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Introducing the History of the English Language

This essential new text provides a comprehensive, modern account of how the English language originated, developed, changed, and continues to morph into new forms in contemporary society. Introducing the History of the English Language first offers a rigorous, approachable introduction to the building blocks of language itself and then traces English language usage’s messy development in society, beginning with its origins in the Indo-European language family and continuing chronologically through the Old, Middle, Modern, and present-day forms.

Seth Lerer deftly tells this story not as a tale of standards and authority but of differences and diversity. He draws on public and private literary sources from different regions and those in different social classes, highlighting sources from women and people of color – and introduces readers to the effects of technology on English, and the politics of dialect and racial, gender, regional, and class identity across these periods. Further, this text extensively addresses the rich diversity of English varieties, with innovative, focused chapters dedicated to American English, African American English, global English, and virtual English.

Requiring no prior knowledge of language history or linguistics, offering an array of supplemental activities as online support material, and taking a socially motivated approach to pedagogy that seeks to generate productive reflection and discussion about language difference and politics, this book enables and encourages the twenty-first-century student in the United States to see their own language use as deeply implicated in power dynamics and social relationships.

Seth Lerer is Distinguished Professor of Literature Emeritus at the University of California at San Diego, where he has also served as Dean of Arts and Humanities. His publications include Chaucer and His Readers (1993), Error and the Academic Self (2002), Inventing English (revised edition, 2015), Children’s Literature: A Reader’s History from Aesop to Harry Potter (2008), and Shakespeare’s Lyric Stage (2018). He has published creative non-fiction in The American Scholar, The Yale Review, the Los Angeles Review of Books, and in his memoir, Prospero’s Son (2013).

“With elegance and clarity, and relying on recent developments in sociolinguistic thinking and methodology, Lerer’s Introducing the History of the English Language rights the imbalances of previous accounts by stressing English’s constant diversity. This important book is likely to become the standard textbook for the foreseeable future.”

William Machan, University of Notre Dame, USA

“Sensitive to both literature and lived experience, Seth Lerer’s Introducing the History of the English Language offers an accessible guide to English and its many voices. This is the modern, user-friendly textbook I have been waiting for.”

Irina Dumitrescu, University of Bonn, Germany

Introducing the History of the English Language

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lerer, Seth, 1955– author.

Title: Introducing the history of the English language / Seth Lerer.

Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2024. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2023035948 (print) | LCCN 2023035949 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032129716 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032129693 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003227083 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: English language—History.

Classification: LCC PE1075 .I85 2024 (print) | LCC PE1075 (ebook) | DDC 420.9—dc23/eng/20231106

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023035948

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023035949

ISBN: 978-1-032-12971-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-12969-3 (pbk)

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0.1 A schematic representation of the human head, with the organs of speech production identified

1.1 A schematic representation of the relationships among the Indo-European language groups

1.2 A wave model of the Indo-European languages, visually illustrating affinities

4.1 The major Middle English dialects

4.2 Middle English dialect variation according to key words and sounds

5.1 The “pull chain” representation of the Great Vowel Shift

5.2 Changes in pronunciation during the Great Vowel Shift

7.1 John Wallis’s chart of English sounds

7.2 John Wilkins’s illustration of the shapes of the mouth and English sounds

9.1 Distribution maps, from The Dictionary of American Regional English

11.1 The concentric circles of World English

0.1 The consonants in Modern English xiii

0.2 Monophthongs in Modern English

2.1 Descendants of Proto-Germanic

3.1 Some words of Latin origin in Old English

3.2 Some Old English words in Modern English

3.3 OE strong verb classes

7.1 Lowth’s tenses of the verb “to love”

8.1 Representative regional variation words

Preface

To the Student and the Teacher

“You know more than you think you do.” Dr. Benjamin Spock’s famous advice (in his best-selling book, Baby and Child-Care) to new parents is fitting for students and teachers opening this book. Whatever your age or background, you have experienced the English language in its variety and through some changes. Students may write and speak in the classroom differently from how they talk with friends and family. Teachers may have noticed how digital technologies have affected English composition, popular speech, and forms of written communication. The language of English has existed in various forms ever since a group of speakers in the British Isles thought of themselves as “English.” The language has been changing over time, sometimes quickly, sometimes slowly. England’s first printer, William Caxton, noticed in 1490 that the language differed from the one he spoke as a child decades before. He remarked on how the speech of an educated Londoner was almost incomprehensible to a farm wife in Kent. You may have similar stories to tell. You know more than you think you do. This textbook is a history of the English language for students and teachers committed to exploring the richness and variety of speech and writing over time and across space. It presents a chronological narrative of development, from the origins of the Germanic languages in the Indo-European family, through the emergence of Old English, the changes in Middle English, the forms of Modern English, and the kaleidoscope of Englishes throughout the world. This textbook tells a story, but it also provokes response. Each chapter is designed to help students remember and integrate knowledge of historical aspects of English change and variety: sound changes over time, differences in regional dialects, patterns of syntax and grammar, and shifts in the meaning and usage of words. The sources for this information before the twentieth century are written documents. We will look at spelling as evidence for pronunciation and grammar. We will also see how, very often, that evidence appears in works of imaginative literature. Can poetry serve as a database for everyday speech? Does fictional prose tell us something about linguistic practice and social attitudes? Part of the task of this book, then, is not just to look at evidence but to explore creativity: to understand that language change goes hand in hand with the inventiveness of

poets, dramatists, novelists, historians, and philosophers; to see the history of English as a history of what men and women do with and to the language.

While this book was written by a teacher of literature with four decades of teaching, it does not neglect the linguistic material required to study the history of English. It begins by examining the nature of sound production: how we describe vowels and consonants by their manner of articulation and their place in the human mouth. It introduces students to the concept of the phoneme (the smallest meaningful unit of sound in a language) and the idea that meaning in a language system is relational, rather than essential. It spends some time with the International Phonetic Alphabet and the challenges of transcribing speech and representing historical forms of pronunciation. It invites you to consider how changes in sound can be classified, but also how recent sound shifts can be described and perhaps explained. Students and teachers will find familiar things here: Grimm’s and Verner’s Laws, regional dialect variety, and the Great Vowel Shift. You will find treatment of sound changes in American English, as well as an introduction to the use of such resources as the Linguistic Atlas of North America and the Dictionary of American Regional English.

This book presupposes a basic knowledge of English grammar. It will build on that knowledge to illustrate grammatical changes in the systems of English morphology and syntax: that is, how individual words are used to signal relationships in a sentence and, in turn, how the arrangement of words in a sentence make up meaningful utterances. We will review the nature of grammatical categories in language (the noun, the verb, and so on), but we will also need to investigate the nature of grammatical gender in English, how word order changed and affected meaning in a sentence, and how the pronominal system of English changed and is still changing. Students will learn that “thou” and “you” were, for centuries, the singular-informal and plural-formal forms of the second person. Readers will be encouraged to explore recent changes in the grammatical and social use of pronouns: relationships among “he,” “she,” and “they” and the social implications of personal pronoun choice. Understanding the history of pronouns is a good example of how the study of the past can help us frame debates in the present.

This book was written in the early twenty-first century, and it addresses the developments in media, popular culture, global communication, and digital technology that have characterized this century’s early decades. As a book of this time, it tries to speak to social and political relationships of language and belonging, language and power. African American English, for example, has an impact not only on groups in the United States but on social and artistic forms of expression throughout the world.

The aim of this textbook is to provide the material for an engaging classroom study and discussion of English in its historical and contemporary varieties. To this end, it presents a series of online exercises and assignments (www.routledge.com/9781032129693), keyed to each chapter, that are designed

Preface xi to test knowledge and inspire conversation. Some exercises, for example, are keyed to certain historical sound shifts (understanding, say, how i-mutation in the Germanic period is responsible for certain word pairs, such as “doom” and “deem” or “strong” and “strength” or “fox” and “vixen”). There will be exercises designed to get the student to try phonetic transcriptions of personal speech, to explore differences in word use over generations, and to critically and creatively use lexical resources such as the Middle English Dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary, and the Dictionary of American Regional English. Using dictionaries is about more than looking up words. It is about engaging with the cultural and political presuppositions of the dictionary makers and recognizing that works such as Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of 1755 or Noah Webster’s American Dictionary of 1828 are as much expressions of personal and national perspectives as they are registers of usage.

The history of English is a history of sounds and speech. But it is also a history of writing. From the earliest educators, debates about spelling were central to conceptions of the vernacular. English remains, for many students, almost inexplicable in its spelling conventions. Most of us simply rely on mnemonics (“i before e, except after c”) and rote memory. The study of English spelling is, however, a fascinating story of history and identity. English is unusual among European languages in that its spelling conventions are historical rather than phonetic: we spell “knight” and “night” not because we still pronounce the initial k- or the medial velar continuant (-gh-) but because we used to. English spelling conventions were codified at a time when pronunciation was changing and when there was a new awareness of regional variations in sound. Teachers and scholars agreed that English should maintain historical spelling systems to make earlier texts comprehensible to later readers and to make texts comprehensible to anyone, irrespective of regional dialect. At times, spelling gives us evidence of change in pronunciation (especially in the personal writings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries). At times, it does not. This book attends to the history of writing to show how the relationship between speech and writing varies throughout the history of English. Most recently, that relationship has changed again, as texting and other forms of digital communication raise questions about how writing does not necessarily represent speech sounds and how digital culture influences public speech and writing. Writing can tell us something about language change and variation, on one hand, and language teaching, on the other. Exercises in this book provide the opportunity to explore these provocations.

All textbooks have, implicitly or explicitly, an argument. In addition to presenting information, they will press that information into a story or a claim for the importance of their subjects. These are mine. If you are reading or teaching this book, they may be yours as well.

Language variation and language change are interrelated phenomena. When we study the different forms of a language at a specific time (synchronic variation), we are aware of how those different forms respond to and contribute to change across time (diachronic change). Studying and teaching the history of

English should attend not only to earlier forms of the language but also to the ways all of us participate in making and remaking of English as we use it in different contexts and at different times.

Describing how a language works often blends into prescribing how it should work. Whenever we set out to characterize speech and writing, however objective we may try to be, we may be judging them. Dictionary makers set out to record word meanings, pronunciations, spellings, and usages. But the principles of inclusion and exclusion, the order in which definitions are given, and the ranges of possible pronunciations transcribed – all of these reflect the judgments of the dictionary maker. In teaching English at any level, we walk a line between describing and prescribing. A theme of this book is how, over time, people make decisions about what may be “good” or “standard” English. By examining earlier sets of judgments, we can see the history behind our own.

Languages are acts of social performance, grounded in the organization of communities, belief systems, and geographical and cultural landscapes to which people belong. The history of English, from this point of view, is more than a collection of data. Language exists in the minds, the mouths, and the hands of human beings. It is there to describe an inner self; it is there to describe the world in which that self lives. In this book, linguistic information contributes to a social history not just of the English language but of the human beings who use and continue to use it.

The study of the past informs our life in the present. The history of English embraces a history of attitudes toward language use and change. Debates that we may think to be unique to our own time – for example, official or standard forms, bilingualism, rapid change, colloquialism – have motivated discussions of English for centuries. In 1619, scholar and teacher Alexander Gil complained (in a study written originally in Latin) that the English language had decayed over the previous two centuries: new words had come in from French and, most recently for him, words were entering English from North American indigenous tongues (he mentions the words “moccasin,” “canoe,” “maize,” and “raccoon”). Reading Gil centuries later, we may find it hard not to hear the voice of a highschool teacher or a cranky uncle at the dinner table. We hear our present in the past. You know more than you think you do.

Teaching and learning are pleasures. I have been a university professor for over 40 years. I have worked with community groups, parents, lifelong learners, and high-school students. At all levels, I have tried to convey the excitement and the pleasure that comes from intellectual inquiry and shared response. I have learned more from my students than they have likely learned from me. You may use this book as the primary text for a course. You may use it as the supplement or complement to other materials. However you use it, I hope you take pleasure in the interplay of conversation and the shared discovery of who you are as people who live in language.

English Phonemes and Transcribing Speech

Ever since the middle of the sixteenth century, scholars of the English language have tried to develop ways of representing speech sounds in writing. Rather than using different spellings in the standard English alphabet, scholars have developed symbols that are designed to represent, as unambiguously as possible, the sounds produced by the human mouth. In the late nineteenth century, as the study of language became more scientific and empirical, a “phonetic alphabet” emerged. This alphabet is based on Latin and Greek letters, but they are used in special ways. Each symbol represents a sound. To put it more precisely: each symbol represents the physical shape of the mouth, tongue, and vocal organs when the are producing a sound. Thus, we can look at a visual representation of the organs of speech and assign a symbol to each representation.

During the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, linguists have developed a set of phonetic symbols. This set is known as the International Phonetic Alphabet, known as IPA. There are some differences between IPA and some American linguistic practices of transcription. For the purposes of this textbook, the aim of transcription is to show the student that sounds can be represented symbolically and, furthermore, that a good transcription can tell any reader, irrespective of their regional dialect or personal habits of pronunciation, how an utterance has sounded.

To begin, Table 0.1 is the basic set of consonants in Modern English. They are arranged by the place of their articulation in the mouth (the top row), and by the manner of their articulation (the left-hand column). Here, phonemes

LabialDentalAlveolarPalatalVelar

Stop pet, bet

ten, den cut, gut

Continuant file, vile thin, othersit, zitplush, pleasurehear

Affricate cheer, jeer

Glideweird year

Liquid lovered

Nasalmad net sing

Table 0.1 The consonants in Modern English

xiv English Phonemes and Transcribing Speech are illustrated with representative words in standard spelling. When words are paired to illustrate a sound, the first is the unvoiced and the second is the voiced consonant.

Vowels in English can be single sounds. These are called monophthongs. The major monophthongs in Modern English are shown in Table 0.2.

In addition to these sounds, there is a low-central sound known as schwa, represented by the symbol /ə/. This sound usually appears in unstressed positions, as at the end of a word such as “sofa,” or in the pronunciation of the word “the” in everyday speech.

Vowels that are made up of two sounds pronounced together are called diphthongs. To illustrate diphthongs, the sound appears in the phonetic alphabet, followed by the English word in modern spelling The major diphthongs in Modern American spoken English are:

/eı/ as in face

/ǝʊ/ as in goat

/aı/ as in price

/aʊ/ as in mouth

/ɔı/ as in choice

Here are the basics of the International Phonetic Alphabet as they will be used in this book. At times, throughout the book, additional symbols may be used to illustrate historical or regional pronunciations. Those symbols will be explained when they appear. Note that the symbols of the IPA may look like English letters, but they have special meanings. Thus, for example, the /e/ symbol does not mean that the vowel is an e; it means that it is a mid-front vowel sound.

a as in father

æ as in cat

e as in the first part of the diphthong in words such as face

ɛ as in mess

i as in machine

ı as in miss

ɔ as in cost

o as in most

Table 0.2 Monophthongs in Modern English

Front

CentralBack

High meet big, bug loop

Mid get so cat put, saw

Low swan father

ʊ as in put

ʌ as in cut

u as in moose

ǝ as in the

ai as in lice

au as in mouse

ɔi as in moist

ju as in muse

b as in boy

č as in cheer

d as in dog

f as in fog

g as in gun

ǰ as in jeer

h as in hear

k as in cat

l as in long

m as in man

n as in net

ŋ as in sing

p as in pet

r as in red

s as in sit

š as in sheer

t as in tip

θ as in thin

Þ as in there

v as in vet

w as in wet

z as in zero

ž as in pleasure

Symbols between slash marks / / represent phonemes: that is, the sounds of the language that are meaningfully distinct. Phonemic transcription does not record particular features of lived pronunciation, or the changes in sound depending on word stress.

Symbols between brackets [ ] represent phonetic sound production: that is, the sounds of the language as they are pronounced. Phonetic notation can be extremely fine-grained, recording patterns of stress, or breath, or other features. In transcriptions using the IPA, the colon /:/ is used to represent a quantitatively long vowel. Vowel quantity was meaningful (that is, phonemic) in earlier periods of English, but is no longer phonemic in Modern English. Thus, there is no difference in meaning, now, between the words pronounced [gʊd] and [gʊ:d].

xvi English Phonemes and Transcribing Speech

upper teeth nose

alveolar ridge hard palate soft palate (velum)

upper lip

lower lip

tongue lower teeth

pharynx

larynx

Figure 0.1 A schematic representation of the human head, with the organs of speech production identified

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to the editors and staff of Routledge for originally soliciting this book, for their rigorous review of the proposal, and for their support during the writing of the completed text.

I have been teaching, lecturing, and writing on the history of the English Language for over 40 years. Much of my work has appeared in public lectures, in my work for the Great Courses, and in my book, Inventing English: A Portable History of the Language (Columbia University Press, revised edition 2015). I have returned to many examples from the history of English that I have explored earlier –to develop, qualify, and clarify my earlier engagements. Columbia University Press has generously granted permission to reproduce maps and materials that appeared in Inventing English. Harvard University Press has generously granted permission to reproduce maps from the Dictionary of American Regional English. Every effort has been made to locate the sources for other materials in this textbook, all of which appear to be in public domain or open sources.

My gratitude to professional colleagues in the field is great. I single out for thanks here: Maria Cecire, Anne Curzan, Irina Dumitrescu, Mary Hayes, Simon Horobin, Tim William Machan, Colette Moore, Lynda Mugglestone, and Robin Valenza.

I am especially grateful to Laura Poole, for her expert editing of the text of this book as it was being written, and for her suggestions and corrections throughout the process. I am also grateful to Susan Dunsmore for her exemplary copyediting of this book in production.

My greatest debt is to my students, who have always challenged my teaching and who have, most recently, provided me with insights into the changing shape of English in the twenty-first century. For insights into the changing languages of gender identity and into current forms of digital communication, I am grateful to Anadaios Box, Megan Gookin, Finn Laubscher, Aashi Patel, and Abigail Root.

Introduction

What Is Language and How Do We Study It?

Language is a system of communication that relies on sounds and symbols to describe the world as it appears to its speakers and, in turn, represent concepts or ideas that make sense of that world to societies. Although many animals communicate through sound and gesture, humans are unique in that we have developed complex systems to express what is and is not present to us. Human language can describe what is present in the world and what has happened. It can also express what is not there: imagined conditions, future experiences, hoped-for or feared outcomes. A person who knows a language can produce an infinite number of well-formed statements. Someone who knows a language can understand such statements, even if they have never been heard or read before. Whatever the origins of human language, speakers of all languages use words that have an arbitrary and conventional relationship to the things they describe. For example, there is nothing in the English word “door,” the French word porte, or the Hebrew word delet that inherently or essentially means the object being described. There is nothing in particular sounds that inherently or essentially mean things (although certain sounds do have a particular emotional or aesthetic impact in certain languages).

No language is harder to learn for its native speakers than any other. By the time they are about 6 years old, children from the United States, Russia, Vietnam, India, or anywhere have the same level of command of their native language. No language is better than any other in enabling native speakers to communicate, describe, and imagine. Languages differ in structure and sound throughout the world. Some languages have sounds that other languages do not have. Some languages use case and gender to signal meaningful relationships among words in a sentence. Some languages rely primarily on word order in a sentence to create meaningful utterances.

There is no necessary direction for change in language. Over time, languages do not become simpler or more complex. As we will see, English lost grammatical gender in nouns and case endings over time. From our modern perspective, it seems to have simplified. But Modern English has a level of idiomatic expression that makes it very different, and more complex, from its earlier forms. Just

think of the phrases “get up,” “get out,” “get into,” “get over,” “get on,” “get go,” and “get down.” If you did not know English, you would not understand these phrases by simply looking up “get” in a dictionary and knowing what the other words in these phrases mean.

There is no necessary timeline for language change. Languages do not change gradually or consistently over time. A modern student can read the novels of Jane Austen, for example, that were written two hundred years ago. But readers of the age of Shakespeare, at the end of the sixteenth century, would have found the language of Geoffrey Chaucer, of two hundred years earlier, almost opaque. The vernacular speech and writing of England before the Norman Conquest in 1066 seem to have been fairly stable from the seventh through the eleventh century. For many Americans born in the mid-twentieth century, however, the speech patterns and writing habits of twenty-first-century undergraduates may seem corrupt or debased. Languages do not decay. They change.

The study of language is called linguistics, but that word has changed over time. The discipline of linguistics in the nineteenth century centered on the historical changes in sound and on discerning particular patterns, or even laws, that governed sound change in languages over time. Nineteenth-century linguists used systematic sound changes to compare languages and reconstruct earlier forms of a common ancestor language. The idea of an Indo-European language family grew out of the recognition that groups of languages – English, Latin, Persian, Hindi, Celtic, and some others – shared common features of vocabulary and grammar. Comparing them enabled scholars to reconstruct a parent form of the language. Linguistics today means something very different. To be in a university department of linguistics is largely to see language as a feature of the mind. Studying language does not involve comparing living languages or reconstructing dead ones. It looks at structures of syntax and grammar: that is, how words and concepts are put together to make meaningful utterances. For many modern linguists, language is not something learned but acquired: this means that all humans have the innate, mental capacity to use language. We are, in some sense, hard-wired for language in this view. This position contrasts with the view that when we are born, we are blank slates with no innate ideas, concepts, or abilities. The discipline of modern linguistics has moved away from the study of sound to the study of structure. It has moved away from studying history to studying usage.

In the course of this book, we will see the implications of different views of linguistics as they bear on the study of the history of the English language. Let’s introduce some key terms that will summarize and clarify these opening remarks.

To be a fluent user of a language is to be in command of two things: the conceptual, mental, or socially shaped view of a language as a whole and the ability to produce utterances that are meaningful in any situation. Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) called these two features langue and parole. Langue is the understanding of a language as a system, the comprehensive knowledge of how a language works. Parole is the ability to produce statements

that are grammatical and meaningful. If you have a command of langue, you can do parole. For American linguist Noam Chomsky (b. 1928), these two abilities were called competence and performance. Linguistic competence is the command of a language, but for Chomsky, it is also a feature of mind, an ability to recognize what language is and to acquire a language throughout life. Performance is, in a sense like parole, the ability to use that language in every possible situation. These distinctions may seem similar, but modern linguists see them as somewhat different. What Chomsky argued, and what most linguists today would hold, is that there is something about knowing a language that goes beyond the simple collection of statements of competence. As we learn and use a language, we hear and read many statements. But what is remarkable about fluency in a language is that we can produce an infinite number of statements we have never heard or read before. The relationship between performance and competence, therefore, is not a one-way street. We do not simply reproduce the things we have heard. Every parent remembers the moment when a child speaks their first sentence – not because the child has repeated a sentence from the parent, but because the child has uttered a sentence that he or she has never heard before. This phenomenon lies at the heart of a modern conception of language and its study.

Languages are made up of sounds, and what linguists recognize is that each language has a meaningful collection of sounds, where that meaning is based not on essential qualities but on difference. What does this mean? In English, there is a difference between the words “pit” and “bit.” These words mean two different things. The only difference between the words is the pronunciation of the initial consonant. The sound represented by the letter p is what we would call an unvoiced, bilabial stop – a sound, in other words, made by the mouth with both lips pressed together, without the vocal cords moving, and in a single, rather than continued action. The sound represented by the letter b is what we could call a voiced, bilabial stop – a sound, in other words, just like the sound represented by the letter p, but with the vocal cords moving.

The sounds represented by b and p are phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit of sound in a language. The words “bit” and “pit” make up a minimal pair: two words that differ in only one phoneme. If we list a group of words like these, we may get the following: bit pit fit

Such a list of words is called a contrastive set: a group of words that differ only in one phoneme. A phonemic inventory of a language is its set of meaningful different sounds. English has a phonemic inventory; every language does. In English, voicing is what we would call phonemic: the difference between the sounds represented by the letters p and b, s and z, and f and v is a difference of whether you move your vocal cords when you utter these sounds. There are certain languages in which some sounds are phonemic that are not so in English. In the language of the republic of Georgia, for example, there is a difference between a bilabial unvoiced stop that is aspirated and one that is unaspirated, i.e., whether there is a puff of breath involved in producing the sound. This is not a meaningful distinction in English.

How are sounds put together to make meaningful utterances? Phonemes have meaning, and when one or more phonemes come together to signify something in particular, they are called morphemes. A morpheme is a meaningful unit in a word that indicates a relationship to other words. For example, the English word “quick” can modify a verb (and thus become an adverb) when we add the morpheme -ly. This morpheme may be added to words to signal adverbial use. Some morphemes are thus suffixes: -ness signals making something into a noun or a concept. Some morphemes are prefixes: the difference between “come” and “become” lies in the way the morpheme be- signals a state of change or activity. Some morphemes have taken on a distinctive set of meanings in Modern English, irrespective of their original grammatical content. For example, the word “Watergate,” which originally referred to a housing complex in Washington, DC, came to connote the scandal of the break-in to the offices of the Democratic National Committee there and the ensuing cover-up by the Nixon administration in the early 1970s. The morpheme -gate has come to refer to any political or social scandal: Irangate, Whitewatergate, and more. As we will see later, one of the key ways Modern American English is changing is through the creation and use of new morphemes to express particular concepts or actions. The word “explain,” for example, has been broken up, with the suffix -splain created as a new morpheme. Thus, the word “mansplain” has been created to describe the condescending explanation of something by a man to a woman.

The words of a language are called its lexis. Every language has a collection of words that are meaningful. A lexis is constantly changing. Individual words will change meaning over time and across context. The Old English word selig, for example, meant holy or blessed. Over time, that word came to connote not the inner or spiritual condition of a person but their behavioral patterns: actions that were odd or out of the ordinary. Eventually, that word came to mean strange, unusual, or laughable. Our word “silly” represents a semantic change of a word that has remained in the language. The study of how words have meaning is called semantics. A language may coin, i.e., create or borrow new words to increase its lexis. By contrast, a language may create new words out of existing forms. English is distinctive among world languages in that it has, for the past

five hundred years, borrowed many words from different languages. The lexis of English may be one of the largest of any language. By contrast, Icelandic is a language whose speakers have traditionally resisted borrowing words. Modern Icelandic will take concepts, such as television, and translate them, morpheme by morpheme, into native components. Thus, “television,” which is made up of two parts, “tele” (across) and “vision” (sight), becomes sjonvarp: sjon meaning sight, and varp meaning to throw across. Historically, Germanic languages make new words in this way. Modern German has Fernseher (far + seer) for television. Old English took the Latin word omnipotens, “all powerful,” and turned it into eallmightig (all mighty). This process of morpheme-by-morpheme translation produces what are called calques.

Every language has a system of expressing meaningful relationships of words in statements. This system involves what are called grammar and syntax. Grammar is the term used to describe how words are given meaning according to number, person, relationship, activity, and so on. Syntax describes the conventions of patterning that give statements in a language their meaning. In Modern English, grammar largely concerns the study of kinds of words and how they are put together. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, definite and indefinite articles: these are what we study when we study the grammar of Modern English. Modern English syntax is largely a matter of word order in a sentence. English has changed in all of these ways: in phonology, in semantics, in grammar and syntax. English, like all languages, varies in these ways at a single time. Variations across regions, classes, genders, and groups of different heritages and identities all coexist at once. The distinction between change over time and variation over space is the distinction between diachronic change and synchronic variation. These are not completely separate phenomena. A central question for historians of English is how does synchronic variation become or influence diachronic change? How do differences in regional or class dialects affect an official or accepted standard, and will they change that standard over time? Can we see forms of English that are now standard in earlier dialect forms? A deeper question may be: is there really such a thing as the state of a language at any given moment? Is there such a thing as Modern American English, Middle English, African American English, Indian English, or Estuary English? The synchronic state of a language is always marked by variation. The study of historical dialects enables us to recognize just how difficult it is to define a linguistic moment. It is important to introduce some key terms, concepts, and methods that govern the study of English over time. Scholars have developed four broad methods for the diachronic and synchronic study of English:

• Articulatory phonetics: the study and description of how the human mouth makes particular sounds. All sounds can be described in terms of where and how in the mouth and throat they are produced. A system of symbols, called the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), has been developed to represent

these sounds. With the IPA, anyone should be able to recognize, describe, and represent any sound in any language. We use the IPA to represent sounds in history and in different dialects.

• Sociolinguistics: the study of how language operates as a form of social behavior, how it brings people into communities and cultures, and how individual and group interactions affect how a particular language is used. Sociolinguistics also embraces the social attitudes toward language variation, use, and change.

• Comparative philology: the method of comparing the sounds and forms of living or surviving languages to reconstruct earlier forms of those languages. Developed in the nineteenth century, comparative philology developed a set of conventions or laws that can explain relationships of sounds between languages in a family or group. It also developed these conventions or laws to explain what certain sounds became over time.

• Corpus linguistics: the activity of amassing large amounts of data from spoken or written evidence to chart variations over space and differences over time. For the historical study of English, corpus linguistics will take, for example, all surviving examples of the spelling of a word in surviving texts, locate those texts in time and place, and then map the differences. Digital technologies have enabled the collection and analysis of such data.

Each method has advantages and its challenges. Here is an introduction to each.

Articulatory Phonetics

Sounds can be described according to their place and manner of articulation. Humans produce sounds by moving or stopping air through the throat and mouth. It is conventional to have the face looking left in these pictures and to describe the sounds of a language moving from the front of the mouth to the back:

• Labial sounds are sounds that are produced with the lips. These include the sounds represented by the letters p and b. Because we use both lips to produce these sounds, they are called bilabial sounds.

• Dental sounds are those produced by the tongue pressing against or in between the teeth. In Modern English, the sounds represented by the spelling -th- are called interdental sounds, because the tongue moves between the upper and lower sets of teeth to produce them.

• Labio-dental sounds are those produced by the lips and the teeth together. The sounds represented by the letters f and v are labio-dental sounds.

• Alveolar sounds are produced by the tongue pressing against the alveolar ridge in the mouth. The alveolar ridge is located behind the upper teeth. In Modern English, we pronounce the sounds represented by the letters t and d in these ways. In Modern English, the sounds represented by the letters ch and j (as in “cheer” and “jeer”) are alveolar sounds.

• Palatal sounds are those produced when the tongue arches up against the soft palate at the top of the mouth. The sound often represented by the letter y as a consonant, /j/, is a palatal consonant.

• Velar sounds are those produced further back in the mouth, with the tongue pressing against the velum (the hard palate). Sounds represented by the letters c or k and g (as in “cut” and “gut”) are velar sounds.

• Glottal sounds are those produced in the back of the throat, by the glottis. In Modern English, we often make glottal sounds (e.g., in some pronunciations of a word such as “bottle”), but these sounds are not phonemic in English –there is no meaningful difference between saying /botl/ and /boɂl/. In some languages, glottal stops are phonemic.

These are the places of articulation of consonants. A consonant may be described as the interruption of the stream of breath in producing sound. Consonants have the following manner of articulation:

• Voicing: a voiced consonant is one produced with the vocal cords moving. If you say the word “bit,” for example, and place your fingers on your throat, you can feel your vocal cords moving. If you say the word “pit,” by contrast, you cannot feel your vocal cords moving. The sounds represented by the letters b and p, therefore, are sounds with the same place of articulation, but with a different manner of articulation.

• Stops and continuants: consonants can interrupt the flow of air by stopping it. In Modern English, we make the sounds represented by the letters p, b, t, and d as single sounds. We do not hold or continue them. Other sounds, however, can be held continuously. The sounds represented by the letters sh, zh, f, v, s, z can be held. Continued sounds can be distinguished, further, as follows:

• Fricatives are produced with two parts of the mouth working together. For example, the sounds represented by the letters f and v are fricatives in that they are produced with the teeth and lips working together.

• Liquids are pronounced by moving the air around both sides of the part of the mouth making the sound. The sounds represented by the letters l and r are liquids. Liquids are frequently unstable or mobile in spoken languages and in the history of languages. In English, the sound represented by the letter r often varies over time and across dialects.

• Glides are produced by moving the mouth in the course of producing the sound. Glides can occur at the beginning and end of syllables, but not in the center of one. Thus, the sounds represented by the letter y in the word “yes” or the letter w in the word “water” are glides.

• Nasals involve resonating the air stream through the nose. The sounds represented by the letters n and m are nasals. The sound represented by the letters ng is also a nasal.

Similarly, vowels are described according to where and how they are produced in the mouth. Vowels may be thought of as meaningful sounds made by the passage of air through the throat and mouth.

The place of a vowel is where it forms in the mouth. Vowels are described as high, low, and central and as front and back. In classifying the vowels of a language, linguists use a schematic representation of the mouth as a kind of grid, with the front on the left and the back on the right. The vowels are located on this grid. Vowels also have additional manners of articulation in addition to their place in the mouth:

• Rounded and unrounded: vowels can be produced with the lips rounded or unrounded. The sounds represented by the letter u in English are rounded vowels. In some languages, there are rounded vowels that do not exist in Modern English: for example, the umlauted ü in German. In ancient Greek, the word psyche would have been produced with a high front rounded vowel represented by the letter upsilon.

• Tense and lax: when pronouncing a vowel, the muscles of the mouth and tongue may expend different degrees of effort or tension. Tense vowels are longer in quantitative duration than lax vowels. If you say the word “tweet,” you can feel the muscles of your mouth stretch more than if you say the word “twit.” “Tweet” has a tense vowel, “twit” has a lax vowel.

• Open and close: open vowels are pronounced with the tongue far from the roof of the mouth. Close vowels are pronounced with the tongue higher in the mouth. Open and close should not be confused with low and high. Vowels produced in the same place in the mouth may differ depending on where the tongue is. Thus, the sound in the word “thought” in Modern American English is an open, mid, back, rounded vowel.

• Long and short: linguists use these words to describe the quantity of a vowel, i.e., how long it is held in pronunciation. There are many languages in which vowel quantity is phonemic, i.e., where the length of time for a which a vowel is held makes a meaningful difference. In Old English, vowel length was phonemic. For example, the difference between the words spelled as god and god was that, for the former, the vowel was held for a long time (the word meant “good”), and, for the latter, it was held for a short time (the word meant “God”). In Latin and Greek, quantitative vowel length was phonemic (and was the basis for poetic meter).

The purpose of articulatory phonetics is to record the sounds of speech as unambiguously and as accurately as possible by using a conventional set of symbols. These symbols (the IPA) may look like English letters (or Greek letters or other symbols), but they should not be confused with spelling conventions in modern languages. Learning these symbols enables you to represent and understand sound changes over time.

Transcription is the practice of recording the sounds of an utterance using the symbols of the IPA. There are degrees of detail and purpose in transcription:

• A phonemic transcription is a record of the phonemes in an utterance. It may be thought of as an ideal representation of a set of sounds, and it may not necessarily correspond to how a living speaker actually produces those sounds. A broad phonemic transcription is written between slash marks.

• A phonetic transcription, by contrast, is an attempt to record as accurately as possible the actual pronunciation of an utterance by a speaker. Such an utterance may be distinguished by dialect or personal habit. A narrow phonetic transcription is written between square brackets.

A broad transcription records phonemes. A narrower transcription records what are called allophones. Allophones are the varied pronunciation of phonemes depending on the context of those phonemes in a given word or statement. The following example may illustrate these concepts. Take the Modern American English word “motorboat.” A broad phonemic transcription would be: /motorbot/. But most speakers do not pronounce the word in this way in everyday speech. The sound represented by the letter t in the word is often voiced. Thus, a phonetic (rather than a phonemic) transcription of the word might look like this: [modorbot]. This is a broad transcription. A narrower transcription would take account of individual pronunciations of the vowels and consonants. A narrower transcription might look like: [mo:dǝrbot], with the first vowel held for a longer period of time and the second vowel reduced to an unstressed schwa sound /ə/.

What do we learn from this exercise? We can see that in everyday speech, unstressed vowels are often pronounced as the mid vowel represented by the schwa /ə/. We also see that in everyday speech, it is common for the unvoiced interdental stop /t/ to be voiced as [d] when it appears between a stressed and an unstressed vowel in the middle of a word. Thus, people may say the word “metal” as if it were “medal,” the word “potter” as if it were “podder.” We would say that the phoneme /t/ has an allophonic variant, [d], in medial positions. Thus, allophonic variation describes the different ways a single phoneme may be pronounced, depending on its place in a word or the dialect of the speaker. One way of defining a phoneme is the following: A phoneme represents a set of noncontrastive allophones. A phonemic transcription may be thought of as a kind of abstraction or template for pronunciation, rather than a record of actual pronunciation in everyday speech.

Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is the study of language in its performed social contexts. Less concerned with aspects of mind or history than other branches of linguistics, this approach looks at language in action. It is largely driven by fieldwork: that is,

collecting observed data about language use by individuals and groups. Sociolinguistics can help us understand how differences of class and wealth, for example, shape variations in English. It can help us understand how a single person can use various forms of English, depending on the social context, switching languages or dialects in different situations. Terms such as “code switching” and “register” come out of sociolinguistics, as does the idea of the speech community, a group of people who use a form of a language in a particularly distinctive, shared way. Sociolinguistics also helps us understand how issues of class and privilege and activities such as racial, ethnic, and gender passing are often matters of linguistic performance.

Sociolinguistics took shape largely as a kind of anthropological, field-based activity. Its foundational practitioners created data sets by interviewing individuals and creating questionnaires. Such fieldwork could result in the study of lexical variation. For example, do you say “pail” or “bucket,” do you stand “on line” or “in line?” This kind of research could also reveal insights into phonological variation. Interviewing groups of people and inviting them to pronounce the words “marry, merry, Mary” can situate them along geographical and class lines.

In studying the history of English, a student will find examples of language use that can be productively assessed with a sociolinguistic approach. The fifteenth-century gentleman John Paston, known today for the letters he wrote to family and friends, often chose vocabulary terms for particular purposes, keyed to his addressee. In some cases, he wrote English sentences full of short, familiar words. In other cases, he used newly borrowed words from French to create a position of authority or condescension. In diaries and journals, novels and plays, we can see men and women adapting their usage to shifting contexts.

One question that emerges from a sociolinguistic approach to the history of English is: when do certain variations or idiolects become standard or accepted norms? Modern students will recognize that they speak and write differently to friends than they do to parents or teachers, and the way they speak in a job interview will be different from how they speak at home. But there may come a point when the speech of home and friendship comes to be accepted in the schoolroom or the office. Language change can be found at these junctures.

Some of the key terms from sociolinguistics that this book uses include the following:

• Prestige language: a particular language or a form of a language that marks social and economic status, educational attainment, or political power. During the Middle English period, French was the prestige language of the British Isles, in that it was used by the court and the aristocracy and was the language learned by those who aspired to high social status. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the so-called standard pronunciation of English changed through a process known as the Great Vowel Shift. Although there are many possible causes for this change in pronunciation, one might be the contact among different regional dialects in London during the late fifteenth century,

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— Mutta tämä olisi niin sopivata. Anna nyt joutuin, että ehdin laittaa postiin.

— Täältä saat konseptipaperia, joka on paljo sopivampaa siihen tarkoitukseen.

Rouvan täytyi olla tyytyväinen paperiinsa ja hän meni sisään laittamaan pakettia.

Vähän päästä tuli hän konttooriin takaisin mieheltään kysymään, tuliko paketista ehkä liika iso.

— Kyllä se sopii. Pane kirjeeseen minulta terveisiä!

Jonkun ajan päästä tuli rouva taas konttooriin, kirje toisessa, kynä toisessa kädessään.

— Kirjoita nyt sinä itse terveisesi, pyysi hän miestään.

— En minä jouda.

— Mutta kirjoita nyt. Se ilahuttaisi niin Hilmaa.

— Johan hän on saanut meiltä niin monet onnittelut.

— Vaan yhtäkaikki…

— En jouda!

Rouva meni takaisin sisään, katsoen ovella jälelleen, huomatakseen oliko August aivan todella muuttunut häneen, kun niin vihaisesti kiljahti: en jouda! Hänelle tuli niin paha mieli, että hän olisi itkenyt, jos olisi ollut aikaa, vaan oli niin hirveän kiire postiin. Sillä aikaa kun hän lopetti kirjeen kirjoittamista ompeli piika pakettia.

Ennen kuin piika sai paketin valmiiksi oli rouvalla kirje lopetettu, ja hän luki moneen kertaan, mitä oli kirjoittanut miehensä puolesta. Sitte hän meni konttoorin ovelle.

— August! kutsui hän arasti.

August ei hievahtanutkaan.

— August, kuuletko!

— Mitä?

— Etkö tulisi vähän tänne.

— En jouda!

— Hyvin vähäsen vaan.

— Mitä se olisi?

— Lukisit tämän kirjeen.

Rouva näytti ovella sisarelleen menevää kirjettä.

— Minä en jouda, johan minä sanoin! Lähetä vaan se kirje semmoisenaan, kyllä minä sen hyväksyn täydellisesti.

Rouva kääntyi takaisin. Kuinka August oli hänelle tyly! Oliko kellään sellaista miestä! Olisiko siinä nyt mennyt paljo aikaa, jos olisi tullut lukemaan hänen kirjeensä. Mutta niinhän se oli aina, August vaan halveksi kaikkea, mitä hän teki, ei tahtonut milloinkaan nähdäkään. Oi, kuinka tuntui ikävältä! Teki mieli heittäytyä sohvaan itkemään. Mutta piika toi samassa paketin. Rouva sulki kirjeen ja

kirjoitti päällekirjoituksen pakettiin ja kirjeeseen. Hän läksi taas konttooriin.

— Tässä nämä nyt ovat! sanoi rouva iloisena ja laski paketin ja kirjeen miehensä eteen pulpetille.

— Etkö sinä voinut panna kirjettä pakettiin? sanoi mies.

— Hilman on niin hauska saada postista erikseen paketti ja kirje.

— Mutta minun ei ole hauska maksaa niistä erikseen. Nyt menee kirjeestä eri postiraha.

— Eihän se ole kuin 20 penniä.

— Se on rahaa sekin!

— Puranko minä paketin ja panen kirjeen sen sisään?

— Sitä nyt enää purkamaan. Vaan pakettiin on kirjoitettava osoitekortti. Tässä on kortti.

— Kirjoita sinä se, hyvä August!

— Minä en jouda.

— Et sinä nyt siinä kauvan viivy.

— Etkö sinä nyt niin pientä asiata voi tehdä itse? Tai anna Oskarin kirjoittaa!

Mutta rouva tahtoi itse kirjoittaa uhallakin, kärsiköön August vahingon, jos kortti menee hukkaan. Eräässä kohden hän joutui

ymmälle, jota täytyi kysyä. Hän meni miehensä vierelle ja näytti korttia.

— Mitä?

— Pitääkö minun kirjoittaa tähän että paketti sisältää…? sille voisivat postissa nauraa.

— Kirjoita että sisältää "vaatetta".

— No niin, sinä olet aina niin kekseliäs! "Vaatetta" todellakin!

Kortin täytettyään vei hän sen taas miehelleen.

— Onko tämä nyt hyvä?

Mies katsoi sitä, pyyhki siitä pois rouvan kuittauksen, antoi toisen kortin ja käski kirjoittaa uuden, selittäen tuon virheen.

Mutta rouva kysyi:

— Tahdotko sinä vaan minua kiusata?

— Kiusata! Kuka tässä kiusaa?

— Kun pakotat minut kirjoittamaan sitä, mitä en kuitenkaan osaa.

— Sinä opit sillä tavalla.

— Kaikessa tapauksissa sinä olet minulle hyvin epäkohtelias.

— Kyllä, täällä konttorissa. Täällä tehdänn työtä.

Rouva puri huuliaan ja kirjoitti uuden kortin.

— Punnitse nyt se että tiedät paljonko siitä menee.

Rouva punnitsi.

— Tämä painaa 750.

— Niin, 750 grammaa, ja paketti maksaa 1 kiloon asti 60 penniä.

— Mutta kun tämä painaa 750 grammaa?

— Yhdessä kilossa on 1,000 grammaa ja 1,000:een asti saa lähettää 60 pennillä.

Rouva katsoi epätoivoissaan mieheensä.

— Minä en ymmärrä sinua ollenkaan.

— Herrajumala! Siitä menee 60 penniä! Lähetä piika viemään, sillä pojan pitää odottaa etelän postia.

Rouva vei pakettinsa ja kirjeensä sisään. Jonkun ajan kuluttua tuli hän paketti kädessä katsomaan konttoorin kelloa.

— Vieläköhän tämä paketti ehtii postiin? kysyi hän hyvin välinpitämättömästi.

— Mutta miksi et ole sitä jo lähettänyt?

— Minä aukasin paketin ja panin kirjeen sisään, ettei menisi turhaan rahaa.

Mies teki vihaisen liikkeen ja painui työhönsä.

Vähän päästä hän näki, kun piika meni kadulla paketti sylissä.

Toinen piika tuli kohta sen jälkeen kutsumaan herraa rouvan luo.

Rouva sairastui äkkiä, ilmoitti piika.

Herra puhisi harmista mennessään sisään.

Rouva makasi kammarissaan sohvalla ja itki. Parhaiksi kävelevä pikku poika seisoi sohvan ääressä ja vedet silmissä loihti: Elä ikke, elä ikke!

— Mitä sinä itket?

— Suutuitko sinä minuun?

— Mistä minä olisin suuttunut?

— Kun minä purin sen paketin.

— Enkä ole suuttunut, mutta sinä sen varmaan teit äkäpäissäsi.

— Ni — iin…

— Ymmärrätkö sinä että teit siinä tyhmästi?

— Ym — ymm — mär — rän…

— Elä tee vasta niin! Lakkaa nyt itkemästä, kun Kaarlekin pyytää; minun täytyy lähteä.

Hän taputti lähtiessään pari kertaa vaimonsa päätä.

— Niin lapsi vielä! sanoi hän itsekseen myötätuntoisella säälillä.

Kohta kun hän oli istuutunut pulpettinsa ääreen tuli rouva konttooriin, pikku Kaarle sylissään. Hän oli nyt hyvällä tuulella jälleen, itku oli selvittänyt hänet.

— Rakas August! sanoi hän ja katsoi mieheensä mitä herttaisimmasti.

— No?

— Luuletko sinä että se paketti ehtii postiin. Hilman pitäisi saada se välttämättä huomenna.

— Ehtiihän se. Vaan menkää nyt täältä pois, meillä on niin kiirettä.

— Me menemme, me menemme. Hyvätti, hyvätti! sanoo Kaarle.

He menivät. Mutta hetken päästä tulivat he konttoorin ovelle.

— August, tulisitko vähän tänne, hyvin pikkuisen vaan.

— Voi, kun minä en jouda!

— Minä yhden sanan vaan sinulta kysyisin, se on hyvin, hyvin tärkeätä.

Aviomies läksi, päästäkseen hänestä vihdoinkin erilleen.

— Mitä?

— Eikö minun pitäisi lähettää Liina Lauran jälkeen postiin varottamaan Lauraa, ettei suinkaan sanoisi että paketissa on kapalovyöt, jos postissa kysyvät?

— Lähetä, lähetä!

Mies kääntyi samassa konttooriinsa. Hän luuli saavansa nyt olla rauhassa.

Lähetettyään toisenkin piijan postiin, juohtui rouvalle vielä yksi asia mieleen, vaan kun hän ei enää tahtonut mennä häiritsemään konttooriin, asettui hän pikku Kaarlen kanssa konttoorin viereiseen, miehensä kammariin kärsivällisesti odottamaan, jos August sattuisi pistäymään siellä. Hän oli kuitenkin kiltti vaimo, joka ei mennyt häiritsemään miestään työssä, ja hänestä tuntui tämä kärsivällinen miehensä tietämättä odottaminen niin mieluiselta, että hän olisi istunut ja odottanut tässä vaikka kuinka kauvan. Hän toivoi, että August vasta pitkän ajan päästä pistäytyisi kammariinsa ja saisi tietää, että hän on niin ja niin kauvan odottanut täällä, kun ei tahtonut tulla konttooriin häiritsemään työtä. Hänen sydämensä värähteli ajatellessaan, kuinka liikutetuksi August varmaankin on tuleva.

Noin kymmenen minuutin päästä meni August kammaristaan hakemaan nimileimasintaan, kun tarvitsi painaa sinettinsä erääseen kohta postissa lähetettävään paperiin.

— August, rakas August!

— No?

— Tulepas nyt vähän tähän istumaan.

— Minulla on tulinen kiire!

— No mutta August —! Minä olen sinua odottanut tässä Kaarlen kanssa kauvan aikaa.

— Mutta kun minä en jouda, kuuletko sinä!

August oli jo menemässä ovessa, kun hän kääntyi takaisin huomatessaan, että vaimonsa oli itkuun pyrähtämäisillään.

— Sano nyt se asiasi.

Vaan rouva hikotteli itkuhereissään eikä voinut vähään aikaan mitään puhua. Mies tyynnytteli häntä, toisessa kädessään yhä pitäen nimileimasinta.

— Sinä taas suutuit minuun, valitti rouva, kyettyään puhumaan.

— Enkä ole suuttunut. Sano nyt asiasi.

— Suutuit sinä, kyllä minä sen näin, ja mene nyt, kun sinä et kuitenkaan todella tahdo kuunnella minua.

— Mutta minä en lähde ennen kuin sanot sen asiasi. Minä istun nyt tässä ja kuuntelen.

— Etkös ole suuttunut?

Hän katsoi suurilla silmillään suoraan miehensä silmiin.

— En, vastasi mies, vaan silmänsä vähän rävähtivät.

Rouva tarttui miehensä kaulaan.

— Minä vaan tahdoin kertoa sinulle, mitä minä kirjoitin sinun puolestasi Hilman kirjeeseen.

Juuri sen vuoksi, että tuo tärkeä asia oli niin vähäpätöinen, ei aviomies hypännyt sohvasta eikä rynnännyt ulos huoneesta, jonka hän muutoin olisi tehnyt. Hän jätti lähetettävän tärkeän kirjeensä ja monet muut kiireet asiat oman onnensa nojaan, heittäysi vaan

mukavampaan asentoon sohvassa ja päätti hartaasti kuunnella vaimoaan, niin kuin tahdotaan pientä lasta erityisesti tarkastaa, kun huomataan hänessä oikein lapsellista, mitä ei ole ennen huomattu.

— Kerropas nyt, mitä sinä kirjoitit!

Rouva kertoi, mitä hän oli kirjoittanut omasta puolestaan ja miten hän sitte oli kirjoittanut, että Augustilla oli hirveä kiire, jonka tähden ei joutanut itse kirjoittamaan tervehdystään, vaan hän kirjoitti Augustin puolesta, ollen varma siitä, että August yhtyi joka sanaan, mitä hän kirjoitti.

— Yhdytkö sinä joka sanaan?

— Tietysti, tietysti!

— Sitäpä minä juuri tahdoin tietää ja minä olin siitä levoton.

Mies jäi yhä edelleen istumaan ja uteliaasti katselemaan vaimoaan, otsassaan lyhyt, hieno viiva, joka osoitti, että hän samalla jotakin ajatteli. Mutta rouva sanoi:

— Kuule, sinun pitää mennä nyt konttooriin, kun sinulla on kiire, en minä tahdo sinua viivyttää.

— Tosiaankin, olin unhottaa.

Hän painoi vaimonsa hiuksiin suudelman, niin kuin hänen tapansa oli, otti sinettinsä ja meni.

Hänen kirjeensä oli auttamattomasti myöhästynyt, hänellä ei ollut enää mitään kiirettä, ja hän käveli konttoorissa edestakaisin.

Mutta hän ei ollut vähääkään vihastunut, kaikki harminsa oli hävinnyt, ja hän vaan odotteli konttooritunnin päättymistä, mennäkseen sisään vaimonsa ja poikansa luo.

Vähän päästä hypähti rouva konttoorin ovelle, huudahtaen:

— Paketti ehti postiin! Vaan ihan parhaiksi, ihan parhaiksi!

— Sepä hyvä oli! sanoi mies ja meni hänen jälestään sisään. Siellä hän otti vainionsa ja pikku poikansa, — nuo molemmat lapsensa, niin kuin hän ajatteli, — syliinsä ja rupatteli hauskasti heidän kanssaan päivällistä odottaessa.

Kevätpäivä Penttisen talossa.

Nuorin, viime kesänä syntynyt tyttölapsi olisi voinut luulla, ettei sitä muuta maailmata ollutkaan kuin ne kaksi huonetta, joissa asuttiin. Häntä ei ollut näet vielä kertaakaan käytetty ulkoilmassa, vaikka oli jo kevät käsissä. Hän oli syntynyt niin terveenä ja vahvana, että äiti oli ylpeillyt lapsestaan, mutta nyt hän oli kalpea ja surkastuneen näköinen. Perähuone oli ollut hänen asuntonsa alusta alkaen: jos tahtoi ryömiä etuhuoneeseen, käännytti äiti kynnykseltä takaisin ja sanoi että siellä oli kylmä. Toisinaan äiti kuitenkin vei hänet sylissään etuhuoneeseen, vaan omin päinsä ryömimään ei sinne päässyt. Siitä hän useasti puhkesi katkerasti itkemään, vaan se ei auttanut, sillä silloin pani äiti hänet maata tai pakoitti syömään.

Näin eli pienokainen koko pitkän talven perähuoneessa, joka oli pohjoiseen päin ja pimeä ja jossa ilma vaihtui ainoastaan siitä, kun

ovea aina avattiin etuhuoneeseen. Useasti sai hän olla huoneessa pitkät ajat aivan yksin. Hänellä oli kuitenkin pieniä veljiä, jotka leikkivät hänen kanssaan ja hoitivat häntä. Vaan he eivät olleet aina hänen luonaan, mihin lienevät aina hävinneen, ja sitte taas ilmestyivät, tuoden mukanaan kylmää ilmaa, joka pienestä tuntui hirveältä.

Kun tuli kevätpuoli ja ulkona oli vähän sulaa, hävisivät veljet päiväkausiksi kokonaan, ja silloin vietti lapsi pisimmät hetkensä. Nyt ei häntä kuitenkaan enää niin paljon vangittu, perähuoneessa, hän sai useasti ryömiä etuhuoneeseenkin, ja häntä suuresti huvitti hiihtää etuhuoneen lattialla auringon paisteessa, joka tuntui hyvin lämpimältä. Hän taputteli kämmenellään lattiata, mihin aurinko paistoi, ja hänellä oli myöskin suuri hauskuus muutamasta kärpäsestä, joka oli surissut ikkunassa ja lenteli nyt hänen ympärillään, laskeutuen sekin aina mielellään lattialle päiväpaisteeseen, josta hän sen kuitenkin joka kerta karkoitti pois tavoittaissaan sitä kiini. Mutta näin yksinään ollessaan keväällä, kun ei kumpasessakaan huoneessa tuntunut ketään olevan, tuli pienokaiselle toisinaan niin vaikea olla, että hän rupesi itkemään ikävästä. Kun ei yhtä hyvin ketään tullut hänen luokseen, lakkasi hän itkemästä, istui lattialla ja kuulosti. Huoneessa ei tuntunut ketään olevan, vaan ulkoa kuului ääniä, veikkojen iloisia ääniä ja muita tuttuja ääniä, tuolta tuntemattomasta maailmasta, johon hän ei ollut saanut vielä päätään pistää, vaan jonne hän jo halusi. Siitä tuli hänen mielensä jälleen ikäväksi, ja haikea itku kaikui taas tyhjässä huoneessa.

Kerran, kun ei mistään apua tullut, ryömi hän raolleen jääneen ulko-oven kynnykselle. Siinä hän pysähtyi, sillä eteensä avautui aivan uusi maailma. Päivä paistoi porstuaan häikäisevän kirkkaasti,

näkyi piha, jossa oli vielä lunta, vaan toisin paikoin oli paljas hiekka, jolla veikot juoksentelivat. Tuo kaikki näytti hyvin ihmeelliseltä, vaan samalla tuntui lapsesta iloiselta katsella sinne, eikä kylmän viileä ilmakaan, joka häntä yltäänsä huuhtoi, tuntunut nyt niin hirveältä kuin aina talvella poikien mukanaan tuoma. Hän istui siinä ja katseli, kasvoillaan surullinen hymy ikään kuin sairaalla.

Mutta äiti tuli sieltä, siunasi hämmästyksissään, sieppasi hänet syliinsä ja vei sisään.

* * * * *

Ahdas ja sulettu oli Onnikinkin olo pienessä navetassaan, joka pihan perällä rysötti puoleksi maahan vajonneena. Se oli saanut koko talven olla parressaan, liikkumatta mihinkään, selkä miltei laessa kiini. Kovana talvisydännä se tyytyikin kohtaloonsa, vaan kun kirkkaat keväiset auringon säteet alkoivat paistaa heloittaa navettaan Onnikin edessä olevasta pienestä reijästä, jossa oli kellastunut lasi, tuli sille ikävä ja kaipaus. Vaan vasta sitte sille kainompi ikävä tuli, kun navetan räystäs alkoi tippua. Katolla oli vahva hanki: päivän mustuttamaa päreistä räystään reunaa rupesivat auringon säteet lämmittämään, ja niin alkoi ikään kuin suuresta alkuainemäärästä syntyä ja muodostua loistavia maailmoja. Lumihangen laidasta itketti räystään nenään koko räystään pituisen liikkuvan, kiiltelevän vesijuovan, ja siitä muodostui lukemattomia vesihelmiä, jotka tippuivat alas. Pitkässä elävässä vesijuovassa kiilteli sateenkaaren värejä epäselvinä ja hajanaisina, vaan putoavissa pienissä vesihelmissä oli ikään kuin luomistyö päättynyt, sillä ne loistivat kuin tähdet kirkkaasti ja ihanasti. Mutta niiden aika oli lyhyt; välähdys vaan, ja tuo loistava maailma oli kadonnut. Niin ne syntyivät, välähtivät ja katosivat hetkessä. Mutta niitä oli lukemattomia: yhden

hävittyä syntyi säännöllisesti toinen räystään elävästä vesijuovasta, joka oli kuin ijäti heruva vesivirta, minkä täytyi säännöllisinä hetkinä synnyttää uusi kappale.

Tämä vesihelmimaailmojen loistava näytelmä tapahtui kahden ulkohuoneen välisessä ahtaassa, likaisessa solassa.

Kun vesihelmen tipahtaessa nuo heleät, ihanat värit sattuivat pienestä ikkunareijästä kellastuneen lasin läpi Onnikin silmiin, tuli eläimelle kaiho ikävä. Se sai viestin keväästä ja uudesta syntyvästä luonnosta: sen silmiä häikäisi, sille tuli vaikea olla ja se ammahteli ikävissään.

Pihassa oli jo suuri siekale hietikkoa sulana, jolla kaikki pihan lapset olivat leikkimässä, paitse kaikkein nuorin, joka istui etuhuoneessa yksinään päiväpaisteessa ja kuunteli kärpästen surinata ympärillään. Hietikolla oli lasten mieluista olla, he kävelivät nelinkontan ja piehtaroivat kuin maahan kaivautuakseen; se oli aivan eläimellinen ilo päiväpaisteesta ja sulasta maasta, joita he niin suuresti rakastivat. He keksivät senkin tempun että hautasivat toisiaan hiekkaan, vaan vielä suurempaa riemua herätti keksintö täyttää housut hiekalla pullolleen, sitoa lahkeen suut kiinni ja sitte koettaa kävellä. Äiti sivu kulkiessaan kielsi heitä hulluista ilveistään, vaan sitäkö he kuulivat.

Asuinhuoneen ja porstuan katolta oli isä syytänyt lumen pois. Mustaan pahvikattoon paistoi nyt päivä hyvin kuumasti, niin että katto oli kuuma kuin uunin arina. Parhaassa helteessä porstuan katolla makasi kissa sorkat suorana. Kun lapset sen huomasivat, alkoivat he sitä hätistellä meluamalla ja kivittämällä, vaan kun kissa

tunsi, ettei heistä ole sen suurempaa vaaraa, ei se liikahtanutkaan.

Sen oli siinä niin äärettömän hyvä olla, kaikissa jäsenissä oli suloinen raukeus, joka teki ruumiin ja hengen puolikuolleeksi, ettei olisi tahtonut jaksaa silmiään avata, ja niin se vaan makasi siinä hievahtamatta, välittämättä lasten peloitteluista. Miisulle kuitenkin onneksi tuli pihaan posetiivin soittaja, juuri kun pojat olivat hankkeissa viskata kivensä katolle kaikki yhtaikaa, jonka olisi pitänyt varmaan häiritä kissan unta. Kun posetiivi viritti säveleensä, unhottui lapsilta kaikki muu ja he menivät soittokoneen ääreen kädet selän takana kuuntelemaan ja katsomaan.

Kuultuaan soiton huoneeseen, hyppäsi äiti ulos rappusille kuuntelemaan. Pienokainen jäi aivan yksin huoneeseen, ja kun hän kuuli kaikkien jättävän huoneet ja kuuli tuon raikuvan soiton, tuli hänen mielensä niin oudoksi. Häntä peloitti tuo soitto ja hän ei käsittänyt kaikesta tästä muuta kuin että hänet oli jätetty enemmän yksin kuin koskaan ennen. Hän istui lattialla kuin kaikkien unhoittamana, kun oli tullut kiire lähtö ihmettä katsomaan. Pienokainen rupesi itkemään täyttä kurkkua, posetiivin helisevien sävelten kaikuessa korvissaan.

Äidin päähän pisti silloin että voihan hän ottaa pienen ulos, kun oli tämmöinen kaunis kevätpäivä, ja hän meni sisään, kääräsi peitevaatteen lapsen ympärille ja toi sen sylissään ulos.

Näin oli pienokainen päässyt ulos ensi kerran elämässään. Hän istui äitinsä sylissä entistä kalpeamman näköisenä, pelokas ilme kasvoissaan, vaan samalla hän tunsi jotakin iloakin nähdessään kauniin paistavan päivän, kuullessaan iloisesti raikuvaa soittoa ja nähdessään kaikki tutut tässä ympärillään.

— Niin, lapsi kuuntelee soittoa, sanoi hänelle äiti. Se soipi niin koreasti.

Vähitellen mukautui lapsi posetiiviinkin, niin että kun äiti pani hänen käteensä lantin ja vei sen niin soittajalle, ei hän enää pelännyt.

Posetiivi herätti iloa ja elämää kaikissa muissa, vaan Miisu ei liikahtanutkaan mukavasta asennostaan. Toisella silmäpuolellaan se näki koko kometiian eikä välittänyt siitä sen enempää kuin että sen korvat vähän liikkuivat soiton vaikutuksesta.

— Laske tuokin lehmä ulos, kun ammuu tuolla, sanoi isä tullessaan työmaalta kotiin ja nähdessään kaikkien olevan pihalla; posetiivin soittaja meni jo portilla.

Lehmä todellakin ammahteli. Sekin oli tuntenut itsensä yksin jätetyksi, silloin kun kaikki muut olivat rientäneet ulos päivää paistattamaan. Emäntä oli jättänyt lämpimän ilman tähden navetan oven auki, josta eläin sai sieramiinsa kevään tuoksua, samalla kuin välähtävät vesihelmet häikäisivät sen silmiä.

— Kylläpä minä sen laskenkin pitkän talven perästä vähän jalkuuttelemaan, sanoi emäntä.

— Laske, laske: paha vaan että musiikki ennätti mennä pois: lehmä olisi saanut tanssia pelin mukaan.

Päästyään ulos, juoksenteli Onnikki ympäri pihaa, hyppi ja teki äkillisiä pyörähdyksiä, juoksi ja laukkasi häntä suorana, niin että sieramet soivat. Välistä se vähän pysähtyi hengittämään, vaan sitte taas läksi yhtäkkiä laukkaamaan. Eräässä kohti se tapasi lumen alta

paljastunutta nurmea, jota se pysähtyi haistelemaan ja veti syvälle sieramiinsa, tunteakseen oliko siinä vihannuutta. Mutta se oli vaan kuollutta kuloa, ja lehmä kääntyi siitä pois. Maailma näytti kuitenkin jo niin hauskalta ja vapaa hetki teki mielen niin iloiseksi, että eläin sai aivan raivoisan puuskan hyppiä ja ilvehtiä; sen jalat penkoivat pihamaahan syviä jälkiä.

Seisoessaan sen jälkeen parressaan tuhki Onnikki vielä hengästyneenä sieramiinsa ja silmät pyörtivät ja päätä tuntui huimaavan. Se pureksi hajamielisesti eteen pantuja heiniä, koko sen olennossa oli vielä jotakin riehuvata ja ilosta kuohahtanutta. Eläin oli ahminut vapautta ja raitista, lämminnyttä ilmaa liijan suurin siemauksin, ja se oli sen juovuttanut. Räystäältä putoilevat välähtävät vesihelmet heleine väreineen tahtoivat nyt kokonaan häikäistä sen tavallista suuremmiksi auvenneet silmät.

Saman tapaisessa tilassa oli pieni lapsikin istuessaan pimeän, ikävän näköisen peräkammarin lattialla. Hän ei ollut oikein selvillä siitä, mitä oli tapahtunut, vaan tunsi epäselvää aavistusta, että hän oli käynyt jossakin, joka oli hänelle aivan uutta ja outoa, nähnyt jotakin hyvin valoisata ja iloista, joka tulee häntä voimakkaasti puoleensa vetämään.

— Niinpä on kuin mielenmuutoksissaan, sanoi äiti, ottaessaan lapsen lattialta syliinsä imetettäväksi. Lapsella oli omituinen hajamielinen katse.

Tämä oli Penttisen talossa ensimäinen kevätpäivä, sillä posetiivin soittaja oli käynyt pihassa, pienokainen oli ensi kerran saanut olla ulkona ja Onnikki oli kevät-iloissaan penkonut pihamaahan syviä jälkiä.

Eerikki.

Kauppaneuvoksen myllyn hoitajan vaimo tuli poikansa Eerikin kanssa kauppaneuvoksen puheille konttooriin kl. 2:n jälkeen, juuri kun konttoristit olivat menneet päivällistunnille. Vainio oli pukeutunut parhaisiin vaatteihinsa ja näytti vasta peseytyneeltä, puhdaskasvoiselta. Pojan pää oli kasteltu, ja kammattu.

— Mitäs kuuluu? kysyi kauppaneuvos vaimolta tuttavallisesti ja antoi hänelle kättä.

— Minä taas tulin tämän pojan kanssa, herra kauppaneuvos. Ei tästä saa kalua koulussa eikä missään. Tänä päivänä taas laittoivat opettajat koulusta pois eivätkä kuulu ennen huolivan takaisin ennen kuin isä tulisi ja koululla kurittaisi. Vaan se mieheni, joka muutenkaan ei suvaitse koko poikaa, ei sano lähtevänsä opettajain häväistäväksi. Niin minä tulin taas herra kauppaneuvokselta kysymään, mitä tälle pojalle pitäisi tehdä.

Vaimo oli hyvin huolissaan, vaan kauppaneuvos, joka muisti oman samanlaisen pahankurisuutensa lapsuutensa ajoilta ja koulusta eroittamisensa, katseli jonkunlaisella mielihyvällä ja rakkaudella tuota rohkeakasvuista 13-vuotiasta poikaa, jossa hän niin hyvästi tunsi omat kauniit piirteensä, ja joka niin samalla lailla kuin hänkin osasi pitää päätään vähän eteen päin nuukallaan. Hän löi poikaa olkapäähän ja sanoi:

— Kyllä tästä pojasta mies tulee muutenkin kuin kouluissa! Elä Maria ollenkaan huolehdi pojastasi, minä takaan, että kyllä siitä mies tulee. Ei pakoiteta poikaa kouluun, kun se ei sen luonnolle sovi. Minä otan pojan huostaani.

— Mihin kauppaneuvos aikoo Eerikin panna?

— Minä otan Eerikin asiapojakseni, ja siitä se voi päästä viimein vaikka kauppaneuvokseksi — heh, heh!

— Kauppaneuvos laskee leikkiä. Vaan hyväpä olisi, jos kauppaneuvos ottaisi pojan. Siitä on semmoinen risti siellä kotona, kun se mieheni sitä vielä niin hylkii.

— Mutta kyllä pojan siltä pitäisi pitää asuntoa siellä kotona. Koeta Maria sovitella sen miehesi kanssa. Tulkoon Eerikki sitte aamulla tänne.

— Kiitoksia, herra kauppaneuvos! Sepä nyt oli hyvä asia. Menehän Eerikki jo ulos, minulla on kauppaneuvokselle vähän asiaa.

— Niin, kauppaneuvos antaisi anteeksi, vaan minun täytyy nyt pyytää, että eikö kauppaneuvos taas vähän auttaisi minua. Tarvitsisin vähän rahaa tuon pojan tähden. Se oli kivellä viskannut kaksi ikkunaa rikki siitä naapurista, niin ne pitäisi maksaa. En ole uskaltanut Taavetille mainitakaan koko asiasta, kun se on niin karsas sille pojalle. Minun on oikein pitänyt vartioida, ettei se kerran löisi sitä kuoliaaksi. Sen tähden sille ei uskalla kaikkia pojan pahoja tekoja kertoakaan. Taavetti sanoo, että pojasta on tullut samallainen mustilainen kuin kauppaneuvos on!

Kauppaneuvos nauroi vaimon kanssa ja taputti vaimoa poskelle, johon oli juuri kohonnut heikko puna.

— Tässä on 10 markkaa, ehkä sinä sillä tulet toimeen.

— Tuhannet kiitokset, herra kauppaneuvos! Tällä minä olen hyvinkin autettu.

Vaimo meni.

Aamulla kun Eerikki tuli konttoorille, kauppaneuvos puoleksi teeskennellyn ankarasti nuhteli ja varoitteli häntä ja antoi ohjeita.

Eerikki sai olla etuhuoneessa, jossa hänellä oli pöytä ja istuin. Kun häntä tarvittiin, kilisi sähkökello vierellään seinässä.

Eerikillä oli kauppaneuvoksen vanhoista vaatteista laitetut vaatteet, tukkansa oli äitinsä karkeasti leikannut, kastellut ja kammannut.

Kauppaneuvos toi hänen eteensä pöydälle kasan vanhoja satukirjoja, kauppaneuvokselle itselleen aivan tuntemattomia.

— Ehkä näissä on sinulle hupaista lukemista, ettei aikasi tule ikäväksi, sanoi kauppaneuvos.

Eerikki oli tottunut pitämään ikävinä kaikkia kirjoja, vaan mielestään oli kauppaneuvos määrännyt hänet lukemaan noita kirjoja, ja velvollisuudenomaisella tunteella selaili hän paksuja satukirjoja, katseli kuvia ja viimein alkoi lukeakin. Kirjat olivatkin hänestä hyvin hupaisia, ja kaikella lapsen vilkkaalla mielikuvituksellaan rupesi hän seuraamaan satujen ihmeellisiä juttuja.

Väkisin hän riistäytyi lukemisestaan, kun sähkökello soi ja hänet lähetettiin asialle.

Ensi päivinä hän kävi asioilla sukkelasti ja säntillisesti, kaikessa kiireessä vaan poikkesi syrjäkaduille vetämään pari savua paperossin tai sikaarin pätkistä, joita oli konttoorilla roskalaatikosta poiminut taskuunsa ison varaston. Vaan vähitellen alkoi hän

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