMantra
LiteratureandLiteracyforYoungChildren:EnvisioningPossibilitiesin Early Childhood Education for Ages 0–8 is dedicated to early childhood educators, childcare providers, and parents who make a difference in the lives of young children every day by sharing the power and pleasure of literature and Megan Sullivan Sloan, who is not only an incredibly imaginative, innovative, and extraordinary educator, but is also a colleague, mentor, and friend. Thank you for sharing your expertise with me over the years and for allowing your students’ responses to literature to be featured in this book. I am constantly in awe of you!
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
InstructionalStrategyfromtheFieldContributors
1 Defining Literature for Young Children
Importance of Literature in the Lives of Children
Categories of Literature
Format
Unusual Formats
Board Books
Toy and Novelty Books
Picture Books
Wordless Picture Books
Concept Books
Predictable Books
Beginning-to-Read Books
Early Chapter Book Series
Chapter Books
Genre
Fiction Nonfiction
Poetry
Diversity in Children’s Literature
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Responding to Literature through Words and Images
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
2 Evaluating Literature for Young Children
Evaluating Fiction
Plot
Setting
Characterization
Theme
Style of Writing
Coherence
Integrity
Evaluating Nonfiction
Organization
Accurate Presentations of Facts
Current Information and Resources
Evaluating Poetry
Evaluating Illustrations
Proximity to Text
Developing the Text
Capturing the Emotional Link
Appropriateness of Illustrations
Evaluating Interactive Media and Children’s Books
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Determining Word
Meaning Using a Graphic Organizer
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
3 Creating a Literate Environment
Reading Aloud as Foundational
Reading Aloud with Infants
Reading Aloud with Toddlers
Reading Aloud with Preschoolers
Reading Aloud with Kindergarteners and Primary-Grade Children
Choosing the Right Book
Creating a Positive Environment
Helping Children Construct Meaning
Narrative Structure
Visual Literacy
Storytelling
Choosing the Right Story
Creating a Positive Environment
Helping Children Construct Meaning
Narrative Structure
Visual Literacy
Writing
Choosing the Right Literature
Creating a Positive Writing Environment
Helping Children Construct Meaning
Narrative Structure
Visual Literacy
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Learning the Letter “C”
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
4 Partnering with Literature
Developing the Imagination
Promoting Positive Attitudes
Selecting Literature
Grouping Books for Instruction
Book Comparison
Units of Study
Thematic Unit: Author Study
Thematic Unit: Imagination
Cornerstone Text
Partnering with Literature Across the Curriculum
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Author-Illustrator Study
Sydney Smith
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
5 Promoting Young Children’s Language Development
Language Development in Young Children
How Children Become Literate
Hearing Rich Language
Using Language
Introducing Vocabulary in Context
Encouraging Language Play
Playing with the Sounds of Language
Exploring Patterns of Language
Playing with the Appearance of Language
Exploring Other Languages
Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Learners
Attentive, Critical, and Appreciative Listening Skills and Language Development
Building Attentive Listening Skills
Building Critical Listening Skills
Building Appreciative Listening Skills
Leading Naturally to Reading
Observing the Reading Process
Providing Time for Reading
Responding to Books Orally
Masks and Puppets
Engaging Children in Writing Activities
Building Ideas from Types of Writing
Helping Children to Write Well
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Word Walls
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
6 Nurturing Children’s Intellectual Development
Intellectual Development in Young Children
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Developmental Goals and Cognitive Abilities
Assisting in the Acquisition and Refinement of Concepts
Giving Information
Reinforcing Concepts
Books as Teaching Partners
Developing Skills in a Variety of Thinking Processes
Observing
Hypothesizing
Comparing
Classifying
Organizing
Applying
Expanding the Ability to Reason Logically
Encouraging Critical Thinking
Engaging in Problem-Solving
Nurturing Intellectual Development
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Partner Writing and
Storytelling
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
7 Supporting Children’s Personality Development
Personality Development in Young Children
Involving Children in Making Choices
Presenting Options
Encouraging Book Selection
Building Self-Concept
Recognizing Capabilities
Seeing Oneself Realistically
Recognizing Growth and Change
Becoming Confident
Identifying with One’s Heritage
Examining Gender Portrayal
Evaluating Nonconforming Gender Roles in Children’s Books
Building Self-Esteem
Using Content that Reaffirms Self-Worth
Presenting Themes of Individuality
Helping Children Understand and Express Their Emotions
Discovering Others Share Similar Feelings
Examining the Emotions of a Single Book Character
Characters Who Overcome Fears
Recognizing One’s Values
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Transitional Readers and Series Books
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
8 Fostering Social-Emotional and Moral Development
Moral Development
Envisioning the Potential of Literature
Interpreting Nonverbal Language in Illustrations
Relating Voice Inflection to Meaning
Extending Beyond the Literal Interpretation of the Narrative
Following a Sequence of Action
Observing Patterns of Behavior
Empathizing with a Book Character
Fostering Children’s Ability from the Viewpoint of Others
Sharing Books that Present Several Viewpoints
Providing Models of Prosocial Behavior
Reading Books that Demonstrate Prosocial Behavior
Planning Prosocial Behavior
Encouraging Children to Judge the Appropriateness of Particular Behaviors
Helping Children Learn About and Value Diversity
Selecting Literature that Values Diversity
Focusing on Similarities
Facilitating Group Activities
Stimulating Children to Explore Moral Problems and Ethical Questions
Engaging Children in the Reasoning Process
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Literature Circle
Discussions
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
9 Generating Children’s Aesthetic and Creative Development
Aesthetic and Creative Development in Young Children
Creative Potential of Young Children
Development in Art
Introducing Art Elements
Observing Design Elements in Picture Books
Examining Art in Picture Books
Presenting Art as Personal Expression
Offering Children Experience with a Variety of Art Media
Experimenting with Media Used by Illustrators
Development in Music
Offering Children a Variety of Musical Experiences
Sharing Picture Books of Illustrated Songs
Using Rhythm Instruments with Literature
Moving in Response to Literature
Stimulating Creativity in Art, Music, and Movement
Evoking Divergent Responses
Presenting Books that are Inventive
Instructional Strategy from the Field: Integrating Science with Art
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
10 Planning and Implementing Your Literature-Rich Curriculum
A Book for Toddlers and Preschoolers
A Book for Primary Grades
Selecting Response Activities
Recognizing the Larger Context
Literature-Rich Curriculum
Engaging Children with Literature
Reading and Writing Activities from Internet Sources
Professional References Cited
Children’s Literature Cited
Index
Preface
LiteratureandLiteracyforYoungChildren:EnvisioningPossibilitiesin EarlyChildhoodEducationforAges0–8is written for early childhood teachers and childcare providers to help them learn to recognize high-quality children’s literature and to share it effectively to support emerging literacy development in infants (ages 0–12 months), toddlers (ages 12–24 months), preschoolers (ages 2–4), and primary-age children (ages 5–8). The text presents the literary merits of literature intended for young children, explains how to share children’s literature as a teaching tool, and offers myriad developmentally appropriate strategies for partnering with literature in the early childhood setting.
The 8th edition provides:
♦ an evaluation of various genres and criteria for selecting and using high-quality literature with young children;
♦ discussions of classic and contemporary literature appropriate for infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and primary-age children;
♦ explanations and strategies to demonstrate how literature supports the development of children’s language, cognitive skills, personality, social and moral development, and aesthetic and creative development;
♦ suggestions for integrating a variety of literature into the early childhood curriculum;
♦ educational theory and research pertinent to the topic of each chapter;
♦ strategies to extend learning beyond the chapter’s focus;
♦ developmental goals, teaching suggestions, and recommended literature presented in a boxed format.
New to the 8th edition:
♦ reorganization of chapters to create a strong foundation for supporting children as emergent readers;
♦ extensive examples of literature, both classic and contemporary, aligned to chapter concepts;
♦ inclusion of instructional strategies to support all learners through reading aloud, selecting appropriate literature, generating a literature-rich curriculum, and enhancing reading comprehension;
♦ updated lists and suggestions of literature that promote literary quality;
♦ children’s written and visual responses to literature;
♦ websites related to authors, illustrations, organizations, teaching ideas, and digital media;
♦ detailed explanation of how to generate curriculum through a thematic unit, author-illustrator study, and cornerstone text.
Organization of the Text
The first two chapters of this text define the formats and genres of children’s literature and provide criteria by which to evaluate them. The next two chapters offer possibilities for creating a literate environment while Chapter 4 highlights how literature can be a teaching partner, collaborator, and mentor. Chapters 5–9 present how literature can support children’s language, intellectual, personality, social-emotional, moral, aesthetic, and creative development. Chapter 10 provides a detailed step-by-step look at how a specific book with toddlers and preschoolers, and two with primary-age children can support the developmental goals described in the previous chapters.
Acknowledgments
I have always believed that early childhood is a magical time for learning and exploration. Part of that magic comes from the books that children are introduced to as infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and primary-grade students. This book stems from that belief as well as my love for children’s literature. Since no book is created without a team of individuals and supporters behind it, I would like to acknowledge the following:
Karen Adler, my initial editor at Routledge, who understood the importance and need for this book to continue to support those individuals entering or currently teaching in early childhood education. And Megha Patel who stepped in as my new editor and offered continued support throughout the submission and production process.
Eric Rohmann who created the original artwork gracing the cover of this 8th edition. It expresses the delight and wonder that comes from reading books—no matter who you are.
Sarah Lechner, Marie LeJeune, Nicole Noline, Daria Nalborczyk, April Robert, Paige Robison, and Megan Sloan who each provided a glimpse into classrooms where literature and literacy serve a critical role in young children’s development.
Librarians at the Paseo Verde Library in Henderson, Nevada for responding to my endless requests for books in such a timely manner.
The anonymous reviewers for this text.
My husband, Jim Kruger, who is an excellent proofreader and dog walker. Thank you for your ongoing love and support.
Instructional Strategy from the Field Contributors
Sarah Lechner who served as Charlie’s nanny while living in Phoenix, Arizona (Chapter 3). She is currently in California working as a nanny for a new family! “I love working one-on-one with the little ones to help them grow and develop into tiny humans.”
Marie LeJeune is a Professor at Western Oregon University where she serves as the Associate Dean of Teacher Education. She is a former reading and language arts teacher. Marie has conducted extensive research in elementary and secondary classrooms focused on adolescent literacy and on readers’ response to literature. She has published numerous scholarly and practitioner-based articles and presented her research at regional, national, and international conferences.
Daria Nalborczyk is a kindergarten teacher at Oakbrook Elementary School in Wood Dale, Illinois which is a small suburban district outside of Chicago, Illinois. She has been teaching for four years and has her English as a Second Language endorsement and her Special Education Seal of Approval. Daria grew up speaking Polish and was born in the United States to immigrant parents from Poland. Daria’s classroom has 16 students with diverse backgrounds and needs. “Four of my 16 students have an IEP for Autism and Developmental Delay. I have nine students who have been identified as English Language Learners that are participating in the Transitional Bilingual Program. I support students who speak Polish, Russian, Ukrainian, Spanish, and Urdu.”
Nicole Noline is a first-grade teacher in Window Rock, Arizona, which is located on the Navajo Nation. In her community, “the students are not exposed to as many experiences as people in modern America. Running water, air conditioning, and individual housing are a luxury. Students do not travel to nearby cities which in part results in a smaller vocabulary and a need for learning a lot of background knowledge through literature.”
April Robert owns a nature-based Microschool, Little Leaders Academy, in St. Louis, Missouri. “I am building a program for homeschool moms/educators on operating a Microschool that educates through a mind-body approach. I am also a whole-child content creator and photographer.” April is a graduate of Arizona State University with a bachelor’s degree in elementary education and an endorsement in ESL. https://aprilmaura.com/about-aprilmaura/microschool-coaching/
Paige Robison teaches first grade at High Tech Elementary North County in San Marcos, California. She taught kindergarten and second grade previously. “Writing at this school is usually centered around our project-based learning, so students are engaged and motivated to create meaningful work for an authentic audience.”
Megan Sullivan Sloan currently teaches second grade at Cathcart Elementary School in the Snohomish School District in Snohomish, Washington. She has been teaching over 30 years. Megan is a frequent presenter at national conferences and serves as an educational consultant. Megan is the author of numerous books about writing including IntoWriting:ThePrimaryTeacher’sGuideto WritingWorkshop(Heinemann, 2009),TeachingYoungWritersto Elaborate:Mini-LessonsandStrategiesthatHelpStudentsFindTheir TopicsandLearntoTellMore(Scholastic, 2008),andTrait-Based Mini-LessonsforTeachingWritinginGrades2–4(Teaching Resources, 2005).
1 Defining Literature for Young Children
DOI: 10.4324/9781003367635-1
A childhood without books – that would be no childhood. That would be like being shut out from the enchanted place where you can go and find the rarest kind of joy.
(Astrid Lindgren, author)
Quality literature has the ability to impact children’s thinking, enhance their lives, and provide them with joy. Whether it’s reading for pleasure or information, each phrase, passage, or page has the potential to touch hearts, impart humor, or build knowledge. As author Astrid Lindgren pointed out, books take readers to enchanted places. In settings, both real and imagined, children meet unique, clever, kindhearted, or heroic characters. They might even encounter a red-haired, freckled character who is totally unpredictable but endlessly entertaining such as Lindgren’s Pippi Longstocking (1945). Children who discover the importance of literature and value what it offers will attain a lifelong source of emotional and intellectual enrichment. Teachers of young children in preschool through grade three, childcare providers, librarians, and parents are in an ideal position to instill a positive outlook about literature and literacy. This book presents the many ways literature can and does support the goals of early childhood education. It illustrates how books can be shared to assist children in developing and maintaining a positive attitude toward literary experiences. Before appreciating how literature contributes to the achievement of developmental goals, you must be aware of the wide range of stories, poems, and informational books currently available for
young children. This first chapter defines the different types and formats of books for young children ages 0–8. The ensuing chapters describe the attributes of high-quality literature for children, children’s preferences for literature, and suggestions and strategies for envisioning the possibilities of sharing this literature with young children.
Importance of Literature in the Lives of Children
Before embarking on the types and formats of books available for young children, it is imperative we recognize the critical role literature plays in literacy development. The National Children’s Book and Literacy Alliance compiled a lengthy list for “Why Do Kids Need Books?” Here are the top ten:
♦ Books create warm emotional bonds between adults and children when they read together because of the interaction that reading provides.
♦ Bookshelptodevelopbasiclanguageskillsandprofoundlyexpand children’s vocabularies,particularly when these books contain unique words generally not heard in everyday conversation.
♦ Bookssupport criticalthinkingskillsas children respond to stories that reflect their own experiences, share perspectives of others, and increase knowledge of the world around them.
♦ Books foster andnourishchildren’simaginations andexpandtheir worldby stimulating their sensory awareness as they see, hear, taste, feel, and smell on an imagined level.
♦ Books entertain and offer an escape when children laugh at characters’ antics and sometimes cry at their misfortune.
♦ Books offer various perspectives of the world through the opportunity to experience something through the pages of a book before it possibly happens to them in real life.
♦ Booksassistchildreninchartingtheirownmoralandethicalcourse, in reflecting upon right and wrong, good and evil. Books can provide guidance as children develop their own set of values.
♦ Books answer andgeneratequestions through engaging text and eye-catching illustrations in fiction, nonfiction, and poetry.
♦ Books serve as great companions and offer a hopeful and comforting message to children that they are not alone.
♦ Books provide children with the tools to achieve their dreams because they offer possibilities while expanding the children’s universe and inspiring creativity.
Early childhood is a significant and magical time for learning and exploration. The influence and impact of literature on a child’s life cannot be underestimated. At an early age, children recognize the pages of a book contain something wonderful and enjoyable. As the adult in a child’s life, you can encourage and support this enjoyment of stories and learning by providing opportunities that result in joyous encounters with books.
Categories of Literature
There is a wide range of books that authors and illustrators create with an intended audience of young children in mind. Several categorization systems are used to describe and classify books but they are frequently grouped by their format or their genre.
Format
The format of a book is its general makeup. This includes the size, shape, arrangement of illustrations, end pages, cover, paper quality, typography, and spacing. For example, the description of the Caldecott Honor book Color Zoo (1989) by Lois Ehlert, which introduces initial concepts of colors, shapes, and animals, might include its measurements of 9 by 9 inches. It has a hardcover but no book jacket. When opened, bright green end pages greet the reader. The pages are sturdy and durable while featuring perfectly die-cut shapes ingeniously designed that line up to unfold nine distinctly recognizable and abstractly formed animal heads. Ehlert uses bold primary and secondary colors throughout the book. Limited text is placed on the corner of each page that names the shape or animal featured. The book concludes with a listing of colors in the book and the animals created from the shapes.
Color Zoo (1997) is also available in a board-book format that measures 7 by 7 inches. However, the end pages are not included nor are the three pages that begin and end the book. Board books are generally ideal for infants and toddlers. ColorZoo is better suited in the hardcover format for sharing with preschoolers who are learning shapes and colors
alongside an adult who will assist them in identifying abstract animal faces.
When publishing hardcover picture books in a board book or electronic format, some aspects of the book might not be included, similar to the missing pages described above for Color Zoo. The hardcover version of the popular Goodnight, Goodnight, Construction Site (2011) by Sherri Duskey Rinker and illustrated by Tom Lichtenheld as well as the Spanishlanguage version, Buenas noches, construcción. Buenas noches, diversión, measures 10 inches high and 20 inches wide. The size of the board-book version is 5¾ by 6 inches. There is also an e-book format that will adhere to the size of smartphone or tablet screens, which generally measure smaller than a hardcover picture book. The e-book and boardbook versions of Goodnight,Goodnight, Construction Site both eliminate the depiction of the sun rising behind the construction site on the opening end pages (which is how the story and day begin) and the sun setting on the closing end pages showing that all the trucks have gone to sleep.
Many children’s books are also published in paperback editions. Paperbacks are less expensive and enable quality literature to be available within the economic reach of more families and classrooms. However, paperbacks are generally not as long-lasting as hardcover books which might be a consideration depending on the age of the child(ren) and the need for durability. Also, a paperback of a picture book may differ in size from the original. For example, Robert McCloskey’s classic Make Way for Ducklings(1941) paperback edition is approximately one-third the size of the original Caldecott Medal winner. This reduced size significantly affects the ability of a group of children to view McCloskey’s expressive illustrations, which might also impact their enjoyment and response to the story.
Unusual Formats
Some books stand out because of their unique format. When’s My Birthday? (Fogliano, 2017) echoes a question asked by young children: “when’s my birthday?/where’s my birthday?/how many days until my birthday?” Written in lowercase letters, the text has a frenetic pace that begs to be read aloud. The distinctive vertical design feature is the book’s tall, thin shape. When the book is open, the two pages form a square rather than a rectangle, as with most picture books. Lolly Robinson, a reviewer for HornBookMagazine, considered the odd shape of this book
and finally decided, “If a wide book reveals a story that covers a long time period, then the opposite makes sense about the frustrations of waiting for something to happen.” The narrator in When’s My Birthday? is anxiously awaiting her birthday, and the tall design calls for rapid page turns and the hurried passage of time. The book also resembles a birthday card.
Format should be used to make storytelling engaging and effective. Eric Carle’s The Very Busy Spider (1984) uses expansive white space to draw the eye to the spider and its web. On each page, strands of the spider’s web are raised offering a tactile experience and illustrating how a spider web develops from the outer edge and spokes to the full pattern of concentric circles. In the Caldecott Medal-winning wordless picture book MyFriendRabbit(2002), illustrator Eric Rohmann uses frames to create a comic effect while allowing huge animals such as an elephant and hippo to make sudden entrances from the side or top of the page. This technique artfully captures the expressions on the animals’ faces. The book format changes at a dramatic point in the story, requiring readers to tilt the book vertically to view the climactic spread showing a stack of very annoyed animals sitting on each other’s backs. Always consider how a picture book’s format enhances, rather than detracts from, the presentation of the story.
The graphic style of storytelling is gaining popularity with young children. You’ll find this comic-style format in the TOON Books for emergent readers and the Babymouseseries for children ready for a little more text. Jeff Smith’s LittleMouseGetsReady(2009) is one that children will relate to as Little Mouse puts on numerous articles of clothing, including underpants, socks, shoes, pants, and a shirt so that he can go to the barn with his mama and siblings. The comic-book format has limited text and one or two panels per page.
Jennifer L. Holm and Matthew Holm’s clever and adventurous heroine Babymouse has become a hit with readers attracted to the book’s comicstrip-style format containing black-and-white illustrations splashed with pink. The final book in the series, Babymouse #20:Babymouse Goesfor the Gold (2016), will delight readers with the antics of the sassy, wisecracking rodent, who has big dreams and wet whiskers, as she joins the swim team in hopes of winning a gold medal. The graphic format of these books and others is particularly attractive to visual learners, emergent and
reluctant readers, and multilingual learners because of the reliance on illustration rather than text to tell a story.
While there are unusual formats, classifications related to format generally identify types of books, the most common being board books, toy and novelty books, wordless picture books, and picture books. Other classifications are beginning-to-read books, early chapter books (which are often series), and chapter books.
Board Books
Board books are printed on heavy cardboard with rounded corners. They are designed considerably smaller than picture books, making them perfect for the small hands of babies and toddlers just learning how to handle books. Because of the stiffness of the pages, board books can be grasped and turned more easily than lighter-weight pages and are less likely to tear. The pages are generally laminated, making them easy to wipe off if the enjoyment of the reading experience includes chewing on the book.
Board books are generally designed to provide stories with simple direct plots or basic concepts. They also create a bonding moment when the sharing of the book has the infant sitting on a parent’s lap. Board books contain uncluttered and brightly colored illustrations of familiar objects, activities, food, or animals. Reading them might prompt a parent or caregiver to make the sounds of a cow, a pig, or a cat to engage the child in the experience. Even the action of turning the pages can elicit sheer delight from an infant or toddler. In addition, board books can nurture a love of books and reading, provide sensory stimulation in support of brain development, encourage language, and build knowledge about the world and how it works.
Originating during the 1930s, board books were made of thick cardboard that could be bitten or thrown with little to no damage. Tiny fingers with limited fine motor skills had difficulty turning the pages of a picture book, and paper cuts were common. Board books provided a safe alternative while allowing a young child to learn how a book “works” in orientation and directionality (Campbell, 2017).
The publication of board books has increased tremendously in recent years. In 2023, two board books received the inaugural Margaret Wise Brown Board Book Award for excellence in children’s literature: GiveMea Snickle!(2022) by Alisha Sevigny won in the 0–18 months range, and Me
andtheFamilyTree (2022) by Carole Boston Weatherford and illustrated by Ashleigh Corrin, won in the 18–36 months category.
Due to their small size, durability, and issues of cleanliness, board books are often not available in public libraries. This has prompted parents to seek them out in bookstores and through online vendors. Some of the most enjoyable and effective board books are those that are created specifically for the audience of infants and toddlers. Helen Oxenbury’s classic board books I Can (1995a), I Hear (1995b), I See (1995c), and I Touch (1995d) provide an excellent introduction to the senses for babies and invite interaction through language and movement. Emily Bolam’s board books contain bold colors and a tactile experience for toddlers as they explore eye-catching stripes and dazzling polka dots in Patterns (2018b) or cuddly bears and changing chameleons in Animals (2018a). Toddlers will enjoy interacting with Karen Katz’s lift-the-flap books, Baby Loves Summer! (2012), Where is Baby’s Puppy? (2011), or Zoom, Zoom, Baby! (2014). These theme-based board books contain bright, attractive art along with sturdy, easy-to-lift flaps that will engage even the most active two-year-old. Sandra Boynton’s board books are probably the most familiar and include PajamaTime!(2022), BellyButton Book(2023), and PeekabooRex!(2023).
Many board books have been adapted from books originally published as picture books. Take into consideration that these smaller versions may eliminate portions of the books, condense illustrations, or rewrite and simplify the text. Picture books usually contain 32 pages whereas board books are 12 pages—text or illustrations are altered to fit a condensed format. Some make the transition well like Hervé Tullet’s Press Here (2019), a highly interactive book that instructs readers and listeners to push the button, shake or tilt the book, and clap their hands to make the dots multiply and increase in size. As mentioned previously, the boardbook version of Goodnight,Goodnight,ConstructionSite(Rinker, 2017) is missing the pages from the picture book version. A better choice with the same construction theme would be Bulldozer’s Shapes: Goodnight, Goodnight, Construction Site (Rinker, 2019a) and Excavator’s 123: Goodnight, Goodnight Construction Site (Rinker, 2019b). These board books are specifically designed for the toddler audience and offer basic concepts focused on characters from the original picture book. Generally speaking, it is better to wait until a child can appreciate a particular story
than to reduce it in size for a younger audience. When assessing a board book, look at it as a new publication and judge it for its own merit.
Toy and Novelty Books
Toy books include a special feature that enables them to be played with as well as to be read. Often toy books contain materials like fabric that children can touch and feel. Where’s the Astronaut? (Arrhenius, 2019) celebrates the 50th anniversary of the moon landing by inviting young children to lift the felt flaps to discover four hidden space-themed characters. The last page asks, “And where are you?” with a mirror under the final moon flap. Nosy Crow publications have a variety of “Where’s the . . .?” books highlighting animals including a dog, duck, penguin, and bear. They also publish Camilla Reid’s board books containing a slide mechanism just right for small fingers. These titles include Peekaboo Apple(2020a), PeekabooFarm(2020b), and PeekabooMoon(2021). Rilla Alexander’s Animals (2019a) and Food (2019b) present a tactile experience as well as an opportunity to increase vocabulary. In Animals, a raised image of a familiar animal such as a cat, dog, frog, or cow appears on the right side of the book with the name of the animal in raised letters along with words describing the animal on the left side. For example, the words for a cat include ears, whiskers, claws, frisky, purring, and playing. Sharing Animalswill engage toddlers in touching the images; preschoolers will have the opportunity to learn new vocabulary associated with the different animals. This same format is used in Food.
Lift-the-flap books, such as those by Karen Katz mentioned previously, are considered toy books because they include interactive features. “Who needs to be tucked in?” is the question posed in the charming, TuckMe In! (Hacohen, 2010). Seven baby animals, from peacocks to pigs, are asked the same question and provide the identical response, “I do!” Readers then turn the page and lift the oversized flaps that serve as blankets covering each little creature. The vibrant colors and the adorable baby animals will engage children as much as the novelty of the flaps. In another lift-the-flap book, Bee, Dog, Elephant, Ladybug, and Penguin each have something inside their backpack in My Backpack! (Swanson, 2013). By lifting the flaps, the object is revealed. Additionally, the series of Sophie the Giraffe board books, which originated in France and are based on the popular toy, might be those to touch and feel as with Sophie lagirafe: GoodNight Sophie (2017) while others contain tabs and flaps
including Sophielagirafe: HideandSeek(2016). This chunky, beautifully illustrated board book features six easy-to-grab tabs and flaps that keep young children entertained as they play hide-and-seek with Sophie and her friends.
A recent study by Jeanne Shinskey (2016) explored toddlers’ interaction with lift-the-flap books to determine if two-year-olds learned the story vocabulary. The findings suggest that toddlers found the feature of the flaps distracting rather than enhancing their learning of new words. Shinskey’s recommendation, based on the study, was to consider this format as another type of physical toy rather than a tool for learning. As with any book, the enjoyment and learning that results is the interaction that is enhanced due to the participating parent, caregiver, or teacher.
Novelty books are usually highly interactive and go beyond lifting flaps to include pop-ups, jigsaw puzzle pieces, stickers, or other devices to engage children. While many of these books might not be as durable as board books, or even picture books, they do attract children’s attention and keep them entertained for repeated readings.
Janet and Allan Ahlberg encourage participation through pages constructed as envelopes in the classic The Jolly Postman or Other People’sLetters(1986/2006). This unique book has been in print for three decades but has never lost its appeal. The jolly postman rides around on his bicycle, delivering letters addressed to storybook characters. His mail deliveries include Baby Bear’s invitation to Goldilocks’ party and a letter to the wolf from the attorneys representing Little Red Riding Hood. Giveand Take (Félix, 2016) is a book of opposites containing shapes that can be removed and inserted on the next page. Young children, with the assistance of an adult, can practice early motor skills, shape recognition, sorting, and opposites.
Nothing captures the attention of a child more than a pop-up book. Toddlers can identify colors, numbers, shapes, and letters. In The Color Monster:APop-UpBookofFeelings(Llenas, 2015), they can also explore and discuss common emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, and fear. David E. Carter’s “bug” pop-up books are great for little ones including Bugs thatGo!:ABustlingPop-UpBook(2011) with bugs using all forms of transportation or Builder Bugs: A Busy Pop-Up Book (2012) which is construction themed where bugs are building, digging, hammering, and moving. Pop-up books are more fragile than other books
and often more expensive, but the visual display they provide will enchant children and adults.
Picture Books
The text and illustrations in picture books work in concert to create meaning. Picture books are a format (form/design) and not a genre (content), although sometimes the term genre is used to describe picture books as a whole. Generally, picture books are 32 pages, but may range from 24 to 48 pages. The illustrations integrate with the narrative to bring the story to a conclusion. The overall design serves to build a relationship between text and illustrations; this includes front matter, back matter, book jacket, casing, and end pages.
Contemporary picture books represent some of the finest storytelling and eye-catching art being created today. A Parade ofElephants (2018) by Kevin Henkes is an excellent example of a picture book for young children. The pastel purple cover shows three lines of elephants that are placed above and below the book title and Henkes’s name. Inside, the front end pages depict a sun and butterflies. Following the title page, there is a countdown of one to five elephants who are going marching, marching, marching. Concepts such as numbers, shapes, adjectives, and adverbs become part of the story. Bright pastel illustrations, large, readable font, and simple text will engage young children. The book concludes with end pages showing the moon and stars as the elephants’ day has come to an end.
Stories for young children are often filled with emotion that can be exhibited by people, animals, and even inanimate objects. In Bulldozer’s Big Day (Fleming, 2015), children will understand how the Bulldozer is feeling by looking at its changing expressions as the story progresses. The little Bulldozer is hopeful the other machinery remembers what day it is, but for them, it’s business as usual in scooping, sifting, filling, and lifting. Sheer happiness is exuded by the Bulldozer at the conclusion of the story as everyone gathers to celebrate his birthday. Different emotions are on display in Bulldozer Helps Out (Fleming, 2017) as Bulldozer attempts to show how he can handle a rough and tough job. Bulldozer’sChristmasDig (Fleming, 2021) is holiday themed as the little bulldozer digs up a most unexpected gift. These books by Henkes and Fleming prompt connections
and comments from children as they can relate to emotions they may have felt as well.
Over the years, text and illustrations in picture books have become more sophisticated. A good example is Jon Klassen’s “hat trilogy.” IWant MyHatBack(2011) tells of a bear who has lost his hat and politely asks a series of animals if they have seen it. All deny having knowledge of the whereabouts of this missing head covering but observant readers will notice a rabbit wearing a red hat. At the conclusion of the story, the bear is shown with a red hat on his head and the rabbit is nowhere to be seen. Did he eat the offending bunny? This book provides a perfect example for allowing children to come to their own conclusion as to the rabbit’s fate. In This Is Not My Hat (2012) the hat-wearing thief openly admits to stealing the blue bowler on his head. He rationalizes that the hat didn’t even fit the big sleeping fish so there was no harm in taking it. This second “hat” book received the Caldecott Medal. The third book, We Founda Hat (2016), focuses on two turtles who have found a 10-gallon hat. The hat looks good on both of them, but there are two turtles and one hat, so what should they do? All three books by Klassen evoke hilarity and empathy while highlighting visual comedy and deceptive simplicity. The open-endings of the stories make these books appropriate for a range of ages.
Because picture book denotes a format, it is important to remember these books do not indicate the interest level or reading ability of young children. Children of all ages and grade levels enjoy listening to and reading picture books. The topics presented vary in complexity so parents, caregivers, teachers, and librarians should pre-read them before sharing the books to determine if the content is appropriate for the intended audience.
Wordless Picture Books
Wordless picture books are exactly what the name implies. They are books containing no text and showcase the art of visual storytelling (Salisbury & Styles, 2012). Wordless picture books can be used to develop language and thinking skills in young children. They assist very young children in becoming accustomed to the left-to-right pattern of reading. More importantly, these books enhance emergent readers’ ability to detect sequence, identify details, note cause-and-effect relationships, generate judgments, determine main ideas, and make inferences. Wordless picture
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Cross-examined by Mr Alley.—Q. Which of the prisoners took the handkerchief?
A. They both had hold of it: the biggest, Vaux, let go immediately.
Q. Then you mean to swear they both took it?
A. Yes.
Q. Which pocket was it taken from?
A. The left-hand coat-pocket.
Q. You know there is a reward, if these two poor boys are convicted. Was it you that advised the prosecutor to lay this indictment capital?
A. The grand jury found the bill. (Witness ordered to withdraw.)
Thomas Alderman sworn.—“I was with my brother. I saw both the prisoners very busy, lifting up the lids of people’s pockets. Bromley took a gentleman’s handkerchief, on which my brother seized him. I apprehended Vaux. He had got away to some distance from the crowd.”
Cross-examined by Mr. Alley.—Q. What are you, Sir?
A. I am a tailor, and a constable of the city.
Q. So you thought you could get more by prosecuting these two poor young lads, than by sitting on your shop-board at work?
A. I did my duty.
Q. Who took the handkerchief?
A. Bromley took it out, and Vaux laid hold of the corner, to take it from Bromley.
Q. Which pocket was it in, the right or the left?
A. The right-hand pocket[42] .
Q. Now, Sir, you know these poor lads are trying for an offence, for which they are liable to be hanged, if they are convicted: I ask you, upon the oath you have taken, whether you ever heard of two persons putting their hands in a man’s pocket at once?
A. I never did.
Q. Then if your brother has said so, he has told a lie?
A. That he certainly has. (A general laugh in the court.)
[The handkerchief produced and identified by the prosecutor, from its similitude to the one he lost.]
Bromley called four witnesses, and Vaux two witnesses, who gave them a good character.
Bromley’s defence.—“I picked the handkerchief up in the crowd.”
Thus ended this curious trial, to the general dissatisfaction of a crowded audience, who expressed their sentiments by loud and distinct murmurs. The jury returned the above verdict, in order to reduce the offence to a simple felony, by finding the value of the property under one shilling, stealing from the person to which amount is death. My father, together with Mr. Kirby, the keeper of Newgate, stood at my elbow during the whole trial, and both advised me to make the laconic defence I did. It was their firm belief, that I should be acquitted, and the result surprised them much. The witnesses to Bromley’s character were tailors, with whom he had formerly worked; those in my favour, were very respectable tradesmen, adduced by my father. On leaving the bar, the latter, as well as Mr. Kirby, comforted me with the assurance, that the court would only impose a small fine[43] upon us; and my father promised
to use all his interest, and that of his friends with the Recorder, previous to the latter passing sentence, for which end Mr. Kirby advised a petition to be immediately prepared. This task I accomplished the next day, and delivered it to my father for presentation.
Both Bromley and myself (buoyed up by the assurances abovementioned,) entertained the fullest hopes that our sentence would be lenient. On the last day of the session, according to custom, all the prisoners convicted, were brought into court, to receive judgment. Those capitally convicted were first put to the bar, and received the awful sentence of death; after which a few were ordered to be transported for fourteen years; and then forty persons were called in succession, (among whom were myself and Bromley,) and being placed at the bar, the whole forty were collectively sentenced to seven years transportation, beyond the high seas! This severe doom affected us both in a very great degree. I, for my part, was inconsolable, and shed tears in abundance. My father, on visiting me the next day, professed much concern, and would have still flattered me with hopes of a reverse; but I have since had good reason to believe, that instead of using his influence in my favour, he secretly approved of the event, conceiving, I suppose, that sending me out of the country, might save me from a still worse fate; and, that this was therefore, (to use the common phrase of parents on such occasions,) the best thing that could have happened for me.
After the first effects of our grief had subsided, the society of our fellow-prisoners, and the bustle constantly prevailing in the prison, soon banished every trace of sorrow, and we became as cheerful as the best. My father and mother paid me every attention, and the produce of my own effects was fully adequate to my support for several months: when that resource failed, my father contributed his mite; and with the help of another friend or two, I was comparatively comfortable during my continuance in Newgate. As for Bromley, his father, on hearing his sad fate, had allotted him a weekly pittance, sufficient, with care, to keep him above want.
About a month after the close of the session, the gaol being unusually crowded with prisoners, a most dreadful contagion, called
the gaol fever, made its appearance, and spread so universally, throughout every ward and division of the prison, that very few escaped its attack. I was one of the first to contract it, and was immediately carried to the infirmary, or sick-ward of the prison, where I only remember having my irons taken off, and being put to bed; for the same night, I became delirious, and was so dreadfully affected, as to continue insensible for three weeks, during which time, I had no knowledge of my parents, or of any other person who approached me; and the fever raged to such a degree, that I was obliged to be bound in my bed, in order to restrain me from acts of mischief. My poor companion, Bromley, was attacked about the same time as myself; and, on recovering my reason, I found him laid in the adjacent bed to my own, and was informed his sufferings had been equally grievous with mine. It pleased God, however, to restore us both to perfect health; but numerous were the unhappy persons who fell victims to this dire disease.
It is usual to make occasional draughts of convicts under sentence of transportation, from Newgate to the Hulks at Woolwich, Portsmouth, &c., on board of which receptacles they continue until a ship is in readiness, to convey them to New South Wales. Few prisoners are suffered to remain above three months in the prison, after their conviction. A longer continuance is effected either by bribery or interest. My father, having heard a shocking account of the Hulks, had waited on Mr. Kirby, the gaoler, soon after my receiving sentence, and obtained a promise that I should remain in Newgate, until a ship was on the point of sailing for this colony; and herein, he was as good as his word.—My father, at length received a private intimation from Mr. Kirby, that he had no time to lose in arranging matters for my departure: accordingly, with the assistance of two or three other friends, my father contrived to pack up a few of the most necessary comforts for my use on the passage, which he afterwards sent to Portsmouth by the coach. On the 15th of May, 1801, my father, mother, and sisters, came to take a final leave of me; there was something solemn in this scene, which affected me much, though our mutual regard was not of the most violent nature. I also took leave of my companion in adversity, who, by what means I know not, still remained in Newgate, but was shortly after my
departure, removed to the hulks at Portsmouth.—The next morning (May 16th,) at four o’clock, myself, and thirteen others, who had been all kept back for this opportunity, were attached together by a strong chain, and escorted by the keeper and his subordinates to Blackfriars-bridge, where a lighter was in readiness to receive us, in which we proceeded down the river Thames to Gravesend, and about noon arrived alongside the Minorca transport, Captain Leith, bound for Port-Jackson, in company with the Canada and Nile, which ships were also lying at this anchorage, for the purpose of receiving their prisoners on board.
CHAPTER XIV.
Sail from England. Account of our Voyage. Arrive at Port Jackson. Write in my own behalf to Commissary Palmer. That Gentleman is pleased to notice my Application. Land at Sydney, and am carried before Governor King. A curious Dialogue between His Excellency and myself. Ordered to Hawkesbury, as Store-keeper’s Clerk.
Having entered the ship, we were all indiscriminately stripped, (according to indispensable custom) and were saluted with several buckets of salt-water, thrown over our heads by a boatswain’s-mate. After undergoing this watery ordeal, we were compelled to put on a suit of slop-clothing. Our own apparel, though good in kind, being thrown overboard. We were then double-ironed, and put betweendecks, where we selected such births, for sleeping, &c., as each thought most eligible. The next day, we received on board forty-six more prisoners, from the Hulks at Woolwich, and the Canada fifty. The Nile also took on board one hundred women, from the different gaols in Great Britain. The three ships then sailed for Spithead, where, on our arrival, the Minorca and Canada had their numbers augmented, from the Hulks at Portsmouth, to one hundred men each. Every thing being now in readiness, we only waited for the convoy to assemble, with which we were to proceed to a certain latitude.
During this interval, I wrote the first intimation of my unhappy state, to my dear and honoured grandfather, palliating the facts as much as possible, and positively denying any criminal connexion between myself and Bromley. This I did, in order to save those heart-rending pangs, which I knew my venerable and virtuous benefactors would suffer, if they had been acquainted with the dissolute life I had for some time led. In a few days, I received a long and most affectionate letter from my grandfather, in which he deplored the harshness of my destiny; but far from aggravating my sufferings by reflections on my manifold indiscretions, this good old man laboured only to press my
resignation to the dispensations of Providence, and to exhort me, by my future conduct, to make atonement for the past. He added a great deal of good advice, as to my behaviour in the degraded state to which I was reduced, concluding with his blessing, and that of my grandmother, and a most pathetic and tender farewell.—I had assured my grandfather in my letter, that no extension of pecuniary aid could at all ameliorate my situation, as I had a sufficient store of necessary comforts for my voyage: my motive for this assurance, was, to prevent him from distressing himself still further in his old age on an object so worthless as myself, by whose expensive adoption and education, he and the partner of his griefs were already reduced to a state bordering on indigence, aggravated by mental anxiety and sorrow for me, the unworthy cause.
On the 21st of June, we sailed from Spithead, in company with about three hundred sail of merchantmen, bound to various ports, under convoy of a frigate and a sloop of war. The convoy parted from us soon after we passed the Canary Islands, and our three ships proceeded in company. A few days after we put to sea, I was noticed by Captain Leith, to whom I had (as my grandfather advised me) offered the services of my pen, &c. The captain, in consequence, employed me during the voyage in writing his Log, Journal, and other accompts, and extended to me all the indulgence my situation would admit of. The latter end of August we arrived at Rio de Janeiro, where we had every refreshment the place afforded, and, after a continuance of thirty days, we resumed our voyage. Nothing worthy of notice occurred therein; our little squadron kept company until we made the Harbour of Port Jackson, which we did on the 14th of December, and the same day came to an anchor in Sydney-cove.
Among my fellow-prisoners, was a young man named Calvert, with whom I had become very intimate. In the course of our passage, this person had shewn me an open letter of recommendation to John Palmer, Esq., then Commissary of New South Wales, which was from a particular friend of the latter gentleman, and pleaded strongly in favour of the bearer. A few days before our arrival, it occurred to me, that a humble application in my own behalf to Mr. Palmer might have the effect of obtaining for me some little distinction, as I heard a
most amiable character of him, and conceived my services might not be unacceptable in his public department. I therefore wrote a respectful letter, which I consigned to the care of Captain Leith, who promised not only to deliver it himself, but to speak in my favour, both to Mr. Palmer and his Excellency the governor.
The second day after our arrival, several gentlemen came on board, to muster and inspect the prisoners: among the number was Mr. Palmer himself, who, having received my letter, was pleased to tell me, in the kindest manner, that he had mentioned me to the Governor, and that I might accordingly expect a favourable appointment on my landing. The majority of the prisoners were sent up the country, the day after the muster, to various kinds of labour, but myself and a few others, were detained on board until the 19th, on which day we landed at Sydney, and were immediately conducted to Government-House, in order to be severally examined and disposed of by Governor King. We were called in succession for our audience; and, when it came to my turn, I entered the room with a respectful bow to the gentlemen assembled; for there were seated at a table, several officers of the colony, besides his Excellency. The latter, however, I soon distinguished by his manner of addressing me, and as the particulars of this interview may afford some entertainment to those who were not acquainted with the eccentric character of Governor King, I shall give the reader our conversation in dialogue, as near as my memory will permit.
Governor. (Regarding me from head to foot, with a most inquisitive eye, or rather four eyes, for he wore spectacles, and, with a manner, the very reverse to encouraging) “Well, Mr. Vaux, what were you sent here for?”
Vaux. (Of course a little embarrassed at this unexpected question, so abruptly put,) “Sir, I had the misfortune to be acquainted with a person of bad character, who in my company committed”⸺
Governor (Interrupting me impatiently) “But Mr Vaux, come to the point at once. I don’t want you to come round here, and then back again, and round the other way, (drawing circles on the table with his finger, and all the while staring at me, which indeed he continued to
do as long as I remained in the room, as if determined to put me out of countenance); recollect, Mr. Vaux, you are not at the bar of the Old Bailey now. Come to the point, Sir, come to the point. I ask you what you were sent here for?”
Vaux. “Sir, I was charged with picking a gentleman’s pocket, but, though your Excellency may doubt my assertion, I solemnly assure you, I was innocent of that fact.”
Governor. (with a most satirical smile, and throwing himself back in his chair) “O, I dare say, Mr. Vaux, very innocent no doubt. Quite innocent, I dare say So the long and the short of it is, you were sent here for picking pockets.”
Vaux. “I confess, Sir, that was the charge.”
Governor. “What have you been brought up to, Mr. Vaux?”
Vaux. “Sir, I have been chiefly employed in the law; but I profess to be a clerk in general.”
Governor. “Pray, Sir, what office were you in last?”
Vaux. “Sir, the last gentleman I served was Mr. Preston, in King’s Bench Walk.”
Governor. (With a frown) “That I very much doubt, Sir; that I very much doubt, Sir; that I very much doubt, Mr. Vaux.”
Vaux. “I am sorry your Excellency has so bad an opinion of me; I assure you, Sir, it is the fact.”
Governor. “Well, Mr. Vaux, I shall send you to a place, where your roguery will very soon be found out.”
Vaux. “I hope not, your Excellency; I trust you will have”⸺
Governor (Interrupting) “Well, I hope so too, Mr Vaux; I hope so too, I hope so too, Sir; but mind—I only give you a caution; take care of yourself.”
Then hastily scribbling a few words on a scrap of paper, he handed it to me, and ordering a light-horseman to attend me, made a motion for me to withdraw, which I was glad enough to do, in order to
be relieved from this embarrassing examination.—On going out, the horseman informed me he had orders to see myself and baggage on board the Parramatta passage-boat; the paper I had received proved to be an order to the boatman to that effect, and on the reverse was a memorandum, purporting that I was appointed clerk to Mr. Baker, Store-keeper at Hawkesbury. Both these documents were signed P. G. K., as was his usual custom; but the whole so unintelligibly written, that it cost me much pains and some inquiry to decipher them.—I now took up my little box, and my bed, and was conducted to the wharf, where I found the boat on the point of departure. After a pleasant passage, we arrived at Parramatta, at which place I rested the ensuing day, and, on Monday the 21st, continued my journey by land to Hawkesbury, a distance of twenty-six miles. On this occasion I joined a party of travellers, accompanied by a cart in which I had deposited my luggage; these persons formed a sort of caravan, and were all well-armed, the natives being at this time in a state of warfare, and the roads thereby rendered dangerous. Late in the evening we arrived at Hawkesbury, and being directed to Mr. Baker’s house, I immediately presented myself and my credentials to that gentleman.
CHAPTER XV.
My Conduct at Hawkesbury. Continue for three Years to give Satisfaction to my Principal. Ordered by Governor King into the Secretary’s Office. Give way to the Temptations with which I am surrounded, and begin to lead a dissipated Life in company with some other Clerks. Concert a System of Fraud upon the King’s Stores, which we practise successfully for some Time. The Imposition is at length detected I am in consequence dismissed the Office and sent to hard Labour, for the first Time in my Life
Mr. Baker received me with kindness, and great pleasure, as, my predecessor having quitted him some weeks before, he was at a loss for a proper assistant. In a few days I had a comfortable residence assigned me by the commanding officer of the settlement, and my duty being exempted from all hard labour, and of such a nature as I found pleasure in performing, I soon felt myself comparatively happy.—With retrospective satisfaction, I can truly say, that I behaved in this situation with so much propriety as to obtain the favour of my principal, and the good opinion of the resident magistrate, Dr. Arndell, whose four children I attended at my leisure hours, in the quality of preceptor. Both this gentleman and Mr. Baker vied with each other, in shewing me every mark of kindness in their power.—Mr. Baker informed me that Governor King made frequent and particular inquiries of him respecting my conduct, and I felt the highest gratification from the reflection that I had happily falsified his Excellency’s uncharitable prediction as to my real character. Mr. Palmer also, who had been the first kind promoter of my good fortune, made similar inquiries of Mr. Baker, and from the report he received of my talents, expressed a desire to transfer me from Hawkesbury to the Commissary’s Office at Sydney, in which department there was then a great press of business, and expert clerks were not, at that period, so numerous as at present. Mr. Baker, however, being unwilling to part with me, paid no attention to the wish of Mr. Palmer, until the latter gentleman at length ordered in direct terms, by an official letter, that I should be immediately sent to
Sydney The Governor coming up to Hawkesbury a day or two afterwards, Mr. Baker represented to his Excellency, the inconvenience he should suffer, if he was deprived of my assistance, and obtained an order from him to retain me in his service. This arrangement was not at all satisfactory to me, for I had long felt an earnest desire to be employed in the commissariat, as the public accompts therein kept, were of such a description as I always took delight in, and I still flatter myself that from my quickness in figures, I should be perfectly at home in such a situation. However I was not to be gratified on that occasion, and I continued in the service of Mr Baker about three years. I had, in fact, reconciled myself to the idea of serving out my full term of banishment with this worthy man; but on a sudden, a letter was received by Mr. Arndell from Governor King, ordering my instant removal to Sydney, for the purpose of assisting as a clerk in the Secretary’s Office, which, as it was then established might be, and was generally, called the Governor’s Office, being attached to Government House, and under the immediate personal direction of the Governor himself. Though this preferment seemed to hold out a prospect of future advantage, and to confer increased respectability, it was with some regret I quitted my comfortable little house and garden at “The Green Hills[44],” where I had led a life of innocence and peaceful retirement; whereas I was now about to enter a vortex of dissipation, folly and wickedness, for such was Sydney compared to my late place of abode.
The Governor received me very graciously, allotted me a neat brick-house in the vicinity of the office, and a government-man, victualled from the King’s-stores, as a servant. For two or three months I continued very steady, and formed but few acquaintances. The Governor behaved to me with great liberality, and refused me no reasonable request. By degrees, however, I began to degenerate. I increased my acquaintance among the Commissary’s and some other clerks, most of whom lived an expensive and dissipated life. All I can say in my own favour, is that I continued to be regular in my attendance at the office, and was never found defective, or incapable of my duty; but no sooner was I at my own disposal than I eagerly
sought my dissipated companions, and spent the rest of the day in drinking, and other irregularities, sometimes at public or disorderly houses, and frequently at my own, where I had often the expensive pleasure of entertaining a large party of my fellow-scribes at my own cost. This course of life unavoidably drew me into great expenses, and I contracted several debts. Governor King, whose vigilant observation nothing of this sort could escape, gave me frequent and serious admonitions for my good; but I was so infatuated as to disregard all advice, and only thought of devising pecuniary means to continue my licentious career This was no easy task, as the nature of business in the Secretary’s Office afforded few opportunities of realizing money by fraud, at least without the assistance of one or more confederates in a neighbouring department. The expensive rate at which the Commissary’s clerks constantly lived, had become matter of surprise to the Governor as well as the magistrates, and was the theme of much conjecture among the inhabitants of Sydney. Still, though it was palpable they had recourse to fraud, they managed matters so adroitly that no irregularity could be detected; and the efforts of the executive authority, to develope their system, continued unavailing.
It was the custom of Governor King, as I have before observed, to use only his initials as a signature on common occasions, and by application and practice I acquired a knack of imitating this signmanual with sufficient accuracy to impose upon the parties to whom the superscription was addressed. Finding these three letters to have the magical effect of procuring for me whatever articles I required, from the King’s-stores, I availed myself of their talismanic power, and converting the goods so obtained into money, I discharged my debts, and figured away with increased eclat, among my fellow-clerks. As it was, however, both impolitic and dangerous to carry this branch of fraud too far, or practice it too frequently, I at length found means to form a connexion with two or three of my most experienced friends, and we concerted such a system of ways and means as promised liberally to supply our wants, and, while we continued true to each other, seemed to preclude a possibility of detection.
As I do not conceive myself justified in exposing either the parties who were my colleagues, or the particular nature of our artifices, let it suffice to inform the reader, that (as is indeed usually and deservedly the fate of all sinister practices) a mere and most unexpected accident, and for which none of us could attach blame to ourselves, discovered to the Governor a principal branch of that prolific tree of fraud and imposition, from whose productive fruitfulness we had so abundantly derived the means of gratifying our folly and intemperance, which we at that time miscalled a love of pleasure; but (to continue the metaphor) the root and body of this tree, still remained hidden from the strict and rigid search set on foot by the Governor, and after this transitory alarm had subsided, proved to its remaining adherents, a source of supply for a considerable time. It so happened that I was the ostensible party in the particular affair which led to this discovery; and Governor King immediately took the most active measures to effect a full developement of that system which he well knew to be the ground-work of mal-practices to a considerable extent.
With this view I underwent several private examinations before his Excellency and some of the principal officers, and great promises were held out to extract information from me, but without effect, as I was determined not to betray my friends, whose ruin could not at all palliate my guilt, or, as I conceived, render me a whit more deserving of mercy. I therefore persisted in asserting my innocence of the present charge, and disclaimed all knowledge of fraud in any other person.
The Governor was so much exasperated at my obstinacy, that he at length had recourse (as a dernier resort,) to the expedient of flogging to extort confession. I must, however, (for justice sake,) acknowledge that such cruelty was rarely exercised by Governor King, who in his cooler moments was a most humane character. To the honour of our present governor (Macquarrie,) be it recorded, that not only this inhuman practice is exploded, but corporal punishment is seldom inflicted at all, and when rendered necessary, it is used with moderation.
To resume, the Governor finding me firm in my resolution to give him no satisfaction, ordered Dr. Harris, who was present, to take me to the jail-yard, send for the public executioner, and there to give me five-and-twenties, (this was his phrase,) till I confessed the whole truth. Pursuant to this order I accompanied Mr. Harris to the appointed spot, and while the finisher of the law was arranging matters for the approaching ceremony, the Doctor used all his art of persuasion to induce me for my own sake, to avoid the disgrace and pain of a correction, which he must, if I continued obstinate, inflict in its fullest extent.
There was certainly much justice in this gentleman’s arguments, and, although I am confident I could have summoned up resolution to have continued silent under the threatened chastisement, yet, on mature reflection, I was convinced of the folly of such a conduct, as there was already sufficient and incontrovertible proof of guilt against me. I, therefore, determined to acknowledge my errors, and submit my fate to the Governor’s pleasure. Of this intention I acquainted Mr. Harris, who immediately stayed the proceedings about to take place, and supplying me with pen and paper, desired me to write my declaration, which he would himself convey to the Governor. In the letter I hastily composed, I informed his Excellency, that feelings of remorse and regret for my ill conduct, rather than a fear of punishment, had induced me to confess to him that I was guilty of the charge brought against me on the present occasion, and with shame I acknowledged having repeatedly transgressed in a similar manner, in order to defray the expenses of the unbecoming course of life I had imprudently fallen into. But I positively declared that no other person whatever was privy to my numerous acts of fraud, as those counterfeit documents framed by me, had passed through the usual official channels as genuine; and, consequently, the parties who had admitted and sanctioned them, were utterly guiltless of connivance, and had done no more than their duty. I added, that I knew how justly I deserved to suffer for my faults; but I also knew that mercy was the predominant sentiment in His Excellency’s bosom, and on that mercy I therefore most humbly threw myself.
Doctor Harris immediately proceeded to Government-house with my letter, and I was soon afterwards summoned to follow in person. His Excellency seemed not displeased at the course I had adopted, and he was now in a very mild and placid mood. After expatiating at some length, and in a serio-comic strain, with his usual eccentricity, on the ill return I had made for his favours, and so forth, he was pleased to order me back to the jail, but in a tone that indicated no severity of intention. It gave me much concern, however, that notwithstanding all I had before said, or could now protest on the subject, the Governor ordered a young man in a confidential situation under government, to be dismissed from his office, under an impression that he was privy to the fraud in question. It is true indeed, this person, by the injudicious defence he made, was the cause of his own misfortune, and had very nearly, from his statement being at variance with mine, contributed to ruin all my hopes of belief. But the Governor, who though shrewd at times, was not at all times a Solomon, thought proper to credit my assertion, and reject the evidence of the other party, as too improbable to be received.
The next morning early, an order came to the prison from his Excellency, that I was to be double-ironed, and put to the hardest labour, in common with those incorrigible characters composing what is called the jail-gang: I was in consequence set to work at mending the public-roads, &c. &c., and as I had never before used a heavier tool than a goose-quill, I found this penance to bear hard upon me, and repented me of the evil which had brought me to this woeful condition.
CHAPTER XVI.
Draughted to Castle-hill. Variously employed there. Appointed Clerk to the Settlement. Again noticed by the Governor. Summoned to Parramatta, by the Rev. Mr. Marsden. Appointed Magistrate’s Clerk, and begin once more to lead an easy Life. Preparations for the Governor’s Departure. Mr. Marsden gives me hopes of accompanying himself and the Governor to England, in His Majesty’s Ship Buffalo My pleasing Sensations at the Prospect of revisiting my Native Land
I continued to labour in double-irons, (locked up every night in the jail,) for about a month, when a draught of men being ordered to the public agricultural settlement of Castle-hill, twenty-four miles from Sydney, I was included in the number, and about twenty of us were immediately sent up, escorted by constables. Notwithstanding my condition in the jail-gang was deplorable enough, I felt a greater depression at the thoughts of going to this settlement, a place of which, from every account, I had conceived the most unfavourable idea. Though I suffered much in Sydney, by being obliged to work till three o’clock in so disgraceful a situation, yet when that hour released me from the restraint of the overseer, I was enabled to visit my friends and acquaintances, with whom I enjoyed myself till sunset, when I was obliged to return to the jail, and was locked up for the night. On the contrary, Castle-hill being considered a place of punishment, the prisoners there, who were sent up under circumstances like mine, were not allowed to quit the settlement at all. On arriving at Castle-hill, I was first employed at the hoe, which severe labour was so fatiguing to me, that it had nearly the effect of breaking my heart. However, I contrived at times to obtain a lighter employment: and during the term of my remaining at this settlement, I had a spell at almost every kind of work peculiar to the place.
After a few weeks had elapsed, I prevailed on the superintendent (Mr. Knight,) who had conceived a partiality for me, to grant me a pass to Parramatta, eight miles distant, and sixteen from Sydney. I
had an anxious wish to visit the latter place, but Mr Knight had no power to extend his permission so far, and I knew that application to the magistrates at Parramatta would be fruitless. I, therefore, determined to hazard a flogging, which would be the consequence of my detection, and to take the wished-for trip without leave or license. This being Friday, and my week’s work done, I accordingly set off, accompanied by two or three others, similarly circumstanced, and after six hours’ walking arrived at Sydney. Here I lay concealed in the house of a friend till Sunday noon, when I again set out proceeding with the utmost caution, and arrived at Castle-hill the same night, conformable to the tenor of my pass. As I experienced nothing but misery and privation during five days in each week, and found such enjoyments in Sydney, I repeated my excursion almost every succeeding Friday, but was not always equally fortunate in my proceedings. The police in Sydney having some information of my visits, were constantly on the look-out for me, and I was at last apprehended, punished with fifty lashes, and sent back in custody of a constable. This did not deter me, however, from running the same risk at several subsequent periods, only redoubling my precautions, and travelling in the night.
I had been about ten months at Castle-hill, when the person who had officiated as clerk of the camp, (that is, clerk to the superintendent,) becoming a free man, quitted the settlement, and I being the only one qualified for such an office, and in some favour with Mr. Knight, was promoted to the situation. I now found myself perfectly at ease, and the more so from having been so long kept at hard labour, for which I was but ill adapted. My duty consisted in measuring the daily portion of ground to the different gangs who were breaking up, chipping, &c., keeping a daily account of the various works carried on, mustering the prisoners every Monday morning, writing passes at the week’s end, assisting in the issue of provisions from the store, &c. &c.; and as these duties were all perfectly familiar to me I acquitted myself with credit, and, by observing a proper conduct, gained the good will of all parties.
Governor King was frequently in the habit of visiting the settlement, for the purpose of personally inspecting the state of
things, and as he had received favourable accounts of my general conduct, he began about this time to notice me in a manner that shewed (I thought,) an inclination to restore me to his wonted favour. But as I had now little more than a year of my time unexpired, and was tolerably comfortable in my new situation, I had so far reconciled myself, that I was but little anxious about a removal, until the hour of my freedom arrived. However, it was destined otherwise, and I underwent another very unexpected change of fortune. In the beginning of August 1806, I was suddenly summoned by a special messenger, to attend on the Reverend Mr Marsden, the chief magistrate of Parramatta. I immediately obeyed this summons, of the cause of which I could form no conjecture. On my arrival at the courthouse, Mr. Marsden informed me, that he had sent for me to assist him in taking a muster of the inhabitants of Parramatta, and the surrounding districts, which was to commence that very day, and to form part of a general muster throughout the colony, at this period in progress. I felt myself a little flattered by this distinction, as Mr. Marsden had already a clerk, but it seems he was not sufficiently quick, and it was known that I had before frequently officiated on similar occasions. I assured Mr. Marsden that I would with pleasure undertake the task, and at the appointed hour we proceeded to business. The muster occupied two whole days, and, being ended, Mr. Marsden told me that his clerk, having received a free pardon from Governor King, was about to quit the colony in a few days, and that it was his intention to appoint me his successor, promising, if I behaved well, to shew me every indulgence in his power. He then desired I would go back to Castle-hill, for the purpose of arranging my affairs, and return as soon as possible to Parramatta. I lost no time in obeying these orders, and the following day again presented myself to Mr. Marsden. I was immediately put in possession of the court-house, a comfortable brick building, surrounded by a good garden, which was to be my place of residence. I was allowed a government servant, and also an old man as housekeeper: the latter being equal to any little services I wanted, I was enabled to permit the former to work for his own living, allowing me a weekly sum for the indulgence, according to the custom of the colony, and as he had hitherto done to my predecessor. In addition to this privilege, I was
allowed various fees in the course of my public duties, agreeably to a code or table sanctioned by the magistrates, so that upon the whole my income was sufficient to support me in a manner becoming the respectability of my appointment. Mr. Marsden and his colleague in the commission, Captain Abbot, were accustomed to preside as a bench of magistrates every Saturday, and sometimes alternately on other days in each week. On these occasions it was my duty to take depositions, write out warrants, commitments, &c. &c. I had besides to keep a general account of all public work in Parramatta, compiled from the reports of the different overseers, &c. In this situation, my knowledge of the law, and my acquaintance with Burn’s Justice proved of the utmost advantage, as there were many cases constantly occurring, in which certain formalities (dispensed with before my appointment,) gave an official aspect to the proceedings of the court, and added a solemnity productive of the best effects. Upon the whole I found myself very comfortably situated, and I had the pleasure to observe that my exertions to acquit myself in the most becoming manner, procured me the consideration such a conduct merited, from the gentlemen under whom I acted.
In the month of October following my removal to Parramatta, the departure of Governor King for England, in His Majesty’s Ship Buffalo, was publicly announced to take place in the ensuing month, his Excellency’s successor, Governor Bligh, having arrived in the preceding August, on the 13th of which month the latter assumed the supreme command. Since the period of his supersession, Governor King had principally resided at Parramatta, and I was frequently employed by him in arranging his private accounts, transcribing directions to his agents respecting his farms, live-stock, &c., and various other matters. On these occasions he treated me with the greatest politeness, and appeared to have quite forgot my former delinquencies. One day Mr. Marsden questioned me as to the length of time I had to serve, and on my answering eleven months, he distantly hinted that if he could depend on my future good conduct, he was not without hopes of prevailing on Governor King to procure a remission of my remaining term, and allow me a passage to England in his own ship; adding, that himself and family were about proceeding to Europe by the same opportunity. This being an event
