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INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO TEACHING AND ASSESSING TEAMWORK IN HIGHER EDUCATION
This guide will help instructors better understand the skills that underlie effective teamwork, offer strategies for structuring group projects, and provide advice on imparting the knowledge and support that students need to develop highly functional, advanced teamwork skills.
Even instructors with a great deal of experience in structuring collaborative learning projects may recognize the gap that exists between their current efforts in providing students with teamwork experiences and effectively training students’ teamwork skills. By drawing on literature from the fields of organizational teamwork and teamwork pedagogy in higher education, the authors identify the processes associated with effective teamwork, relate these processes to teamwork in student teams, and distill and organize strategies for developing students’ teamwork knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Featuring evidence-informed tools, case studies, and best practices, this highly practical text provides everything higher
education instructors need to target and advance their students’ teamwork competencies while maximizing the learning benefits of peer collaboration.
Cynthia G. Campbell is Associate Professor of Psychological Science at Boise State University, USA.
Iryna Babik is Assistant Professor of Psychological Science at Boise State University, USA.
R. Eric Landrum is Professor of Psychological Science at Boise State University, USA.
INNOVATIVE
APPROACHES
TO
TEACHING AND ASSESSING TEAMWORK IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Setting Priorities, Using EvidenceInformed Practices, and Avoiding Pitfalls
Cynthia G. Campbell, Iryna Babik, andR. Eric Landrum
The right of Cynthia G. Campbell, Iryna Babik, and R. Eric Landrum to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademarknotice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Title: Innovative approaches to teaching and assessing teamwork in higher education : setting priorities, using evidence-informed practices, and avoiding pitfalls / Cynthia G. Campbell, Iryna Babik and R. Eric Landrum.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2024. | Includes bibliographical references. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2023037318 (print) | LCCN 2023037319 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032581347 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032581590 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003445302 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Group work in education--Study and teaching (Higher) | Team learning approach in education. | College teaching--Methodology. Classification: LCC LB1032 .C36 2024 (print) | LCC LB1032 (ebook) | DDC 371.3/6-dc23/eng/20231115
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023037318
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023037319
ISBN: 978-1-032-58134-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-58159-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-44530-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003445302
To teamwork efforts everywhere, whether you are teaching teamwork, learning about teamwork, or just trying to be the bestteammateyou canpossibly be.
Listoffigures
Listoftables
Listofboxes
Preface
FIGURES
2.1 The Action Research Model, An Iterative Learning Strategy
4.1 Commonly Used Teamwork Intervention Strategies
6.1 Cyclical Tuckman’s Model, With Stages and Leadership Strategies
7.1 Attitudes Toward Team-Based Learning
7.2 Student Perceptions of Motivation Toward Teamwork
7.3 The Team-Q Survey
9.1 Multidimensional Assessment of Teamwork in Sport
9.2 Measuring the Core Conditions for Team Effectiveness
9.3 The Collaboration Assessment Tool
TABLES
2.1 Categorization of Student Groups
2.2 Effective Teamwork Processes
2.3 Effective Student Teamwork Processes Model
2.4 Teamwork Emergent States
3.1 Various Approaches to Deterring Social Loafing
5.1 Pros and Cons of Commonly Used Team Formation Methods
5.2A Student Example of Group Self-Assessment Survey Questions
5.2B Additional Example of Group Self-Assessment Survey Questions
5.3 Uncertainty Avoidance Culture and Preferences
5.4 Team Formation Tools/Aids
6.1 Team Roles with Descriptions
6.2 Leadership Strategies for Building Trust in Tuckman’s Stages
6.3 Belbin’s Team Roles, with Strengths and Weaknesses
6.4 Main Features of Belbin’s Team Roles
6.5 Teamwork Reflection Questions
7.1 The Learning Partner Rating Scale
7.2 Teamwork Evaluation Scale
7.3 Dimensions, Components, and Elements of Teamwork Competence
7.4 Classification of Team Processes
7.5 Teamwork Competencies for Assessment
7.6 Sample Items from the Teamwork Knowledge Test
7.7 Varela and Mead (2018) Teamwork Measure
8.1 Virtual Teamwork Competencies
9.1 Personality-Based Performance Risks, Derailers of Interpersonal Behavior
9.2 The Assessment of Interpersonal Team Collaboration Scale
9.3 Teamwork Skills in the TeamUP Rubric
12.1 COVID-19 Stressors with a Negative Influence on Team Performance
12.2 The Effect of COVID-19 on Teams
12.3 Leadership Tactics for Better Team Meetings
12.4 Recommendations for Improving Teamwork with Implementation Tips
BOXES
1.1 Focusing on the Development of Team Membership Skills [Engineering Case Study]
2.1 The Use of Online Business Simulations for Accounting, Finance, Marketing, and Business Ethics [Business Case Study]
3.1 Software Coding, Integration Testing, and Preventing Airplane Crashes [Mathematics Case Study]
4.1 Using Scientific Principles to Better Understand the Risk of Bioterrorism [Biology Case Study]
5.1 Does the Mozart Effect Actually Help Improve Concentration? [Psychology Case Study]
6.1 Working Through the Implications of an Industrial Disaster [Chemistry Case Study]
7.1 Embracing the Acquisition of Emotional Intelligence Skills [Nursing Case Study]
8.1 The Specific Skills That Teamwork Competency Provides [Ecology Case Study]
9.1 How Can Digitized Approaches Be Used to Capture Teamwork Learning Outcomes? [Education Case Study]
10.1 Computer-Aided Design with Engineering Knowledge Leverages Teamwork to Teach Music [Music Case Study]
11.1 Archaeology Can Help Develop Teamwork Skills [Anthropology Case Study]
12.1 The Role of Teamwork in Storytelling in Improvisation and Theater [Theater Case Study]
PREFACE
Wouldn’t it have been a bit ironic for a book about teaching teamwork to have been authored by a singular individual? It is likely you have heard of the saying, “It takes a village…” – that saying could just as easily be rephrased as “It takes a team….”
Many instructors have the best intentions when they assign a group activity in class or design a course outcome that requires sustained teamwork over time. These instructors may realize the importance of teamwork skills in the workplace and may even have elegant projects designed for students to conquer. However, far too often, students are assembled into groups or teams with no training, no practice, and no coaching. What level of performance would you expect from individuals who were assembled as a group but were never taught how to work as a team; that is, were not given training, did not practice, and were not coached on teamwork?
There is no paucity of advice on the use and management of teamwork in undergraduate education. Advice can be found in a host of articles, blogs, books, and other publications. A quick Google search of the terms “teaching teamwork in higher education” produces 66.5 million results. In Google Scholar, the same search terms produce nearly one million results. Much of the advice contains lists of dos and don’ts and descriptions of various one-off
approaches. A conscientious instructor hoping to improve teamwork in their course or address one of the many pitfalls teams often experience will find it difficult to locate clear, evidence-based solutions. They may find quick-fix strategies and a host of opinions, but the complexities of teamwork don’t often align with quick fixes. Rather, teamwork involves many complex processes, affected by numerous factors, and becoming an effective teammate is a skill we all develop throughout our lives.
Furthermore, attempting to solve the problems that student teams experience often involves a band-aid approach, whereas what we really need is to structure teamwork in a way that minimizes these problems in the first place. This is why we suggest focusing on teaching teamwork skills and setting up the structures for supporting and facilitating effective teamwork – because this approach answers both problems – those related to students’ teamwork skills and teamwork that is structured to reduce common problems that otherwise arise in student teams. In writing this book, our goal is to provide instructors with evidence-informed tools and strategies to prepare students for their future, where they will undoubtedly be required to work effectively with others in various environments. As a team leader or a team member, these are roles that we each play multiple times over a lifetime.
Your three authors are passionate proponents of teamwork and are experienced advocates – and we have also seen the pitfalls of student teamwork, including social loafing, “divide and conquer,” and the “I’ll just do it myself” attitude. Student pushback and resistance are common when teaching teamwork, yet, we offer concrete advice on how to address these concerns, including evidence-informed tips and rubrics for the assessment of teamwork skills in your course. We have culled the literature for what is real and not real and experimented with lots of approaches – drawing out real answers, evidence-informed tools, and strategies that you can use to help your students. We’ve saved you from parsing those 66.5 million or even the slimmed-down one million results to search on your own. By reflecting on the ideas in this book and applying the strategies suggested in your teaching, you will feel more confident in your
ability to provide your students with teamwork experiences that are positive, effective, and through which they can advance their teamwork skills. Having been successful in their teamwork, your students will feel more confident in their teaming skills and will have a model for how to enact those skills in the workplace. There may also be carry-over effects in their personal lives and relationships. This is much for a book to promise, but we think you will see the potential here as you explore these strategies and start implementing them in your teaching.
Collaborating as a team of authors on this book has been a valuable learning experience, and we express our gratitude toward those who provided their assistance. Dr. Mary Pritchard helped us in organizing the teamwork literature, Melissa Kidd provided editorial support, David Brightman recognized the potential of this book, and many others helped publish it. We also extend our thanks to everyone who helped us improve our ideas, gave us valuable support, and encouraged us throughout our lives.
This book is a labor of love to you from us. We wish you many positive outcomes and increased joy and meaningfulness in your teaching.
Cynthia, Iryna, and Eric Boise, Idaho, USA July, 2023
PART I
What is Teamwork, Why Does Teaching it Matter?
1 WHY DEVELOP STUDENTS’ TEAMWORK SKILLS?
DOI: 10.4324/9781003445302-2
Outside my office, I could hear students discussing their latest woes. “Dr. J assigned us a group project, and two of my teammates didn’t submit their work until the last minute. Their work wasn’t very good, and it really hurt our grade. I hate team projects.” Another student piped up, “I know what you mean. Last semester I had to work in a group where one of our group members only showed up for the first meeting. After that, they always had an excuse as to why they couldn’t attend. They kept saying they would do their part, but when it came time to submit our sections, they didn’t submit anything, and I had to write their part at the last minute.” A third student chimed in, “My last team was the worst, but not because of slackers. We had a group member who argued about everything and tried to force us all to do everything their way. There was so much conflict in the group that the instructor eventually split us up and reassigned us to other groups. It was hell. I just don’t understand why instructors keep pushing group projects on us.”
If you assign team projects in your courses, you have likely heard some of these same comments from your students. While there are many reasons to utilize group projects in your college courses, implementing team projects or group work in the classroom involves confronting several challenges, just one of which can be students’ attitudes and the stress and frustration they may experience as they attempt to work together. Despite the challenges, group projects are
an essential part of preparing students for future success in the workplace and in life. Learning to be a positive, contributing member of a team, communicate effectively through difficulties, and hold oneself and others accountable are skills that students need as they transition into today’s workplaces and partner with others to achieve life goals.
Teamwork Skills are Essential in the Workplace
Take a moment to consider the extent to which teamwork skills matter in today’s world. Effective teamwork in the workplace not only involves getting along with others, but it also involves the ability to work effectively in culturally diverse teams and with team members that span several generations (Bennett et al., 2012). Indeed, teamwork skills are critical to the mission of most organizations. For example, consider the degree of coordination and manpower it takes to land a jet on an aircraft carrier in the ocean. The runway is only about 300 feet in length. The pilot, in coordination with the ground crew, has to align the plane correctly with the carrier (a moving target) and descend at just the right angle. The plane must touch down in just the right spot and stop quickly or risk flying off the far end of the runway into the water (Moring, 2005). Luckily there are all sorts of systems and tools that provide guidance, signal position, and even hook the plane to slow it as it lands. Behind all of these systems are people … people who must meticulously coordinate their work to ensure that the planes land safely. If the team does not function effectively, the costs could be catastrophic in terms of both equipment and human lives. This is even more true in critical healthcare teams. The surgeons, nurses, anesthesiologists, surgical technicians, and others must all work well together to ensure that the patient receives the appropriate services and care, often under time constraints and with a host of other factors that may threaten the patient’s life. Miscommunication,
interpersonal conflict, and anything that jeopardizes the team’s ability to coordinate their work threatens the patient’s health.
In actuality, there are teams in organizations of all types that need to perform well together to deliver their services, produce their goods, or perform their work. Ineffective teamwork is costly and problematic to nearly all organizations. It’s no wonder employers are concerned with finding and staffing their organizations with employees who possess strong teamwork skills.
Teams have become the basic working unit of most organizations, with increasing diversity in the manner in which employees are expected to work together (Benishek & Lazzara, 2019). Employees who can communicate clearly, listen carefully to others while taking the time to truly understand, manage conflict, and interact with respect regardless of others’ personalities and differences are highly valued. Valued employees recognize themselves as part of a team, use their strengths and knowledge to contribute to and complement the work of others, compromise, be flexible and resilient, and build strong, positive working relationships with others (NACE, n.d.). Although teamwork skills are clearly necessary in the workplace, and the goal of higher education is to prepare students for success in the workplace and in life, there is a significant gap in the attention given to the development of teamwork skills in higher education (Baird & Parayitam, 2019). Indeed, while college educators provide many opportunities for students to engage in collaborative experiences, the development of students’ teamwork competencies is rarely given direct attention.
Teamwork in Higher Education
To meet the needs of their students and prepare them for future workplace demands, higher education programs need to include a focus on the acquisition of teamwork skills as a central outcome of their curriculum, regardless of discipline. Many accreditation bodies and professional organizations consider teamwork skills to be important student competencies (Association of American Colleges
and Universities, 2008). Accreditation bodies consider teamwork skills acquired by students to be essential for future success in diverse professions, such as medical care, software programming, and design, among others (Tucker & Abbasi, 2016). Yet many academic programs have yet to address the growing recognition of the importance of teamwork skills in their field. Nonetheless, most future jobs will require teamwork skills, and more attention needs to be given to supporting students in their development, regardless of their field of study (Koh et al., 2018).
Investing time in teaching students teamwork skills has several advantages. Teams are more innovative and creative, and they can do more than individuals can do alone (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006). Students have the opportunity to experience greater application of their knowledge and produce more meaningful results when they work in teams. Teams support learning, individually and collectively (Hillyard et al., 2010). Indeed, much research shows that student learning outcomes are greater when students work and learn collaboratively.
Additionally, the social relationships that students develop while working with others can contribute to the affiliation need we all experience as humans. When we have positive teaming experiences, we tend to feel a sense of belonging which results in greater engagement and better morale (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006), and these outcomes are known to be important predictors of academic success. Shimazoe and Aldrich (2010) argue that meaningful college teamwork experiences advance the development of social skills, critical-thinking skills, and civic values. We agree that these are related skills and that the benefits of focusing on the advancement of students’ teamwork skills likely result in many other advantages. Indeed, some researchers (Wilson et al., 2018) have suggested that working in student groups is associated with better mental health and social competence (also see Strom & Strom, 2011).
However, to truly prepare students for the future, teamwork skills training needs to be given significant focus in every degree program. While making the development of teamwork skills a goal of every curricular program is the first step, ensuring that students are
actually trained in teamwork skills, not just given an opportunity to work collaboratively, is key. Academic programs can help to ensure that this goal is met by adding the training of teamwork skills to their program learning outcomes and ensuring that the acquisition of teamwork skills is addressed in the curriculum. Still, in the end, it is often individual instructors who are tasked with advancing students’ teamwork skills. Instructors’ use of student teams in their classrooms withappropriateteamworktraining/developmentsupport is the primary mechanism through which this goal can be met.
Importance of Teaching Teamwork Skills
You may be employing some type of group work in your classroom, using groups or group projects to support students’ learning, and we commend you for your efforts, as collaborative learning can be a powerful medium for advancing individual learning. If you haven’t yet started using group projects, we hope we have convinced you that the opportunity to work in a team and advance one’s teamwork skills is an important part of a college education. Group work is often employed to help students learn the content of a course, and as a tool used for this end, the focus is generally on the product the team produces or the team’s outcome. Yet, the experiences that students have as they attempt to collaborate with each other and coordinate their work and learning have an important impact on them, affecting their learning, perceptions, and attitudes toward teamwork and likely influencing their future behaviors in student groups and in the workplace. We feel strongly that providing students with quality opportunities to develop and practice good teamwork skills is critical to their education and future success.
Unfortunately, given that the focus in college teaming experiences is generally on the team’s outcome while failing to support or address the team’s process, students are often motivated to put in the minimal effort needed to achieve the expected result (SanchoThomas et al., 2009). They often approach the task by working individually as much as possible, using the divide-and-conquer
approach, and then simply compiling their individual efforts at the end, which often results in a lower quality product and poorer learning experience than instructors intend. To combat this problem, some instructors assign student groups to work on complex problems that are less amenable to a divide-and-conquer approach. For example, problem-based learning (PBL) is an active learning pedagogy that has been applied in higher education for a number of years. Students are placed in groups and given authentic problems to solve, through which they are expected to learn the content by defining and seeking a solution to the problem (Sherwood, 2004). Solving complex problems usually requires multiple viewpoints, backgrounds, and expertise, and instructors who utilize PBL as a teaching strategy likely recognize this advantage of teams and seek to leverage it for students’ learning. However, PBL does nothing to support or teach team development (Goltz et al., 2007). Unfortunately, most instructors fail to provide an adequate structure to aid students in establishing and managing effective team dynamics (Bolton, 1999). Many instructors expect students to initiate effective team practices on their own.
Simply assigning students to work together is not enough. Rather, it is important to provide a structure for teamwork so as to give students the tools to address the issues that commonly arise in teams and set up conditions for positive rather than negative teaming experiences. When instructors do not provide support, students suffer. Most instructors are currently providing minimal to no support (for many reasons).
Developing students’ teamwork skills can be compared to developing students’ critical thinking skills; you cannot just teach them what teamwork is and tell them what they need to do. Rather, they need both instruction and structured opportunities to practice the skills, and on-going support. While opportunities to engage in teamwork abound, there is much less intentional structuring of teamwork training processes for students. In fact, this is likely one of the biggest problems with the use of group work in the college classroom. Few instructors are trained in effective team dynamics and know how to guide students in developing healthy team
dynamics. Instructors often not only lack the requisite knowledge, but also the time it would take to acquire that knowledge, so they hope that students will pick it up on their own (Bolton, 1999). Without adequate support, student groups often get caught up in negative team dynamics that they do not know how to avoid or address. Simply experiencing repetitions of group work during their college education is not enough to allow students to learn how to manage conflict and foster constructive team dynamics successfully.
Even instructors with a great deal of experience in structuring collaborative learning experiences for the students in their courses may recognize the gap that exists between their current efforts in providing students with teamwork experiences and effectively training students’ teamwork skills. If you were to ask most instructors to name the specific skills of teamwork, you might get answers like communication, managing conflict, etc. But this common approach to teamwork leaves out many important aspects of the teaming process. Even instructors who have developed some expertise in addressing and advancing students’ teamwork skills may experience challenges.
Thus, we wrote this book for the individual instructor with the purpose of helping instructors better understand the skills that underlie effective teamwork and how to structure team projects, and provide the knowledge and support for teamwork that allows students to develop advanced teamwork skills. In simple terms, this book is about how to teach students teamwork skills through the carefully structured and targeted use of group projects in the college classroom. We offer some strategies for structuring teamwork in the classroom with the goal of providing learning opportunities for the students that more effectively advance their teamwork skills.
In this book, we draw on literature from the fields of organizational teamwork and teamwork pedagogy in higher education to identify the processes associated with effective teamwork. We relate these processes to teamwork in student teams. We distill and organize strategies for developing students’ teamwork knowledge, skills, and attitudes, with the goal of scaffolding their team function to ensure students experience effective teamwork in
their college group work experiences. College instructors can utilize the principles outlined in this book to shift their practices with student groups to target and advance students’ teamwork competencies while also retaining the learning benefits of student teams. We also provide case studies from various disciplines at the end of each chapter from which instructors may draw ideas.
In Chapter 2, we define effective teamwork and teamwork competency. Understanding the processes that underlie teamwork is essential if we are going to create positive teaming experiences for our students – experiences that allow students to practice teamwork skills. In Chapter 2, we explore various models in the organizational teamwork literature to identify the processes a team must enact together to be successful and the skills that individuals must bring to the teamwork experience.
In Chapter 3, we identify common challenges instructors face in teaching teamwork skills. Understanding how current practices address or fail to account for students’ needs regarding teamwork skills allows us to identify the gaps between current practices and effectively train students’ teamwork skills. In Chapter 4, we start to address this gap by integrating workplace models of effective teamwork with teamwork opportunities in the college classroom. We explore new and existing methods for training students’ teamwork skills and improving teamwork processes.
In Chapters 5 and 6, we go deeper into specific methods and strategies that set teams up for success. In Chapter 5, we discuss considerations for structuring the team project(s) and ensuring students have the declarative knowledge they need to engage in effective teamwork. We discuss methods of team formation and the many factors to consider in providing student teams with a strong start. In Chapter 6, we consider the developmental trajectories of teams and how to leverage pedagogical strategies with consideration for the developmental needs of the team. We also offer several resources for structuring team roles and effectively managing and scaffolding student teamwork. In these chapters, we review current pedagogies and suggest new approaches to developing students’
ability to enact effective collaboration and establish transferable teamwork competencies.
We circle back to address the issue of students’ attitudes in Chapter 7 and suggest specific strategies for assessing students’ attitudes toward teamwork. We also recommend strategies for using this information to improve the team formation process. We discuss the intractable issue of equitably grading team products and suggest several methods for solving common teamwork grading problems. Chapter 8 focuses on virtual teams. In this chapter, we describe the challenges unique to teams that collaborate fully online. Additional considerations must be attended to when teaching with teamwork in an online course, as some of the strategies that work well with inperson teams do not translate well to the needs of teams in the virtual environment. In addition to elaborating on important differences, we suggest several modifications when working with virtual teams.
In Part III, Chapters 9–11, we clarify the difference between grading, assessment, and evaluation and offer many resources for evaluating team projects and assessing team dynamics. We provide tools for assessing students’ teamwork competencies and teamwork satisfaction. We explore the various types of assessment, the focus of the assessment, and how the results may vary depending on who is responding to the assessment. We also consider how to leverage assessment as a learning tool for instructors and their students.
Finally, in Chapter 12, we outline some next steps in thinking about the teaching and enacting of teamwork. We suggest some future directions for the science of teamwork and highlight the key takeaways of this book.
BOX 1.1 FOCUSING ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEAM MEMBERSHIP SKILLS [ENGINEERING CASE STUDY]
From the perspective of educators in the Canadian Engineering Education Association, Al-Hammoud et al. (2017) identified six areas of teamwork where additional training and evaluation would be immediately valuable to
undergraduate engineering students: team membership and coordination, team communication, understanding conflict, constructing feedback, conflict resolution, and applying teamwork. At the time of publication in 2017, the training and evaluation approach by Al-Hammoud et al. had been fully designed, and four of the six training modules listed were also being used in engineering courses.
This curriculum was designed in such a way that each training module would be completed per semester, ending with a capstone experience for the engineering student. The basic framework that was adopted for measuring the effectiveness of this teamwork training was Kirkpatrick’s (1996) model of training evaluation. This model has four levels (which the article goes into with some detail): reaction, learning, behavior, and result.
The first module focused on team membership skills, with students learning about the differences between a group and a team and also working through the Tuckman stages of team development. After some piloting, this module focuses on basic skills, team orientation, leadership skills, and backup behaviors. There are online videos for students to watch and brief activities interspersed throughout. Students relied on Gantt charts for much of this module.
The second module had the goal of students developing and honing communication skills. Given that communication is such a broad area, there were four specific sub-goals for students here: 1) making the message effective specifically for the targeted audience, 2) understanding open and closed message types when asking strategic questions, 3) watching body language while also listening actively, and 4) when concluding, summarizing and paraphrasing to ensure minimal mistakes in communication. Engineering students enjoy the LEGO building activity here that involves builders, directors, and runners in order to construct a structure in a limited amount of time.
The third module involves an introduction to conflict resolution, including different types of conflict, such as task conflict, process conflict, and relationship conflict. The idea here is that if students, before entering into teamwork tasks, can learn about when and why conflicts occur perhaps teamwork conflict can be mitigated in some situations. It is important to the engineering faculty that students recognize other students’ needs and perspectives. To that end, Al-Hammoud et al. (2017) relied on the MyersBriggs Type Inventory for students to self-assess personality types, and be able to learn about the outcomes of the MBTI through online videos.
The fourth module was all about practicing prior skills that were introduced in previous modules, specifically communication and team membership skills. This module focuses on feedback and having engineering students come to value both giving feedback to others and seeking feedback from others. This involves learning the nuances of providing feedback in such a way that it is
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APPENDIX
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.
A few tables of measures may be helpful here because accurate measurements are necessary to insure success in the preparation of any article of food.
All dry ingredients, such as flour, meal, powdered sugar, etc., should be sifted before measuring.
The standard measuring cup contains one-half pint and is divided into fourths and thirds.
To measure a cupful or spoonful of dry ingredients, fill the cup or spoon and then level off with the back of a case-knife.
In measures of weight the gram is the unit.
A “heaping cupful” is a level cup with two tablespoonsful added.
A “scant cupful” is a level cup with two tablespoonsful taken out.
A “salt spoon” is one-fourth of a level teaspoon.
To measure butter, lard and other solid foods, pack solidly in spoon or cup and measure level with a knife.
TABLE OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS[13]
4saltspoons = 1 teaspoon, tsp.
3teaspoons = 1 tablespoon, tbsp.
4tablespoons = ¼ cup or ½ gill.
16tablespoons (dry ingredients) = 1 cup, c.
12tablespoons (liquid) = 1 cup
2gills = 1 cup
2cups = 1 pint.
2pints = 1 quart.
4quarts = 1 gallon.
2tablespoons butter = 1 ounce.
1tablespoon melted butter = 1 ounce
4tablespoons flour = 1 ounce
2tablespoons granulated sugar = 1 ounce
2tablespoons liquid = 1 ounce.
2tablespoons powdered lime = 1 ounce.
1cup of stale bread crumbs = 2 ounces.
1square Baker’s unsweetened chocolate = 1 ounce
Juice of one lemon = (about) 3 tablespoons
5tablespoons liquid = 1 wineglassful
4cups of sifted flour = 1 pound
2cups of butter (packed solid) = 1 pound
2cups of finely chopped meat (packed solidly)= 1 pound
2cups of granulated sugar = 1 pound
2⅔cups of powdered sugar = 1 pound
2⅔cups brown sugar = 1 pound
2⅔cups oatmeal = 1 pound
4¾cups rolled oats = 1 pound
9to 10 eggs = 1 pound
1cup of rice = ½ pound
APOTHECARIES WEIGHTS
[13]
20grains = 1 scruple, ℈
3scruples = 1 drachm, ʒ
8drachms (or 480 grains) = 1 ounce, ℥
12ounces = 1 pound, lb.
APOTHECARIES MEASURES
[13]
60minims (M) = 1 fluid drachm, f ʒ
8fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce, f ℥
16fluid ounces = 1 pint, O or pt.
2pints = 1 quart, qt
4quarts = 1 gallon, gal
APPROXIMATE MEASURES
[13]
One teaspoonful equals about 1 fluid drachm.
One dessertspoonful equals about 2 fluid drachms
One tablespoonful equals about 4 fluid drachms
One wineglassful equals about 2 ounces.
One cup (one-half pint) equals about 8 ounces.
METRIC MEASURES OF WEIGHT[13]
In measures of weight the gram is the unit
1gram 1.0 gm.
1decigram 0.1 gm.
1centigram 0.01 gm.
1milligram 0 001 gm
FOOTNOTES:
[13] Practical Diatetics, Alida Frances Pattee, Publisher, Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
Classification of Diets.
The purpose is not to give below such receipts as are found in ordinary cook books, but simply to suggest foods useful for invalids, for semi-invalids, or for chronic, abnormal conditions of digestive organs.
BEVERAGES.
Beverages are primarily to relieve thirst; they may also contain food elements; they may be used for their effect in heat and cold; for their flavor which helps to increase the appetite; or for their stimulating properties.
WATER. Pure and carbonated; mineral waters contain iron, sulphur, lithium, etc.
Hot drinks should be served at a temperature of from 122 to 140 degrees F When water is used as a hot drink it should be freshly drawn, brought to a boil and used at once This sterilizes and develops a better flavor
Cold water should be thoroughly cooled, but not iced, unless ice water is sipped very slowly and held in the mouth until the chill is off. Water is best cooled by placing the receptacle on ice rather than by putting ice in the water.
FRUIT JUICES. Under fruit juices are Grape juice, apple juice, Currant juice, pineapple juice, Orangeade and lemonade
They are especially grateful to fever patients and are often used to stimulate the appetite. They are particularly valuable for the acids
which they contain, which stimulate the action of the kidneys and the peristaltic action of the digestive tract; they also increase the alkalinity of the blood
Apples contain malic acid, lemons citric acid and grapes tartaric acid. The ferment in the ripe pineapple juice aids in the digestion of proteins.[14]
Lemonade. Wash and wipe a lemon. Cut a slice from the middle into two pieces to be used in the garnish before serving; then squeeze the juice of the rest of the lemon into a bowl, keeping back the seeds. Add sugar and boiling water; cover and put on ice to cool; strain and pour into a glass.
Fruit Lemonade. To change and vary the flavor, fresh fruit of all kinds may be added to strong lemonade, using boiling water as directed above.
Egg Lemonade. Beat an egg thoroughly, add 2 tablespoonsful of sugar, 2 tablespoonsful of lemon juice and gradually pour in one cup of cold water. Stir until smooth and well mixed. Serve thoroughly cold. This drink is very easily digested, the lemon having partly digested the egg; 2 tablespoonsful of sherry or port may be added.
Bran Lemonade. Mix ¼ cup of wheat bran with 2 cups of cold water. Allow this to stand over night and in the morning add the juice of a lemon.
Pineapple Lemonade. Mix ½ cup of grated pineapple with the juice of 1 lemon and 2 tablespoonsful of sugar; add ½ cup of boiling water,
put on ice until cool, then add 1 cup of ice cold water. Strain and serve.
Grape Lemonade. To one cup of lemonade, made as directed above, rather sweet, add ½ cup of grape juice.
Orangeade is prepared as lemonade. The juice of one sour orange to 2 tablespoonsful of sugar and ½ cup of boiling water is about the right proportion.
Mixed Fruit Drink. Mix ¼ cup of grated pineapple, the juice of ½ a lemon, the juice of ½ an orange, 1 cup of boiling water and sugar to taste. Put on the ice until cool. Strain and add more cold water and sugar according to taste.
Pineapple Juice. Pour ½ cup of pineapple juice over crushed ice and serve in a dainty glass. This is especially helpful in cases of weak digestion and in some throat troubles as stated above, the pineapple aids protein digestion.
Lemon Whey. Heat one cup of milk in a small sauce pan, over hot water, or in a double boiler. Add two tablespoonsful of lemon juice; cook without stirring until the whey separates. Strain through cheese cloth and add two teaspoons of sugar. Serve hot or cold. Garnish with small pieces of lemon.
Wine Whey may be made in the same way, using ¼ cup of sherry wine to 1 cup of hot milk.
Grape Juice, Apple Juice and Currant Juice are tonics and make a dainty variety for the sick room. They should be used according to their strength, usually about ⅓ of juice to ⅔ water. They should be kept cold and tightly corked until ready to serve
Grape Lithia. Add 4 ounces of Lithia water to 1 ounce of grape juice and two teaspoons of sugar.
Grape Nectar. Boil together 1 pound of sugar and ½ pint of water until it begins to thread. Remove from the fire and when cool add the juice of 6 lemons and one quart of grape juice. Let stand over night. Serve with ice water, Apollinaris, or plain soda water.
Tea Punch. Pour boiling lemonade, sweetened to taste, over tea leaves. Allow the liquid to stand until cool. Then strain and serve with shaved ice and slices of lemon. This makes a delicious cooling drink for hot weather.
LIQUID FOODS.
Under this heading such liquids are given as are actual foods.
MILK. Milk is a complete food and a perfect food for infants, but not a perfect food for adults It may be used as
Whole or skimmed;
Peptonized; boiled;
Sterilized, pasteurized;
Milk with lime water, Vichy or Apollinaris; With equal parts of farinaceous liquids;
Albuminized milk with white of egg;
Milk with egg yolk, flavored with vanilla, cinnamon or nutmeg; Milk flavored with coffee, cocoa, or meat broth; Milk punch; milk lemonade; Koumiss; kefir or whey, with lemon juice, as above
EGG PREPARATIONS These consist of
Albumin water (diluted white of egg), flavored with fruit juice; Egg lemonade; egg orangeade;
Egg with meat broth;
Egg with coffee and milk; Chocolate eggnog.
Often the white of egg, dissolved in water or milk, is given when the yolk cannot be digested, because of the amount of fat which the yolk contains.
Where one is inclined to billiousness, the egg is better digested if beaten in wine
The albuminous or egg drinks are best prepared cold.
Eggnog. To make eggnog, separate the white and the yolk, beat the yolk with ¾ of a tablespoonful of sugar and a speck of salt until creamy. Add ¾ of a cup of milk and 1 tablespoonful of brandy. Beat the white until foamy, add to the above mixture and serve immediately. A little nutmeg may be substituted for the brandy. The eggs and milk should be chilled before using. Eggnog is very nutritious.
Egg Broth. Beat the yolk of 1 egg, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar and a speck of salt. Add 1 cup of hot milk and pour it on gradually. Flavor with nutmeg.
Dried and rolled bread crumbs may be added, or beef, mutton or chicken broth may be used in place of the milk, and the sugar may be
omitted. The whole egg may be used if desired.
This is very delicious made with beef broth, instead of hot milk Pineapple juice or coffee may be used.
Coffee Eggnog. 1 egg, 1¼ teaspoons of sugar, ½ scant cup of milk or cream, ½ scant cup of coffee
Egg Malted Milk. Mix 1 tablespoonful of Horlick’s Malted Milk with 1 tablespoonful of crushed fruit and 1 egg; beat for five minutes Strain and add 20 drops of acid phosphate, 1 tablespoonful of crushed ice and ¾ cup of ice water A grating of nutmeg may be used for flavor
Grape Yolk. Separate the white and the yolk of an egg, beat the yolk, add the sugar and let the yolk and sugar stand while the white of the egg is thoroughly whipped Add two tablespoonsful of grape juice to the yolk and pour this on to the beaten white, blending carefully Have all ingredients chilled before blending and serve cold
Albuminized Milk. Beat ½ cup of milk and the white of one egg with a few grains of salt Put into a fruit jar, shake thoroughly until blended Strain into a glass and serve cold
Albumin Water. Albumin water is used chiefly for infants in cases of acute stomach and intestinal disorders, in which some nutritious and easily assimilated food is needed The white of 1 egg is dissolved in a pint of water, which has been boiled and cooled
Albuminized Grape Juice. Put two tablespoonsful of grape juice into a dainty glass with pure chopped ice. Beat the white of one egg, turn into the glass, sprinkle a little sugar over the top and serve
FARINACEOUS BEVERAGES.
These are all made by slowly adding cereals, such as barley, rice, oatmeal, etc., to a large quantity of boiling water and cooking from two to three hours and then straining off the liquid and seasoning to taste They are particularly valuable when only a small amount of nutriment can be assimilated Since the chief ingredient is starch, long cooking is necessary to make soluble the starch globules and to change the starch into dextrin, so that it can be more readily digested Since these drinks are given only in case of weak digestion, it is important that they be taken slowly and held in the mouth until they are thoroughly mixed with the saliva
Barley Water. (Infant feeding) Mix 1 teaspoonful of barley flour with two tablespoonsful of cold water, until it is a smooth paste Put in the top of a double boiler and add gradually one pint of boiling water Boil over direct heat five minutes, stirring constantly; then put into a double boiler, over boiling water, and cook fifteen minutes longer This is used as a diluent with normal infants and to check diarrhoea.
For children or adults use ½ teaspoonful of barley or rice flour, 1 cup of boiling water and ¼ teaspoonful of salt Cream or milk and salt may be added for adults, or, lemon juice and sugar, according to the condition
Barley water is an astringent and used to check the bowels when they are too laxative.
Rice Water. Wash two tablespoonsful of rice, add 3 cups of cold water and soak thirty minutes. Then heat gradually and cook one hour until the rice is tender. Strain through muslin, re-heat and dilute with boiling water or hot milk to the consistency desired. Season with salt; sugar may be added if desired and cinnamon, if allowed, may be cooked with it to assist in reducing a laxative condition. 1 teaspoonful
of stoned raisins may be added to the rice, before boiling, if there is no bowel trouble.
Oatmeal Water. Mix 1 tablespoonful of oatmeal with 1 tablespoonful of cold water. Add a speck of salt and stir into it a quart of boiling water. Boil for three hours, replenishing the water as it boils away. Strain through a fine sieve or cheese cloth, season and serve cold. Sufficient water should be added to keep the drink almost as thin as water
Toast Water. Toast thin slices of stale bread in the oven; break up into crumbs; add 1 cup of boiling water and let it stand for an hour. Rub through a fine strainer, season with a little salt. Milk, or cream and sugar may be added if desirable This is valuable in cases of fever or extreme nausea
Crust Coffee. Dry crusts of brown bread in the oven until they are hard and crisp. Pound or roll them and pour boiling water over. Let soak for fifteen minutes, then strain carefully through a fine sieve
Meat Juice. Meat juice may be prepared in three ways:
(1) Broil quickly, or even scorch, a small piece of beef Squeeze out the juice with a lemon squeezer, previously dipped in boiling water. Catch the juice in a hot cup. Season and serve. If desirable to heat it further, do so by placing the cup in hot water.
(2) Broil quickly and put the small piece into a glass jar Set the covered jar in a pan of cold water Heat gradually for an hour, never allowing the water to come to a boil Strain and press out the clear, red juice, season and serve One pound of beef yields eight tablespoonsful of juice
(3) Grind raw beef in a meat grinder; place in a jar with a light cover and add one gill of cold water to a pound of beef. Stand it on ice over night, strain and squeeze through a bag Season and serve
Meat Tea. Meat tea is made in the proportion of a pound of meat to a pint of water. Grind the meat in the meat grinder, place in a jar and cover with cold water. Set the jar in an open kettle of water and cook for two hours or more, not allowing the water to boil Strain, squeeze through a bag, skim off the fat and season
Meat Broth. Meat broth is made from meat and bone, with and without vegetables. The proportion is a quart of water to a pound of meat. Cut the meat into small pieces, add the cold water and simmer until the quantity is reduced one-half Strain, skim and season with salt Chicken, veal, mutton and beef may be used in this way They may be seasoned with onions, celery, bay-leaves, cloves, carrots, parsnips, rice, barley, tapioca; stale bread crumbs may be added
Soups. Clear soups are made by cooking raw meat or vegetables, or both together, slowly, for a long time, straining and using the liquid The flavor may be changed by browning the meat or vegetables in butter before adding the water
Cream Soups are made in the proportion of one quart of vegetables, (such as corn, peas, beans, tomatoes, celery or asparagus) to one pint of water and a pint of milk. Cook the vegetables thoroughly in water and mash through a colander. To this water and pulp add a cream sauce made in the proportion of 4 tablespoonsful of flour, 4 tablespoonsful of butter and a pint of milk for vegetables poor in starch or protein Add 2 tablespoonsful of flour, 2 tablespoonsful of butter and a pint of milk for those rich in protein Season to taste
Tomato acid should be counteracted by the addition of one-eighth tablespoonful of soda before the milk is added.
Potato soup may be flavored with onion or celery, or both
SEMI-SOLID FOODS.
The following lists of foods are given for ready reference.[15]
Jellies.
(a) Meat Jellies and gelatin; veal, beef, chicken, mutton
(b) Starch Jellies, flavored with fruit; cornstarch, arrowroot, sago, tapioca.
(c) Fruit jellies and gelatin.
Custards.
(a) Junkets, milk or milk and egg (rennet curdled), flavored with nutmeg, etc.
(b) Egg, milk custard, boiled or baked
(c) Corn starch, tapioca, boiled custard.
(d) Frozen custard (New York Ice cream ) Gruels. (Farinaceous)
(a) Milk gruels
(b) Water gruels.
Toasts.
(a) Cream toast.
(b) Milk toast
(c) Water toast. Creams.
(a) Plain.
(b) Whipped
(c) Ice cream. Oils.
(a) Plain olive, cotton seed, or nut.
(b) Butter
(c) Emulsion, as mayonnaise.
(d) Cod liver oil, plain or emulsified
SOLID FOODS.
(Suitable for Invalids.)
Cereals.
(a) Porridges and mushes Oatmeal, cornmeal, wheat, rice, etc
(a) Potatoes Baked, boiled, creamed and escalloped.
(b) Sweet potatoes, baked and boiled
(c) Green peas, plain and creamed.
(d) Lima beans, plain and creamed; string beans, plain and creamed; cauliflower, plain and creamed; carrots, parsnips
Fruits.
(a) Fresh—Oranges, grapes, melons, etc etc
(b) Stewed apples, plums, apricots, pears, berries, etc.
(c) Baked apples, bananas, pears
(d) Canned peaches, apricots, plums, pears.
(e) Preserved peaches, plums.
SEMI-SOLID FOODS.
. Meat Jellies are made in two ways:
(1) Cook soup meat (containing gristle and bone) slowly for a long time in just enough water to cover. Strain and set the liquid away in a mold to cool and set. If desired, bits of shredded meat may be added to the liquid before molding.
(2) Use meat broth and gelatin in the proportion of one tablespoon gelatin to three quarters of a cup of hot broth Pour into mold and set on ice.
Starch Jellies. Starch Jellies are made by cooking in a pint of fruit juice or water until clear, two tablespoons of tapioca, arrowroot, sago, cornstarch, or flour Sweeten to taste
If water is used, fresh fruit may be used either in the jelly or in a sauce poured over the jelly.
Fruit Jellies. These are made:
(1) Of fruit juice and sugar in equal quantities, cooked until it will set when cooled;
(2) Of fruit juice and gelatin in the proportion of one tablespoon of gelatin to three fourths of a cup of fruit juice, or one half box gelatin to one and a half pints of juice. Sugar to taste. Made tea or coffee, or cocoa or lemonade may be used in the same proportion.
.—These are made with (1) milk, (2) milk and eggs, (3) milk, egg and some farinaceous substances as rice, cornstarch, tapioca. In the first the coagulum is produced by the addition of rennet, in the other two by the application of heat.
Plain Junket. Dissolve in a cup of lukewarm milk (never warmer), a tablespoon of sugar or caramel syrup. Add a quarter of a junket tablet, previously dissolved in a tablespoon of cold water. Stir a few times, add vanilla, nuts, or nutmeg if desired. Pour into a cup and set aside to cool and solidify. This may be served plain or with whipped cream, or boiled custard.
Egg-Milk Custard. When eggs are used for thickening, not less than four eggs should be used to a quart of milk (more eggs make it richer).
Boiled Custard. One pint of milk, two eggs, half cup of sugar, half saltspoon of salt. Scald the milk, add the salt and sugar, and stir until dissolved. Beat the eggs very thick and smooth. Pour the boiling milk on the eggs slowly, stirring all the time. Pour the mixture into a double boiler, set over the fire and stir for ten minutes. Add flavoring. As soon as a thickening of the mixture is noticed remove from the fire, pour into a dish and set away to cool This custard makes cup custard, the sauce for such puddings as snow pudding, and when decorated with spoonfuls of beaten egg-white, makes floating island
Baked Custard. Proceed as in boiled custard, but instead of pouring into a double boiler pour into a baking dish Set the dish in a pan of water, place in the oven and bake until the mixture is set in the middle
Farinaceous Custards. Make like boiled custard, using one less egg and adding one quarter cup of farina, tapioca, cornstarch, arrowroot, or cooked rice to the hot milk and egg
Sago should be soaked over night before using.
Tapioca should be soaked one hour before using.
Coffee Custard.—Scald one tablespoon of ground coffee in milk and strain before proceeding as for boiled custard.
Chocolate Custard.—Add one square of grated chocolate to the milk
Caramel Custard. Melt the dry sugar until golden brown, add the hot milk, and when dissolved proceed as before Bake
.—Gruels are a mixture of grain or flour with either milk or water. They require long cooking and may be flavored with sugar, nutmeg, cinnamon, or almond.
Take the meal or flour (oatmeal, two tablespoons, or cornmeal, one tablespoon, or arrowroot, one and a half tablespoons) Sift it slowly into one and a half cups boiling water, simmer for an hour or two Strain off the liquid; add to it one teaspoon of sugar, season with salt, and add one cup of warm milk
Water Gruel. If water gruel is desired, let the last cup of liquid added be water instead of milk.
Cream Gruel. A cream gruel may be made by using rich cream instead of milk or water.
Barley Gruel. Barley gruel (usually a water gruel) is prepared as follows: Moisten four tablespoons of barley flour in a little cold water and add it slowly to the boiling water. Stir and boil for twenty minutes.
TOASTS.—Cream Toast.—Toast the bread slowly until brown on both sides. Butter and pour over each slice enough warm cream to moisten (the cream may be thickened slightly and the butter may be omitted.)
Milk Toast. One tablespoon of cornstarch or flour; one cup of milk, salt to taste, and boil Butter the toast and pour over it the above white sauce
Water Toast. Pour over plain or buttered toast enough boiling water to thoroughly moisten it
, .—The distinguishing feature of a souffle is a pastry or pulpy foundation mixture, and the addition of stiffly beaten egg-white. A souffle may or may not be baked.
Plain Souffle. Two tablespoons flour; one cup of liquid (water, milk, or fruit juice); three or four eggs; sugar to suit the fruit. If thick fruit pulp is used, omit the thickening. Beat the egg yolks until thick. Add sugar gradually and continue beating Add the fruit (if lemon juice add some rind also) Fold in the well-beaten whites Bake in a buttered dish (set in a pan of hot water) for thirty-five or forty minutes in a slow oven
Fresh Fruit Souffle. Reduce the fruit to a pulp Strawberries, peaches, prunes, apples, bananas, etc , may be used Sweeten the pulp Beat the egg-white to a stiff froth, add the fruit pulp slowly Chill and serve with whipped cream or soft custard
Chocolate Souffle. Two tablespoons flour; two tablespoons butter; three quarters cup of milk; one third cup of sugar: two tablespoons hot water Melt the butter, add the flour and stir well Pour the milk in gradually and cook until well boiled Add the melted chocolate, to which the sugar and hot water have been added Beat in the yolks and fold in the whites of the eggs Bake twenty-five minutes
Farina Souffle. Cook the farina (four tablespoons) in a pint of boiling water Stir this with the egg-yolks, add sugar or salt, and later fold in the egg-whites, flavor, and set away to cool
The following tables are from “Food and Dietetics,” (Norton), published by the American School of Home Economics, Chicago. They are used in a number of schools of Domestic Science and in Dietetic kitchens in hospitals.
These tables are exceptionally valuable in compiling diets in various combinations. One readily determines the number of grams in various servings of different foods. For example—a small serving of beef (round), containing some fat, weighs 36 grams; forty per cent; 14.4 grams, is protein, and sixty per cent, 21.6 grams, is fat, (no carbohydrates). One ordinary thick slice of white, home made bread weighs 38 grams; thirteen per cent, 4.94 grams, is protein, six per cent 2.28 grams is fat and eighty-one per cent, 30.78 grams, is carbohydrate.
One can readily make up the proportions of proteins, carbohydrates and fats required by the average individual suggested on pages 217-218 from various combinations of foods. Each individual may make this study for himself to know whether his system is receiving too much in quantity, or too large a proportion of proteins or of carbohydrates or of fats.
TABLE OF 100 FOOD UNITS
Name of Food “Portion” Containing 100 Food Units (approx )
