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TECH BILLIONAIRES Development with Justice Te Bihar Experience

Since the nation’s independence, the union and state governments of India have employed a variety of development strategies, some of which have evolved over time. The model of development implemented in Bihar in recent decades is different from its prior development strategies. Along with a number of social reform initiatives, the Bihar government implemented the “developmentwith-justice” model to enhance the lives and living circumstances of the most marginalized groups of the population and ensure the attainment of social justice.

In light of the aforementioned context, this book offers an understanding of the various aspects of the Bihar government’s “development-with-justice” model, and the effects of its implementation on lives and quality of living conditions of the state’s underprivileged population. The book covers a wide spectrum of areas such as history of social reform measures, social justice in education, health, labour market, etc., caste- and gender-based discrimination, women’s empowerment, migrant workers, poverty, inequality, agrarian concerns, planning for development, and so on. Besides recommending policies to improve the state’s development outcomes, this book will aid researchers in identifying topics that may require additional research.

Clearly researched, concise, and up-to-date, this book will be useful to the students and researchers from the fields of development economics, development studies, gender studies, sociology, political science, economic history, as well as the policy-planners in the government.

Sankar Kumar Bhaumik is the Director of the Patliputra School of Economics. Prior to joining the Patliputra School of Economics in August 2020, he served the Departments of Economics of Calcutta University (22 years), Vidyasagar University (9 years), and the Central University of South Bihar (3 and a half years). He became Professor and Head of the Economics Department at Calcutta University and Professor and Head of the Economics Department and Dean of Social Sciences at the Central University of South Bihar. He also served as Director of the Institute of Development Studies in Jaipur. His fields of specialisation are econometrics, the economics of agriculture, Indian economic development, and research methodology. His previous book publications include Principles of Econometrics: A Modern Approach Using EViews, Reforming Indian Agriculture: Towards Employment Generation and Poverty Reduction, Enhancing Agricultural Productivity and Farmer Incomes in Bihar, and Tenancy Relations and Agrarian Development: A Study of West Bengal. He has to his credit 35 research papers published in refereed journals or edited books. He has completed 5 research projects, and supervised 14 PhD theses (all awarded) and 11 MPhil dissertations (all awarded).

Development with Justice Te Bihar Experience

First published 2024 by Routledge

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and by Routledge

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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2024 Patliputra School of Economics

The right of Sankar Kumar Bhaumik to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-032-62637-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-62640-6 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-62641-3 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781032626413

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Dedicated

to All the people of Bihar

1. Mapping the Role of Thinkers in the Context of Ideological Trajectory of Social Justice in Bihar

Sudhanshu Kumar Jha 2. Bihar’s Tryst with Social Justice

Praveen Jha

3. Human Development in Bihar: Dissecting Issues and the Way Forward

4.

Santosh Mehrotra and Rakesh Ranjan Kumar

Abhijit Ghosh and Bhaskar Majumder

5.

Anju Helen Bara and Sonu Prasad

6. Beyond Teacher Quality: Understanding the Moderating Role of Infrastructure in Student Learning Outcomes in Secondary Education

Amrita Singh and Sheo Rama

Subrata Mukherjee and Ashmita Gupta

8.

Arijita Dutta and Rakhi Saha

9.

Sweta Sharan

Kumar Bhaumik

Panchanan Das and Sumita Biswas 12. Caste

Neetu Choudhary 13.

Krishna Ram

viii Development with Justice: The Bihar Experience

14. Multidimensional Deprivations and Social Sector Expenditure in Bihar: A Critical Look

Santosh Verma and Tripti Kumari

15. Marginal Agriculture as Social Security: A Case for Facilitating Access to Land in Bihar

Harshita Bhasin and Anirban Dasgupta

16. Economic Growth and Social Justice: A Study with Reference to Agricultural Households in Bihar

Subhankar Mukherjee and Kranthi Nanduri

17. Access to Institutional Credit and Socio-economic Inequality: Implications for Social Justice in Rural

18. Migration, Marginality and Development: The Case of Bihar

Avinash Kumar and Manish Kumar

19. COVID-19 as Social Crisis and Justice: Migrants from Bihar

Surya Bhushan, Aditi Thakur, Shankar Purbey, S M U Qadri and Urvashi Kaushik

20. Economic Empowerment of Women: A Review of the Jeevika Programme

Sohini Paul

21. The Path Towards Gender Mainstreaming Through Four

Reservation for Women in Bihar Police Force: A Note Kanika Raj

Child Trafficking in Bihar: A Situational Analysis

Juhi Singh, Alok Aditya and Suresh Kumar

and

Arunish Chawla

3.1A

3.1B Ranking of States by Per Capita NSDP (Rs.’000) for 2020-21 (Current Prices; 2011-12 Series)

3.2 Growth of Bihar’s Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) and Per Capita

3.3 Bihar’s Net State Domestic Product as a Percentage of India’s Net Domestic Product: 2012-13 to 2019-20 (Current

3.4 Urban Households with Public Transport within 500 metres from Home (left-side figure) and Rural Households with All-Weather Roads within 2 km from Home (right-side figure)

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

14.1

19.3

19.4

21.4

21.5

24.1

3.1

3.4

3.5

3.6

4.3

4.4

6.4

7.3

7.4

7.5

7.6

7.A2

8.1

8.2

8.3

xii Development with Justice: The Bihar Experience

8.5

8.6 Results of Nested Logistic Regression (including interaction effect)

9.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Districts of Bihar

9.2 Utilisation of Maternal and Child Health Services in the Districts of Bihar, 2019–20

9.3 Composite Index of Maternal and Child Health Care in Districts of Bihar, 2019–20

9.4 Results of Binary Logit Regressions Explaining Maternal Health Care Utilisation in Bihar, 2019-20

10.1 Labour Force Participation Rates in Bihar and All-India by Social Groups

10.2 Workforce Participation Rates in Bihar and All-India by Social Groups

10.3 General Educational Levels of Labour Force by Social Groups in Bihar and All-India in 2021–22 [Percentage]

10.4 Some Indicators of Skill of the Labour Force in Bihar and All-India in 2021-22

10.5 Percentage Distribution of Out of Labour Force Persons Engaged in Different Activities in Bihar and All-India

10.6 List of Explanatory Variables Used in Logit Regression

10.7 Logit Regression Results of Determinants of Participation in Labour Force in Bihar and All-India

10.8 Percentage of Workers in Agriculture and Non-agriculture Sectors in Bihar and All-India 122

10.9 Percentage of Workers in Different Sectors in Bihar and All-India in 2021–22 122

10.10 Percentage of Agriculture and Non-agriculture Workers (UPSS) by Social Groups in Bihar and All-India (Male + Female) 123

10.11 Percentage of Workers in Different Sectors by Social Groups in Bihar and All India (Male + Female) in 2021–22

10.12 Logit Regression Results of Determinants of Choice of Sector of Employment [Dep. variable: fnf = ‘1’ if employed in non-agricultural sector; fnf = ‘0’ Otherwise] 124

10.13 Modes of Employment of Workers by Gender in Bihar and All-India [Percentage] 125

10.14 Modes of Employment of Workers (UPSS) by Social Groups in Bihar and All-India (Male + Female) [Percentage] 126

10.15 Results of Multinomial Logit Regression to Analyse Determinants of Mode of Employment of Workers in Bihar and All India

10.16 Wage/Earnings (in Rs.) of Workers by Gender in Bihar and All-India in 2021–22

10.17 Wage/Earnings (in Rs.) of Workers by Social Groups in Bihar and All-India (Male + Female) in 2021-22

10.18 Incidence of Working Poor Among Social Groups in Bihar and All-India in 2021-22

11.1 Women Workforce Participation and Average Wage Gap by Gender in Different Types of

11.3 Workforce Participation of SC-ST Workers and Average Wage Gap by Types of Employment

11.7 Decomposition (in percent) of Discrimination Index of Earnings

Tables xiii

12.1 Results of Non-Linear Decomposition

13.1 Incidence of Poverty Across Caste Groups in Bihar and India in 2011–12 (as per Rangarajan Poverty Estimates) 163

13.2 Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MMRP) and Calorie Consumption Per Person Per Day Across Caste Groups in Bihar in 2011–12 164

13.3 Percentage Distribution of Ownership Holdings Across Social Groups in Rural Bihar, 2019 165

13.4 Percentage Distribution of Workers According to Their Work Status Across Social Groups in Bihar, 2018–19 (Rural + Urban) 166

13.5 Per Day Average Wage/Earnings (in ₹) of Regular, Casual, Self-Employed Workers (15-59 years) Across Social Groups in Bihar, 2018–19 167

13.7 Incidence of Working Poor Among the Caste Groups in Bihar, 2018–19

13.6 Percentage of Workers Who Earn Less than Minimum Wage Across Caste Groups in Bihar, 2018–19 168

13.8 Head Count Poverty Ratio Across Caste Groups in Bihar, 2018–19 (considering all population) 169

14.1 Monthly Expenditure Household Class in Bihar (in %)

14.2 Distribution of Ownership of Land in Bihar (2012–13 and 2018–19)

14.3 Distribution of Ownership of Land in Bihar by Social Category (2018–19)

14.4 Women and Men below the BMI of 18.5 (Percentage)

14.5 Household-wise Principal Source of Drinking Water in Bihar and India (in %)

14.6 Type of Fuel Used by the Households in Bihar and India

14.7 Households’ Access to Toilets in Bihar and India (in %)

14.8 Social Category-wise Households’ Access to Toilets in Bihar (in %)

15.1 Sectoral Composition of GSVA at Constant (2011-12) Prices in Bihar 188

15.2 Percentage Distribution of Households and Area Owned by Size Class of Ownership Holdings in Bihar 189

15.3 Percentage Distribution of Operational Holdings and Operated Area by Size Class of Operational Holdings in Bihar 189

15.5 Average Monthly Income (in Rs.) per Agricultural Household for Each Size Class of Land Possessed in Bihar (July 2018-June 2019) 190

15.4 Percentage Distribution of Households Reporting Leasing-in of Land and Average Leased-in Area by Size Class of Household Ownership Holdings for Bihar (July 2018-June 2019) 190

16.1 Distribution of Agricultural Households and Land Possessed by Land Class Sizes and Social Groups in Bihar and All-India 200

16.2 Average Expenditure on Physical Assets by Agricultural Households in Bihar and All-India 201

16.3 Amount Borrowed Per Agricultural Household From all Sources in Bihar and All-India 202

16.4 Share of Agricultural Households Borrowing from Formal Sources in Bihar and All-India 203

16.5 Access to Technical Advice by Agricultural Households in Bihar and All-India 203

17.1 Access to Bank Account, KCC and Non-Institutional Loans (in percentage of households) for Various Land Size5, Caste and Religious Categories of Farmer Households in Rural Bihar 208

17.2 Land Size Distribution within Various Castes and Religious Categories of Farmers Households

17.3 Distribution of Loan (in rupees per households) of Indebted Farmer Households by Institutional and Non-institutional Sources for Various Land Size, Caste and Religious Groups in Rural Bihar 211

17.4 Distribution of Farmer Households Based on Different Interest on Loans by Land Size, Caste and Religious Categories in Rural Bihar 212

17.5 Distribution of Farmer Households Based on Different Interest on Loans by Land Size, Caste and Religious Categories within Institutional Loans in Rural Bihar 213

17.6 Distribution of Farmer Households Based on Different Interest on Loans by Land Size, Caste and Religious Categories within Non-Institutional Loans in Rural Bihar 213

17.7 Distribution of Loans of Farmer Households Based on its Purpose Across Various 215

18.1 Number of Ration Card Used Outside the Home States, April 2023

18.2 Number of Migrants from Bihar using Ration Cards Outside the State, April 2023

18.3 Top Destinations and Origins of Migrants in India, 2011

18.4

18.5

18.6

23.4

23.5

24.1

24.2 Profile of Women (20-24 years) who are Currently Unmarried or Married Before the

of 18 Years in Bihar, 2019-20

24.3 Results of Logistic Regression (Odds Ratio) to Identify Determinants of Child

Acknowledgements

The chapters included in this book represent a subset of papers presented in a two-day international conference organised by the Patliputra School of Economics (PSE) in Patna on the very theme of the book on June 2-3, 2023. These chapters have been prepared through dedicated research over a considerable period of time by their respective contributors, using the latest available data and applying appropriate statistical and econometric tools wherever necessary. The chapters have undergone several rounds of revisions in accordance with the suggestions of the editor and referees. The editor is immensely grateful to all the contributors for their cooperation and dedication to making the conference a grand success and for submitting their revised papers within a short period of time.

The idea of organising a conference on this theme was conceived in the course of one of the many academic discussions on Bihar’s economic development the editor had with Shri Amir Subhani (Chief Secretary, Bihar Government). He has been one of the most important motivators for the PSE since its inception to pursue its academic activities in the best possible manner in spite of several constraints as a new institution. Without his constant help and encouragement, we couldn’t have arrived this far. So, the editor conveys his sincere gratitude and respect to him.

The editor received constant help, guidance, and encouragement from Dr. Arunish Chawla (Additional Chief Secretary, Planning and Urban Development Departments, Bihar Government, and former Senior Economist, International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C.). The editor greatly benefited from several discussions with him in the course of devising the agenda of the conference and also at the stage of finalising the contours of the book. Apart from providing the keynote address to the conference, he took active part in deliberations on both days so as to motivate the organisers as well as the academicians who came from different parts of India and abroad. The editor and the entire PSE fraternity convey their gratitude to him.

The editor is also immensely grateful to Smt. Harjot Kaur Bamhrah (Additional Chief Secretary, Art, Culture, and Youth Affairs Department, Bihar Government, and former Chairman-cumManaging Director, Women & Child Development Corporation, Bihar) and Shri Divesh Sehara (Secretary, SC & ST Welfare Department, Bihar Government) for their gracious presence in the conference and motivating the participants through their insightful addresses. We are also grateful to Shri Dipak Kumar Singh (Additional Chief Secretary, Co-operative Department, and former Additional Chief Secretary, Education Department, Government of Bihar) for giving the valedictory address to the conference and helping us with his advice and guidance to organise the event in a satisfactory manner.

The organisation of the conference and publication of this book have been facilitated by the generous financial grants received from the three sponsoring Departments of the Bihar government: Planning & Development, Women & Child Development Corporation, and Bihar Mahadalit Vikas Mission (under the SC & ST Welfare Department). The editor once again conveys his thanks to Dr. Arunish Chawla, Smt. Harjot Kaur Bamhrah, and Shri Divesh Sehara for their kind support in this regard.

All the officers and staff of the three sponsoring departments have been helpful at various stages of the organisation of the conference, and many of them actively participated in it. Prof. Iftekhar Ahmed (former Director, School of Journalism and Mass Communication, Aryabhata Knowledge University) has always been ready to help and guide the editor as his junior colleague. The officers

xvi Development with Justice: The Bihar Experience

and staff of the Aryabhata Knowledge University extended all necessary help and support to ensure the conference’s success. Dr. Sweta Sharan (Assistant Professor and Head, Economics Department, Magadh Mahila College, Patna) and the editor’s former students from the Central University of South Bihar skilfully managed the academic sessions of the conference. Ms. Neha Kumari singlehandedly managed the entire burden of correspondence with contributors and event management during the days of the conference with utmost sincerity. The editor is highly grateful to all of them.

The editor is grateful to Dr. Gagandeep Singh (Senior Publisher), Shri Satya Narayan Sabut (Assistant Territory Manager), Shri Towfeeq Wani (Editor), and the other members of the editorial and production teams at Taylor & Francis (Routledge) for their help and advice at various stages of this work.

Last but not least, the editor would like to convey his gratitude to his wife Bidisha and daughter Jayini, who have always been ready to extend their moral support and encouragement that enabled him to carry out his academic activities as best as possible for many years in the past.

Introduction

The development models followed since independence by the central and state governments in India have varied and kept on changing over time. Accordingly, the model of development implemented in Bihar during the past two decades or so is also substantially different from its previous approaches to development. More precisely, it pursued the ‘development-with-justice’ model under the leadership of Shri Nitish Kumar, Hon’ble Chief Minister of Bihar, focusing specifically on changing the lives and living conditions of the most disadvantaged sections of society to ensure attainment of social justice in the process of economic development. Following this model, the Bihar government undertook several social reform measures as well as a series of welfare programmes for the wellbeing of the disadvantaged sections, such as women, children, backward castes, extremely backward castes, tribes, marginal farmers, landless people, and so on. The ‘development-with-justice’ model of Shri Nitish Kumar connects social and political transformation with the economic development of the state and has ingredients of the socialist, Gandhian, and liberalism-based capitalist paradigms. Thus, one may detect multiple ideas co-existing in this model that are related to political, economic, and social inclusiveness, grassroots democratisation, social empowerment, economic and human development, and so on, all of which are important to bring about the socio-economic transformation in the state in a substantive manner.

Against this backdrop, this book presents an objective evaluation of the social reform measures undertaken and their effects on the disadvantaged population of the state. It delineates the main features of the ‘development-with-justice’ model pursued by the government of Bihar in the recent past and the resultant outcomes of its implementation on the lives and living conditions of the marginalised sections. Accordingly, the book touches upon a wide spectrum of areas such as the history of social justice initiatives, social justice in education, health, the labour market, etc., casteand gender-based discriminations, women’s empowerment, migrant workers, poverty, inequality, agrarian concerns, policies to prevent social evils like child trafficking and child marriage, planning for development, and so on.

The editor refrains from introducing the chapters here, as this has been done at the beginning of each chapter. However, taking an overall view, it may be observed that Bihar’s developmental story of the recent past is by no means one of retrogression or stagnation but one of steady progression. There is no denying the fact that Bihar has advanced on multiple fronts over the past couple of decades or so. However, it must also be admitted that much more still needs to be done. More importantly, the state has to transform itself not only from an economic growth perspective but also from a human development standpoint, focusing specifically on improvements in health, education, employment generation through industrial development, planned urbanisation, addressing the woes of marginal farmers, women’s empowerment, the reduction of class, caste, and gender inequalities, controlling population growth, and so on. After all, development is a continuous process, and there always

xviii Development with Justice: The Bihar Experience

remains scope for improvement in the delivery mechanisms of various programmes through a process of continuous evaluation of past policies and the adoption of new ones framed in accordance with the changing aspirations of the people in a dynamic and democratic society.

It is expected that this book will help to understand the various facets of the ‘development-withjustice’ model of the Bihar government, devise future policies for better implementation of the social reform measures in the state to attain better outcomes in the process of development, and identify some issues on which more research may be undertaken to better understand the social justice delivery mechanisms and their effectiveness to improve the conditions of the weaker sections of society.

Contributors

Abhijit Ghosh, Assistant Professor in Economics, M G College, Purulia

Aditi Thakur, Assistant Professor, Development Management Institute, Patna

Alok Aditya, PhD Scholar, Institute for Social & Economic Change, Bangalore

Amrita Singh, PhD Scholar, Christ University, Bangalore

Anirban Dasgupta, Professor, International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad

Anju Helen Bara, Assistant Professor, Department of Development Studies, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya

Arijita Dutta, Professor, Department of Economics, Calcutta University

Arunish Chawla, Additional Chief Secretary, Planning and Urban Development Departments, Govt. of Bihar & Former Senior Economist, International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C.

Ashi Rooth Stuart, Assistant Professor, St. John’s College, Agra

Ashmita Gupta, Assistant Professor, Asian Development Research Institute, Patna

Avanindra Nath Thakur, Associate Professor, JSGP, O P Jindal Global University, New Delhi

Avinash Kumar, Assistant Professor, Centre for Informal Sector and Labour Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

Barna Ganguli, Assistant Professor, Bihar Institute of Public Finance and Policy, Patna

Bhaskar Majumdar, Former Professor, G B Pant Social Science Institute, Allahabad

Harshita Bhasin, PhD Scholar, South Asian University, New Delhi

Juhi Singh, PhD Scholar, ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education, Hyderabad

Kanika Raj, PhD Scholar, Department of Political Science, Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow

Krishna Ram, Assistant Professor, School of Undergraduate Studies & Liberal Studies, Ambedkar University, Delhi

Manish Kumar, Assistant Professor in Economics, Delhi School of Economics, Delhi

Nanduri Kranthi, Assistant Professor, O P Jindal Global University, Haryana

Neetu Choudhary, Adjunct Faculty, Arizona State University, USA

Panchanan Das, Professor & Head, Department of Economics, Calcutta University

Praveen Jha, Professor, Centre for Economic Studies & Planning, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

Rakesh Ranjan Kumar, Assistant Professor in Economics, JK Lakshipat University, Jaipur

Rakhi Saha, PhD Scholar, Department of Economics, Calcutta University

S M U Qadri, UNICEF, India

S Siddharth, Principal Secretary to the Chief Minister, Bihar & Additional Chief Secretary, Home Department, Govt. of Bihar.

Santosh Mehrotra, Visiting Professor, Centre for Development Studies, University of Bath, United Kingdom

Santosh Verma, Senior Policy Analyst, Centre for Budget & Governance Accountability, New Delhi

Shankar Purbay, Assistant Professor, Development Management Institute, Patna

xx Development with Justice: The Bihar Experience

Sheo Rama, PhD Scholar, Indian Institute of Management, Bodh Gaya

Sohini Paul, Senior Programme Manager, Population Council Consulting Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

Sonu Prasad, PhD Scholar, Department of Development Studies, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya

Subhankar Mukherjee, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Industrial & Management Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Subrata Mukherjee, Associate Professor, Institute of Development Studies Kolkata

Sudhanshu Jha, Assistant Professor in History, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya

Sumita Biswas, PhD Scholar, Department of Economics, Calcutta University

Suresh Kumar, Patron Member, Centre DIRECT, Patna

Surya Bhushan, Professor, Development Management Institute, Patna

Sweta Sharan, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Economics, Magadh Mahila College, Patna

Tripti Kumari, Assistant Professor, MJK College, Bettiah (affiliated to B.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, Bihar)

Urvashi Kaushik, UNICEF, India

1

Mapping the Role of Thinkers in the Context of Ideological Trajectory of Social Justice in Bihar

Abstract: Bihar is a conscious state with a long history of struggles for social equality and inclusiveness. Since the time of Gautama Buddha, there has been a long journey in this region of challenging established social norms and traditions in favour of social equality and harmony. Even in the modern period, after Bihar became an independent state, many streams emerged that advocated for establishing socio-political equality. The first stream was influenced by Gandhiji and was in favour of building a broad social base for the national movement. This segment was vocal about issues such as untouchability and temple entry. It received ideological support from political social workers such as Rajendra Prasad, Jagjivan Ram, and Jaglal Chowdhary. The backward castes, on the other hand, had their own distinct stream that formed caste associations focused upon certain social reforms within their respective castes and attempted to uplift themselves in the social hierarchy through Sanskritisation. The caste conferences also focused on some real economic issues such as wage increases, forced work, etc. The 1930s saw the rise of socialist ideology advocating for social equality, championed by leaders such as Ram Manohar Lohia and Jaiprakash Narayan. The socialist ideology mobilised peasants from all castes and aided peasant movements led by Swami Sahjananda Saraswati, Yadunandan Sharma, and Karyanand Sharma. After independence, the Indian Constitution included various provisions related to social equality and empowerment. The significance of voting was emphasised by universal adult suffrage. The backward castes then started organising themselves politically, and demanding reservation under the guidance of leaders like R. L. Chandpuri. Ram Manohar Lohia’s slogan ‘Pichda pave sau me saath’ politically united the socialists, backward castes, farmers, and labourers, resulting in Congress’s defeat in 1967. The political dominance of the socially backward castes was established, and under Karpoori Thakur’s leadership, a strong ideology of social justice emerged, culminating in Mandal politics and the rise of Lalu Prasad in the 1990s. Furthermore, an important shift in the politics of social justice came with the rise of Nitish Kumar, who realised the importance of both social justice and economic development and presented the concept of ‘development with justice’, which is Bihar’s current direction, as well as the vision of creating a socially conscious and economically prosperous Bihar.

Keywords: Bihar, history of social justice movements, social awareness, economic development

1. Introduction

Bihar has always been an influential and flourishing sociocultural and political state. Bihar has had a subtle current of freedom of thought, consciousness of society, and social transformation since ancient times. From time to time, this ideological stream, led by great intellectuals, initiated sociocultural movements in the early period, and then robust socio-political movements in the later period. In turn, these movements became Bihar’s primary source of intellectual prosperity and dynamism. The movements ranging from Buddha to Jai Prakash Narayan have provided capable and successful leadership in the direction of constructive transformation not only for Bihar but for the entire country. True, there was no movement in Bihar like the mediaeval Bhakti movement that preached social peace and harmony, and modern philosophers like Phule, Periyar, and Ambedkar were not born here. However, there is no doubt that Bihar became a successful laboratory for the implementation of these thinkers’ ideas. A series of socio-political movements have arisen in modern Bihar, influenced by philosophers such as Phule, Ambedkar, and Periyar and led by Gandhi, Sahjanand Saraswati, Ram Manohar Lohia, Jai Prakash Narayan, Karpoori Thakur, and others. These movements reinforced ideas such as equality, freedom, inclusivity, social justice, and the democratisation of democracy in Bihar. The final outcome of such ideas may be found in enhancing the level of social awareness of the underprivileged in Bihar, which subsequently leads to their social empowerment and increased political engagement. Currently, Nitish Kumar, who has been at the helm of affairs in Bihar for several years, recognises the need to link social and political transformation with economic development, and thus he introduces and emphasises the concept of ‘Development with Justice’. He has, in reality, broadened the definition of social justice to encompass economic advancement for the people and the state of Bihar as a whole. To comprehend Bihar’s actual socio-political trajectory, it is necessary to look into and understand the flow of ideas in the state.

On the history of Bihar, there is an impressive body of academic literature. Among these are the writings of Radha Krishna Chaudhary,1 R. R. Diwakar,2 Surendra Gopal,3 and others, who have detailed many parts of Bihar’s history while writing a comprehensive History of Bihar. Many important writings on Bihar’s modern history have also been done, with the main works being those of Arvind Narayan Das,4 Stephen Heningham,5 Vineeta Damodaran,6 and others. However, it should be noted that in these writings, either the cultural-political splendour of Bihar has been hailed or the socio-economic change of Bihar has been considered solely through the lens of caste-based politics. It is regrettable that literature about Bihar has primarily concentrated on caste politics, caste-based political alliances, caste coalitions, and Bihar’s economic backwardness while ignoring the social empowerment and democratic and inclusive worldview that have existed since the beginning.

In this chapter, an attempt is made to trace out and comprehend the ideological flow that has surged consistently throughout Bihar’s historical period, which has ideologically established Bihar as a dynamic and thriving state of India.

2. The Ancient and Medieval Bihar

Since the dawn of recorded history, Bihar has played a pivotal role in the country’s socio-economic and political transformation. In fact, written Indian history kicked off with Magadha’s history. Magadh governed Indian history for about a millennium.7 Over the centuries, Bihar has given India its best. After the destruction of the Harappan cities, it was the first region of the subcontinent where a civilization developed.8 It witnessed both imperialist and republican experiments. Among the

Mapping the Role of Thinkers in the Context of Ideological Trajectory of Social Justice in Bihar 3

Mahajanpadas, the Magadha expanded to the point where it became India’s first empire. Under the rule of the Mauryans, a well-oiled administrative structure developed, as evidenced by Chanakya’s ‘Arthasastra’, a treatise on political economy. Bihar, on the other hand, also experienced the republican political alternative in Vaishali. For the first time in the country, an agricultural revolution occurred in Bihar, and after Harappan urbanisation, the second phase of urbanisation began here as well. This land of Bihar also saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, which questioned the conventional ideas of the ruling Brahmanical faith. In turn, they proposed new concepts to meet the needs of individuals in a changing socioeconomic environment. The new metaphysical and epistemological environment provided by Buddhism and Jainism brought about a dramatic transformation in society, and with the emergence of new sects, a new society was developed. We should also remember that Videha was a major centre of Upanishdic culture, with a highly refreshing spiritual and liberal outlook towards the deeper meaning of life.9

The crucial point to emphasise here is that the intellectual diversity and freedom present here undoubtedly played a part in many experiments that took place in Bihar from the very beginning. Bihar can be seen as a major contributor to the freedom of thought, Catholicism of spirit, and liberality of thought that underpin all of these movements and experiments and have given Indian culture a particular character.10 Thus, Bihar contributed the Buddha, Mahavira, Chanakya, and Ashoka, all of whom helped shape India’s gloriously diverse culture. It is essential to point out Ashoka’s contribution in particular. His noble kingship ideals, the decision to abstain from war, the most advanced beliefs of religious toleration, and the humanitarian treatment of his subjects have all become permanent traits or have profoundly influenced the growth of Indian culture.11

Even in mediaeval times, Sufi saints in Bihar such as Sharf-ud-din Ahmad associated religion and philosophy, spreading the message of peace, fraternity, and love for humanity. They incorporated essentially Indian ideas into their thinking, experiences, and acts.  In mediaeval times, Bihar saw the rise of Sher Shah, who destroyed Babur’s Mughal Empire and laid the foundation of the Afghan Empire in Delhi. Sher Shah provided direction to the entire country in the fields of land revenue and road construction, and his work is still relevant. But Sher Shah’s most significant contribution was in the field of justice and tolerance, which he adhered to religiously.12 Thus, Bihar produced many social thinkers, social revolutionaries, and political actors whose ideas and actions not only influenced Bihar but also scripted the country’s civilizational progress.

3. The Colonial Bihar

Bihar experienced an expansion of socio-political consciousness even during British colonial rule. Bihar’s tribals were among the first to speak out against British colonialism. Further, Babu Kunwar Singh had repeatedly shattered the English invincibility in this land. Bihar was also the place of Bapu’s first Satyagraha experiment in India. Through the Champaran Satyagraha, Gandhi captured the hearts of peasants. Gandhi advocated civil disobedience and a constructive programme to better the lives of the poor peasants through social upliftment activities. Later, when Gandhi visited Bihar to meet earthquake victims in 1934 and toured the entire state, he brought untouchability to the forefront of socio-political discourse. He depicted the untouchables as having been suffering for millennia and called for the abolition of untouchability. He requested donations for Harijans’ upliftment and insisted on their temple admission. In this approach, Gandhi instilled social energy among the poorest members of society, resulting in an initiative for social transformation not only in Bihar but throughout the country.

Development with Justice: The Bihar Experience

During the colonial era, Bihar saw the rise and spread of socialist ideologies that called for internal social transformation. As a result, a variety of peasant movements arose under the leadership of Swami Sahjanand Saraswati, calling for the abolition of Zamindari and other changes in the agrarian sector. The Bihar Kisan Sabha began in 1927 as the Kisan Sabha in the West Patna district. It grew to become the Bihar Pradesh Kisan Sabha in 1929, and in 1936 it became the All-India Kisan Sabha.13 The Kisan Sabha had also taken up the issue of rural indebtedness.14 Jagjivan Ram established the Bihar Provincial Khet Majdoor Sabha in 1937 to address the challenges of agricultural labourers.15 These movements and activities had a natural impact on farmers and labourers from the lower sections of society. Their socio-political awareness grew, and they recognised not only the need to join the Indian National Movement but also stood against the framework of their internal exploitation. Thus, the socialist movement became the principal champion of the socio-cultural aspirations of the peasants and the workers, largely from the backward castes.

It is also worth noting that throughout this period, backward castes began socially organising themselves. In 1912, Gopa Mahasabha, a caste association of the Yadavas, was formed in the Shahabad district. Such groups arose in other districts as well. The All India Yadav Mahasabha was founded in 1922.16 Another peasant group to organise itself, like the Yadavas, was the Koiri. The inaugural Kuswaha Mahasabha convention, known as the Koiri Hitkari Sabha, was held at Chunar in 1912.17 These caste associations eventually culminated in the 1930s with the formation of the Triveni Sangh to express the political solidarity of the “middle peasant castes” and carve a space in democratic politics for the lower castes. Among the leaders involved in the formation of this front were Yadunandan Prasad Mehta, Shivpujan Singh, and Jagdev Singh Yadav. Such caste associations concentrated on specific social reforms within their respective castes and attempted to move up the social hierarchy through Sanskritisation. The caste conferences also addressed real-world economic issues such as increased wages and forced labour and took the initiative to build dormitories, schools, colleges, fellowships, and other facilities. They aimed to secure a better price for their items while also enhancing several production factors. Furthermore, in addition to the caste associations, Kabirpanthis, Nanakpanthis, and Dariapanthis were some of the social movements in Bihar that criticised the caste system and insisted on the inherent unity and equality of all human beings having the same and equal right to worship God. They advocated monotheism and condemned idol worship and many religious rites.18 Thus, during the colonial period, the socio-political consciousness of the common people in Bihar expanded, which strengthened the social base of the Indian freedom struggle on the one hand and attempted to ensure internal social transformation on the other.

4. The Post-Independence Bihar

Following independence, several factors, including land reform measures, universal franchise elections, and constitutional provisions, particularly regarding social equality and government welfare measures, played a significant role in reshaping the social conditions in Bihar, resulting in the formation of a new social structure and power relations in society. The adoption of the Zamindari Abolition Act provided the greatest advantage to the backward castes of cultivators, resulting in not only their economic upliftment but also enhanced socio-political consciousness. Moreover, universal suffrage, based on the principle of one person, one vote, established the political utility of a large population of cultivators and other working social groups, the majority of whom came from backward, most backward, and scheduled castes. It was now difficult for any political party to dismiss them. As a result, the backward and underprivileged people’s social and political consciousness grew, and their growing sense of empowerment tended to increase their political participation.

Mapping the Role of Thinkers in the Context of Ideological Trajectory of Social Justice in Bihar 5

Aside from that, such social thinkers emerged from the backward classes, who began defining and shaping their social and other interests. To rouse the Backward Classes, R. L. Chandapuri produced a Hindi weekly, Pichara-varg. 19 This helped the government realise that the four higher castes, which account for only 14 percent of Bihar’s population, were in charge of 90 percent of government services. In January 1953, the Backward Classes Commission was established.20 The publication of the Backward Classes Commission Report in 1955, with its broad suggestion of preferential treatment for members of the other backward classes, was an ideological watershed moment for many in the younger generation. They shifted their focus to secular objectives, including the promised reservation in professional and technical institutions.21

Ram Manohar Lohia, on the other hand, and his colleagues such as Karpoori Thakur started providing a tangible intellectual and strategic infrastructure for the socio-political upliftment of the backward and oppressed. It should be mentioned that Lohia was a fighter as well as a visionary thinker. Contrary to ‘Sanskritisation’, he encouraged backward communities to take pride in their castes and thus advocated for their empowerment. He desired the abolition of all disparities and the annihilation of all forms of injustice. As the leader of the Socialist Party, Lohiya passed a resolution stating that in elections, Shudras, Harijans, Muslims, and Women will receive 60 percent of the tickets.22

Karpuri Thakur was another great socialist leader and thinker who played an important role in broadening the socio-political consciousness of the disadvantaged and attempting to assure their welfare and empowerment in many different ways. Karpoori Thakur received his ideological and political upbringing from socialist ideas and activities. He did, however, absorb revolutionary ideas from many sources, including those of Phule, Ambedkar, Periyar, and Gandhi. His deep devotion to fundamental contemporary principles such as democracy, secularism, civil freedoms, and human rights had a tremendous impact on the people of Bihar.23 Speaking on the Government’s proposal for the Bihar Maintenance of Public Order (Amendment) Bill, 1953, he expressed confidence in people’s continued participation in politics and policymaking. He emphasised that, in contrast to hierarchical, partisan, and authoritarian representative democracy, direct democracy, such as a referendum, could effectively address issues and concerns of the poor, backward, and socially excluded. Demanding a referendum on the bill, he emphasised the need for citizen participation in the functioning of the state and government. He emphasised the significance of minority voices of opposition in safeguarding people’s liberty and freedom. In his speech, he expressed concern about people’s dissatisfaction, lack of enthusiasm, and sense of fatalism in the newly independent nation and presented a case for assuring the electorate’s continuous consent.24 Karpoori Thakur’s views on democracy, particularly the need for constant participation of the common people in the democratic process, had a significant impact on the social-political awareness and empowerment of the common masses. He also put his thoughts into action when he was allowed to make decisions by becoming a minister or chief minister. His policy viewpoint was encapsulated in the slogans he coined: azadi aur roti (freedom and bread), social justice, and quality of life. These were inclusive slogans that represented development and a sense of self.25 His language policy, reservation policy, and recommendations for the protection of landless Dalits and the poor were all couched in the language of social justice.26 In his position as Deputy Chief Minister with responsibility for education, he made English an optional subject for high school students.27 The day after becoming Chief Minister, his cabinet made the first important move to severely enforce the Official Language Act, making it necessary to utilise Hindi for all official communication to bridge the chasm between the government and the people. As Finance Minister, he opted to end revenue collection from people with up to 3.5 acres of irrigated land and 7 acres of unirrigated land.28 The policy announcement was consistent with Lohia’s slogan, “jis kheti

Development with Justice: The Bihar Experience

se labh nahi, us par lage lagan nahi”. In 1978, it was Karpoori Thakur who carried out the Mungeri Lal Commission’s suggestion. The policy provided for 12 percent and 8 percent reservation in jobs for the most backward and backward castes, respectively. Furthermore, 3 percent was allocated to women of any group and 3 percent to those who were economically disadvantaged.29 He also opted for political decentralisation, holding panchayat elections in 1978.30 Thus, Karpoori Thakur attempted to raise people’s socio-political consciousness and connect it with actual empowerment.

As a result of all of these, not only did the socioeconomic and educational conditions of the poor improve, but their political engagement also increased gradually. In 1967, the number of MLAs from backward castes in the Bihar Legislative Assembly was 82, while the number of MLAs from higher castes was 133. The number of backward caste MLAs climbed to 117 in 1990, while the number of upper caste MLAs declined to 105. Again in 1995, the number of backward caste MLAs climbed to 161, while the number of higher caste MLAs decreased to 56.31 Bihar’s politics changed significantly in the 1990s. Following the implementation of the Mandal Commission’s recommendations, there was a revolutionary shift in the politics of the backward classes. As a result, figures such as Lalu Prasad Yadav emerged as champions of social justice and empowerment. Lalu Prasad established a strong political front based on a broad social coalition of the backward, the extremely backward, and Muslims, which was tough to confront politically.

However, the voice of the backward and underprivileged was raised during this period, and there was a significant increase in their political participation. But, at the same time, Bihar also became known as a state plagued by caste violence, disorder, and a governance deficit. It was against this backdrop that Nitish Kumar rose to power, who not only attempted to broaden the definition of social justice but also to bring a paradigm shift in Bihar’s socio-political history by combining the need for economic and human development with social justice. Nitish Kumar emerged as a leader who humanised socialist politics by taking it out of the political framework of caste and class and relating it to the concept of development and progress. Many factors influenced Nitish’s political and social ideology, as well as his vision for Bihar, such as his deep training in the Samajwadi school of thought, the socio-political decisions of his mentors such as Karpoori Thakur, the state’s prevailing corruption and lawlessness, and his understanding of economic progress elsewhere in the country and outside the country. In line with Karpoori Thakur’s slogan ‘azadi aur roti’, Nitish understood the importance of self-esteem (social justice) alongside economic prosperity and thus gave the slogan ‘Development with Justice’.32 Nitish Kumar has endeavoured to widen socialist thinking and politics so far by translating caste consciousness or identity politics into social awareness and then combining this social transformation with economic empowerment. Nitish Kumar also stressed the role of governance in such a socio-political and economic transformation as he envisioned in the state. Nitish Kumar’s first duty as Chief Minister was to rebuild public trust in law and order in the state. He emphasised the expeditious resolution of pending cases filed under the Arms Act. The high conviction rate was ensured by speedy trials.33 To combat corruption in public life, the Nitish Kumar government enacted the Bihar Special Courts Act, which allows for the confiscation of dishonest civil servants’ property.34

Along with governance, Nitish Kumar began identifying those groups that had been unaffected by socio-political transformation and began the process of integrating them into the socio-political mainstream. In this regard, the decision to appoint the Mahadalit Commission may be seen, which, in 2007, designated 18 of the 22 Dalit sub-castes as Mahadalits, accounting for 31 percent of the Dalit population in the state. Dhobis and Pasis were introduced to this group in 2008, while Jatvas were added in 2009. Special efforts were made to improve their social and economic standing.35 Furthermore, in 2011, the Upper Caste Commission was established to investigate the economic and

Mapping the Role of Thinkers in the Context of Ideological Trajectory of Social Justice in Bihar 7

educational problems of the impoverished in the upper castes. His party also established a Sawarn Cell within the party, a body to house leaders from the higher castes, address issues affecting this segment of society, and strengthen them.36 Under his political and administrative understanding, Nitish Kumar pushed across caste lines and placed a high priority on the empowerment of half of the society, effectively implementing several relevant initiatives on the ground, earning him worldwide acclaim. Nitish Kumar’s ideal project, the Mukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojana, has proven to be the most important scheme in terms of social transformation.37 Under this scheme, girls riding bicycles to school appear to be leading Bihar to a bright future. Similarly, the Mukhyamantri Nari Shakti Yojna, which began in 2008, and the 35 percent quota for women in all state government employment strengthened women’s empowerment efforts. In 2013, he also launched the Mukhyamantri Akshar Anchal Yojna, which aims to give elementary education to women from Mahadalits, Minorities, and the Extremely Backward Class, as well as connect disadvantaged children from these groups to schools.38 Furthermore, a 33.3 percent reservation for women in admission to all engineering and medical universities improved women’s prospects in the state.39 He also implemented financial empowerment programmes for women, including an interest-free Rs. 10 lakh loan programme with half the subsidy for women’s businesses and financial inclusion.40 At the top of his social and politically inclusive policies was the implementation of 50 percent reservation for women in Panchayati Raj institutions and urban bodies, which not only gave wings to women’s hopes but also saw a democratic upsurge among the state’s socially deprived.41 This ruling set a precedent for other states and the nation as a whole.

Another policy effort that positioned Nitish Kumar at the forefront of social reforms was the state’s prohibition decision, which was enforced on April 5, 2016. Nitish Kumar cited Mahatma and Mahila as two significant grounds for his stricter ban policy. This policy was criticised on the grounds that the state had lost around 40,000 crores of rupees in excise earnings.42 However, Nitish Kumar has remained steadfast in his decision because of overwhelming public backing, particularly from women. It is important to note that women have reaped the greatest benefits from this choice in terms of reduced domestic violence, more safety outside of their homes, and improved economic situations in their courtyards. It is unsurprising that according to a study titled ‘Temperance Movement: The Impact of Liquor Prohibition on Socio-economy and Livelihood in Bihar’ released in August 2022 by A.N. Sinha Institute, Patna, and C. N. Law University, Patna, 80 percent of those surveyed preferred the liquor ban to remain in place.

Nitish Kumar’s governance strategy was distinguished by the fact that he pursued economic development alongside social changes. He launched numerous projects that boosted the state’s economic situation, as evidenced by statistics on economic indexes. Between 2001 and 2005, the state’s yearly growth in GDP was only 2.9 percent, which during 2005–06 to 2010–11 jumped to 10.93 percent.43 Similarly, only 4.2 percent of people in the state had salaried occupations in 2004–05. This figure increased in 2017–18, with salaried employees accounting for 13.1 percent.44 Literacy rates have also increased from 47 percent in 2001 to 79.7 percent in 2022. The state’s economic improvement efforts can be gauged by the fact that the state built only 375 bridges in 30 years between 1975 and 2005, but during nine years, the Nitish Government built over 1200 bridges on rivers such as the Ganges, Sone, and Kosi.45

It will not be accurate to argue that under Nitish Kumar’s leadership, Bihar has achieved everything in terms of economic and human development. The fact that Bihar is still one of the poorest states in the country cannot be denied. But before anything else, we need to understand the ideas of Nitish Kumar, who carried out a successful experiment in the state of Bihar by combining socialist, Gandhian, and liberalism-based capitalism paradigms. Thus, many ideas exist concurrently

Development with Justice: The Bihar Experience

in Nitish Kumar’s governance model that are related to political, economic, and social inclusiveness, grassroots democratisation, social empowerment, socio-political integration, economic and human development, and so on, all of which have a significant impact on the socio-economic scenario of Bihar at the moment.

5. Conclusion

It is clear that a constant torrent of social-cultural transformation has been flowing in Bihar against established norms and orthodoxy. Bihar has had ideological diversity from the beginning. As a result of such ideological diversities, Bihar experienced both imperialist and republican experiments at the same time. On the other hand, such diversities resulted in the early emergence of various socio-religious sects in Bihar, each of which strove to prescribe their own views and practises for the social and religious advancement of the people. Even in modern times, there have been numerous movements based on class and greater societal concerns. These movements bolstered concepts such as inclusion, empowerment, social justice, equality, freedom, and grassroots democracy. Moving beyond socio-political concerns, modern leaders like Nitish Kumar have set out to give this sociopolitical dynamism substantial economic foundations and have formed the notion of ‘Development with Justice’, which is a vision of Bihar’s further advancement. However, we must keep in mind that the present-day Bihar suffers from a contradiction. With its socio-political dynamism, it is also an indelible fact that, despite ongoing efforts for economic development, Bihar remains an example of a bottom state or basket case. Bihar is still dealing with migration and poor health and educational infrastructure. Because of the absence of industrialisation and expansion in the service sector, the problems of poverty and unemployment continue unabated. Bihar is currently a state where there is a need to push both economic and human development simultaneously. If the current contradiction in Bihar is considered in a delicate way, it appears to be more than just an issue of politics and governance. The solution to this conflict rests in Bihar’s socio-political dynamism. There is a need for Bihar’s socio-political force to be directed towards ‘total development’ by integrating it with the state’s collective consciousness and identity.

Notes

1. Choudhary (1958)

2. Diwakar (1958)

3. Gopal (2018)

4. Das (1983) & (1992)

5. Heningham (1982)

6. Damodaran (1993)

7. Gopal (2018), p.1

8. Das (1992), p. xii

9. Diwakar (1958), p.378

10. Ibid, p.378

11. Ibid, p.377

12. Choudhary (1958), p.212

13. Kumar (2009), p.78

14. Singh (1992), p.22

15. Nayak (2010), p.1253

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CAPITOLO

XLIV.

Un giorno, nella via, la carrozza della signora Morse passò proprio accanto a Martin. Lei salutò sorridendo, egli ricambiò il saluto e il sorriso. L’incidente non lo sorprese punto. Un mese prima, ne sarebbe rimasto disgustato o impacciato e avrebbe cercato di rendersi conto del grado d’incoscienza della signora Morse. Ora, non ci pensò neppure un minuto: lo dimenticò come avrebbe dimenticato la banca centrale o City Hall, dopo essere passato davanti ad esse. Aveva il cervello in subbuglio, con i pensieri che vi giravano senza posa, sempre nello stesso cerchio. Al centro di questo cerchio le parole: «Ero lo stesso» gli rodevano il cervello, come un verme tenace rode un frutto. Le ritrovava svegliandosi, le udiva nei sonni; i più piccoli particolari della vita erano percepiti attraverso quelle parole: «Ero lo stesso»; cosicchè una logica implacabile lo indusse infine a concludere ch’egli non era nulla, assolutamente nulla. Mart Eden, il giovinastro, Mart Eden il marinaio, erano esistiti come tali; ma Martin Eden, il «celebre» scrittore, non esisteva: Martin Eden, il celebre scrittore, era un’illusione creata dall’immaginazione della folla. Ma egli non vi si lasciava prendere: non era quell’idolo che la folla adorava e al quale essa offriva il nutrimento in sacrifizio propiziatorio: egli sapeva il perchè nascosto di ciò. Lesse degli articoli sul suo conto e si stupì davanti ai ritratti nei quali fu incapace di scoprire la minima rassomiglianza con se stesso. Egli era colui che ha vissuto, vibrato, amato; colui il cui carattere mite e tollerante era pieno d’indulgenza per le debolezze della vita; colui che, al suo posto sul castello di prua di qualche nave, aveva navigato verso strani e lontani paesi; oppure colui che, alla testa di una banda di malandrini, aveva lottato in numerose risse. Egli era colui che tante

migliaia di libri in biblioteca avevano spaventato e fatto indietreggiare la prima volta; e colui che s’era fatto strada tra essi e li aveva conquistati; era colui, infine, che punse con uno sperone la carne nuda per scacciare il sonno e lavorare oltre ogni limite di resistenza umana. Tutto questo era; ma non quella specie d’orco dal mostruoso appetito che il pubblico s’ostinava a voler inghiottire. Alcune cose nelle riviste illustrate lo divertivano, però.

Tutti si disputavano la gloria d’averlo lanciato: il Warren’s Monthly annunziò agli abbonati che, essendo sempre in cerca di novità letterarie, era stato esso a presentare, tra gli altri, Martin Eden ai lettori. Il Sorcio Bianco, reclamò la priorità, e lo stesso fecero la Rivista del Nord e il Makintosh’s Magazine; ma il Globo li fece tacere riesumando, dei suoi numeri, quelli che avevano pubblicato i «Poemi del Mare» così vergognosamente straziati. Gioventù e Maturità, risorta senza aver mai pagato i debiti, e letta soltanto da giovani provinciali, reclamò a sua volta. La Transcontinental raccontò in modo degno e convincente come avesse scoperto Martin Eden, prerogativa questa che però le fu contestata con calore da La Vespa, che mostrò a prova «La Peri e la Perla». Nella mischia, i modesti diritti di Singletree, Darnley e C. sparvero interamente. D’altra parte, questa casa che non aveva azioni in nessuna rivista illustrata, non seppe mai rivendicare i suoi diritti.

I giornali discussero dei guadagni di Martin Eden: in un modo o in un altro, trapelarono le magnifiche offerte di certe riviste illustrate; dei degni pastori di Oakland gli fecero delle visite amichevoli, e dei pitocchi di professione gli mandarono una valanga di lettere. Ma le donne erano peggiori; le sue fotografie furono disseminate, e degli scrittori s’occuparono della sua persona, descrivendo il suo rude volto abbronzato, sfregiato, le sue larghe spalle, i suoi chiari occhi tranquilli, e i suoi lineamenti emaciati, che definirono ascetici. Egli pensò alla sua giovinezza battagliera, e sorrise. Spesso, tra le donne che incontrava, questa o quella, lo guardava, lo valutava, lo sceglieva.

Ma egli non faceva che riderne; ricordava la minaccia di Brissenden e rideva di più; le donne non erano un pericolo per lui, di sicuro, avendo superato il tempo critico.

Una sera, avendo accompagnato Lizzie alla scuola serale, si vide fissato risolutamente da una donna elegante e graziosa. Quello sguardo era un po’ troppo insistente e prolungato. Lizzie ne capì il significato e si raddrizzò; furiosamente. Martin se ne accorse, come s’era accorto della causa, e le disse che era avvezzo a quelle cose e che se ne infischiava.

— Non dovreste infischiarvene! — rispose lei, con gli occhi lucenti di collera. — Non è possibile; voi siete malato!

— Non sono stato mai così bene! Peso dieci libbre più d’una volta.

— Non parlo del vostro fisico, ma della mente. C’è qualche cosa che non funziona bene, nella vostra macchina mentale. Persino io che sono niente, lo vedo!

Egli camminava a fianco di lei, pensoso.

— Darei non so che cosa per vedervi liberato da questo malore! — esclamò bruscamente. — Un uomo come voi dovrebbe provar piacere quando si sente guardato così da una donna! Non è naturale. È cosa che va bene per dei ragazzetti, ma voi siete un uomo. E, mi crediate o no, io sarei felice il giorno in cui vi capitasse una donna che vi piacesse.

Quand’ebbe lasciato Lizzie alla scuola serale, ritornò difilato al Metropole, e, giunto in camera sua, si lasciò andare su una grande poltrona e si mise a fissare il vuoto, davanti a sè. Non era in dormiveglia, non pensava a nulla: sentiva il cervello vuoto, e non vedeva nulla, se non, di tanto in tanto, delle macchie colorate, luminose che gli formavano delle immagini vaghe sotto le palpebre. Egli le vedeva come in sogno, eppure non dormiva. A un certo punto si raddrizzò e guardò l’ora; erano le otto precise. Egli non aveva nulla da fare, ed era troppo presto per andare a letto. Poi il cervello gli si vuotò nuovamente e altre immagini apparvero, e sparirono sotto le palpebre. Queste immagini erano tutte uguali fra loro;

rappresentavano sempre delle masse di fogliame e di cespugli attraversati dai raggi ardenti del sole.

A un tratto, un colpo alla porta lo fece sussultare. Pensò che si trattasse d’un telegramma, d’una lettera... o fosse la stiratrice che gli portava la biancheria. Poi, gli passò per la mente il ricordo di Joe e si domandò dove potesse essere mai, mentre rispondeva:

— Avanti!

Pensava ancora o Joe e non si voltò neppure verso la porta, che si richiuse dolcemente. Seguì un lungo silenzio. Avendo dimenticato che avevano bussato, egli s’era immerso nuovamente nel suo torpore, quand’ecco che ode un singhiozzo di donna, un singhiozzo cupo, trattenuto, spasmodico. Allora si voltò e balzò in piedi.

— Ruth! — esclamò stupito, sconvolto.

Lei stava appoggiata alla porta; aveva il viso pallido e contratto e una mano sul cuore, come per frenarne i battiti. Poi lei tese le braccia verso di lui con aria supplichevole e fece un passo avanti. Egli le prese tutt’e due le mani e sentì ch’erano gelide. Dopo averla accompagnata alla poltrona, ne accostò un’altra e sedette sul bracciale di questa. Era come paralizzato da un profondo impaccio. Nella sua mente, quell’avventura era finita, seppellita; se per un colpo di bacchetta magica, la lavanderia delle Acque Termali di Shelley fosse stata trasportata di botto nell’Hôtel Metropole, presentandogli davanti agli occhi il lavoro di una settimana di stiratura di biancheria, certo non ne sarebbe rimasto annoiato.

Parecchie volte fu sul punto di parlare, senza riuscire a trovare la frase adatta.

— Nessuno sa che io sono qui, — disse Ruth con voce fioca e con un sorriso supplice.

— Che dite?

Egli rimase stupito dal suono della propria voce.

Lei ripetè la frase.

Ah, sì? — disse lui, domandandosi che cosa dire poi.

— Vi ho visto entrare e ho aspettato un po’.

— Ah, sì? — ripetè lui.

In vita sua, non s’era mai sentito così scarso d’idee.

— E allora siete entrata, — diss’egli finalmente.

Lei fece un piccolo gesto affermativo; i suoi occhi ebbero un lampo maliziosetto, e sciolse la sciarpa che teneva avvolta al collo.

— Vi ho visto subito dall’altro lato del marciapiede, quando eravate con quella ragazza.

— Sì? — domandò lui semplicemente. — L’accompagnavo alla scuola serale.

— Ebbene, non siete contento di rivedermi? — disse lei dopo un nuovo silenzio.

— Sì, sì! — fece lui rapidamente. — Ma non avete agito un po’ leggermente, venendo qui?

— Nessuno lo sa. Volevo vedervi. Sono venuta per dirvi che sono stata proprio sciocca; sono venuta perchè non ne potevo più, perchè il mio cuore mi spingeva, perchè... perchè avevo bisogno di vivere.

— Lei s’alzò, gli si avvicinò, gli posò una mano sulla spalla, un momento, ansante, poi gli scivolò fra le braccia. E poichè sentiva che respingendola le avrebbe inferto la più grave ferita che una donna possa ricevere, egli chiuse le braccia attorno a lei e la tenne stretta contro di lui. Ma in quella stretta non c’era alcun calore, alcun fremito. Lei gli era venuta tra le braccia, ed egli la teneva. Ecco. Lei gli si rannicchiò addosso, poi gli passò le mani attorno al collo e gli cinse la nuca; ma la carne di lui rimase fredda sotto la solita carezza; egli si sentiva sempre più a disagio, estraneo ad ogni conforto.

— Perchè tremate così? — le domandò lui. — Sentite freddo? Volete che vi accenda il fuoco?

E fece l’atto di svincolarsi; ma lei lo strinse con maggior forza, tremando violentemente.

— È un po’ di nervosismo, disse lei battendo i denti. — Fra un minuto passerà. Ecco! mi sento già meglio.

I suoi brividi diminuivano a poco a poco. Egli se la teneva sempre fra le braccia, ma la sorpresa e il disagio erano venuti meno.

— Mia madre voleva che sposassi Charley Hapgood, — disse lei.

— Charley Hapgood! quel grammofono d’idee piatte! — gemette Martin... — Poi aggiunse: — E ora, penso che vostra madre desideri che sposiate me. — Non era una domanda, la sua: era l’affermazione d’una certezza.

— Lei non si opporrà più, lo so, — disse Ruth.

— Mi considera come un ottimo partito, senza dubbio?

Ruth fece segno di sì.

— Eppure non sono un fidanzato più conveniente ora, che non quando lei volle rotto il fidanzamento, disse lui pensoso. — Non sono mutato per nulla; sono lo stesso Martin Eden: no! peggio: fumo più che mai. Non sentite?

Senza rispondergli, lei posò le dita sulle labbra di Martin, graziosamente, e attese il bacio che quel gesto le procurava, un tempo. Ma il bacio non venne. Martin aspettò che lei avesse ritirato le sue dita, e proseguì:

— Io non sono mutato: non ho «un’occupazione», non ne cerco, non ne cercherò. E ho sempre la convinzione che Herbert Spencer è un nobile e grande uomo, e che il giudice Blount è un asino calzato e vestito. Ho pranzato da lui l’altra sera, e le mie idee al riguardo hanno avuto una nuova conferma.

— Ma non avete accettato l’invito di mio padre, — disse lei con voce di gentile rimprovero.

— Toh! lo sapete anche voi? L’aveva mandato vostra madre?

Lei tacque.

È stata vostra madre: lo pensavo. Penso che sia stata anche lei a mandarvi qui, non è vero?

— Nessuno sa che sia venuta, — disse lei protestando, Credete che mia madre me l’avrebbe permesso?

— Essa vi permetterebbe di sposarmi, questo è certo. Lei lanciò un grido:

— Oh, Martin! come siete crudele! Non mi avete abbracciata neppure una volta. Siete freddo come un marmo. Pensate a quello che ho osato fare! — Lei lanciò uno sguardo intorno, tremando, ma con una certa curiosità.

— Pensate che sono qui, in camera vostra!

(«Vorrei morire per voi, morire per voi!» La voce di Lizzie cantava ancora al suo orecchio).

— Perchè non avete avuto il coraggio di farlo prima? interrogò egli con voce aspra. — Quando non avevo nulla? Quando morivo di fame? Quando ero nè più nè meno quale sono oggi, lo stesso uomo, lo stesso artista, lo stesso Martin Eden?... Ecco la domanda che io mi rivolgo da parecchi giorni, non riguardo a voi, ma in modo generale. Io non sono mutato, vedete, sebbene l’improvviso apprezzamento del mio valore da parte della gente mi porti continuamente a tranquillizzarmi al riguardo. La mia carne è rimasta la stessa, e così le mie dita e il volto. Io non ho acquistato maggior forza e neppure una qualità di più. Il mio cervello è rimasto tale quale era: non ho neppure inventato più nulla di nuovo in fatto di letteratura e di filosofia. Il mio valore personale è precisamente uguale a quello che era prima, quando nessuno voleva sapere di me. Perchè mi vogliono ora?... Questo mi disorienta. È evidente che non è per me stesso, giacchè sono rimasto quale ero quando non mi volevano: dunque è per una ragione esteriore, per una cosa che non riguarda il mio io. Volete che vi dica che cos’è? La consacrazione del mio talento da parte del pubblico; non altro; e così, tutto il danaro che ho guadagnato e che continuo a guadagnare. E perciò, a causa di questa consacrazione e di questo danaro, oggi mi volete.

— Voi mi spezzate il cuore, — singhiozzò Ruth. — Sapete che vi amo, che sono venuta perchè vi amo.

— Temo che non abbiate capito bene la cosa, — diss’egli con dolcezza. — Voglio dire questo: giacchè mi amate, come va che il vostro amore attuale sia così forte, quando il vostro amore di allora era così debole, debole al punto da respingermi?

— Dimenticate tutto ciò e perdonatemi! — esclamò lei ardentemente. — Io non ho mai cessato d’amarvi, ricordatevene! E sono qua, ora, tra le vostre braccia.

— Ho paura d’essere un mercante pieno di diffidenza, attento al peso, che si sforza di pesare il vostro amore, e temo d’accorgermi che il peso non è giusto.

Essa gli si svincolò dalle braccia, si raddrizzò e lo guardò a lungo, profondamente; fu sul punto di parlare, ma esitò e tacque.

— Sentite, vi spiegherò il modo di vedere le cose, — proseguì Martin. — Prima, quando non avevo ricevuto la consacrazione ufficiale, fuori del mio ambiente, nessuno si curava di me. Quando scrivevo i miei libri, nessuno di quelli che lessero i manoscritti, si curò di me; anzi, pareva che mi stimassero meno; pareva davvero che scrivendo commettessi un atto perlomeno scorretto. E tutti mi dicevano; procuratevi il pane!

Lei fece un cenno di diniego.

— Sì, sì, — disse lui, — tranne voi. Voi mi dicevate: cercatevi un’occupazione! La frase famigliare: procuratevi il pane. — come tante altre parole che ho scritto, — vi urta: è brutale. Io vi rispondo che anche a me sembrava brutale quando tutti me la gettavano in faccia, come si raccomanda la buona condotta a una persona traviata. Ma io divago.

La pubblicazione dei miei libri, l’accoglienza avuta dal pubblico, hanno mutato la natura del vostro amore. Voi non volevate sposare quel Martin Eden che era null’altro che Martin Eden; non l’amavate così; oggi, il vostro amore s’è ingigantito, e io non posso non

concluderne che è cresciuto in proporzione del favore del pubblico che ha consacrato il mio talento. Per voi non si tratta del mio danaro, lo so, benchè sia sicuro che entra nel mutamento ch’è avvenuto nei vostri genitori. Tutto questo, naturalmente, non mi lusinga molto; ma il peggio si è che mi fa dubitare dell’Amore... del divino amore. L’amore è dunque cosa tanto materiale che dev’essere nutrito di rèclame e di popolarità? Pare di sì. È un pensiero che mi ha assillato al punto da farmi diventar quasi pazzo.

— Povera cara testa! — E lei stese la mano, gli passò dolcemente le dita tra i capelli. — Lasciate stare tutti questi brutti pensieri. Ricominciamo da capo. Io non ho mai cessato di volervi bene. Sì, ho peccato di debolezza cedendo alla volontà di mia madre; non avrei dovuto farlo, ma vi ho sentito parlare così spesso, con tanta generosità, della fragilità dei poveri esseri umani! Stendetela su di me questa carità... Ho peccato per ignoranza! Perdonatemi!...

— Oh, vi perdono! — diss’egli con impazienza. Veramente non c’è nulla da perdonare; ognuno opera come sa, e non può far di più. Sarebbe come se vi domandassi di perdonarmi di non aver potuto trovare «un’occupazione».

— Io credevo di far bene, — protestò Ruth. — Voi lo sapete. Vi avrei amato se non avessi creduto di farlo pel vostro bene?

— Bene! ma credendo di far bene, voi volevate distruggere ciò che forma la mia personalità. Sì! (Lei voleva interromperlo, ma egli glielo impedì). Sì, voi avreste distrutto la mia letteratura, il mio avvenire. La mia natura è improntata da realismo, e lo spirito borghese odia il realismo, per vigliaccheria, per paura della vita. Voi avete fatto di tutto per farmi temere la vita; voi mi avreste fatto diventar banale in misura della vostra vita borghese, nella quale tutto è meschino, falso e volgare.

Ella fece un gesto di protesta.

— La volgarità, — una volgarità cordiale, lo ammetto, — è la base della cultura borghese e delle sue raffinatezze. Come vi ho detto, voi volevate modellarmi a immagine dei vostri, secondo l’ideale della

vostra classe. (Egli scosse tristemente il capo). E anche in questo momento non comprendete; le mie parole per voi non significano nulla di ciò che cerco di mettervi. Per voi, si tratta di pura fantasia; al massimo, vi disorienta, e vi diverte il fatto che questo giovane selvaggio uscito da un abisso di fango si permetta di giudicare la vostra classe e di considerarla volgare.

Essa appoggiò la testa contro la spalla di lui, con stanchezza, e fu scossa da un nuovo tremito nervoso. Poichè rimaneva pensosa, egli proseguì:

— E ora, volete ricominciare il nostro amore, volete sposarmi, mi volete. Eppure, ascoltate, se i miei libri non fossero stati segnalati, io sarei rimasto lo stesso!... Ma voi non sareste venuta. Sono tutti questi libri, perdio...

— Non bestemmiate, — interruppe lei.

Il rimprovero lo fece ridere d’un riso amaro.

— Ecco! è proprio così, — diss’egli. — In un momento critico, quando è in rischio ciò che voi credete la felicità della vostra vita, una bestemmia vi fa paura, una bestemmia molto innocente, francamente!

Queste parole fecero sentire a Ruth la puerilità della sua esclamazione; ma a lei parve che egli esagerasse e se ne ebbe a male. Seguì un lungo silenzio. Lei rifletteva disperatamente, escogitando il modo di riaverlo, mentre egli pensava disperatamente al suo amore defunto. Egli non l’aveva mai amata veramente, ora lo sapeva; aveva amato una Ruth ideale, una creatura eterea, uscita tutta quanta dalla sua immaginazione, la musa ardente e luminosa dei suoi poemi d’amore; la vera Ruth, quella di tutti i pregiudizî borghesi, segnata dal marchio indelebile della meschinità borghese, quella, non l’aveva mai amata.

Essa incominciò a parlare a un tratto:

— Io so che c’è molto di vero in ciò che mi dite: io ho paura della vita; non vi ho amato abbastanza; ma ho imparato a capir meglio

l’amore. Oggi, vi amo come siete diventato, per ciò che siete. Vi amo perciò, per tutto ciò che vi fa diverso da quella che chiamate «la mia classe», e a causa di tutte le vostre credenze che io non comprendo, ma che imparerò a comprendere, lo so. Io farò di tutto per comprenderle. Su! fumate, bestemmiate; tutto ciò fa parte di voi e mi piacerà per questo. Imparerò, vedrete! In dieci minuti ho già appreso molto. Il fatto che mi sono arrischiata a venire sin qui è una prova di ciò che ho già appreso. Oh, Martin!... — Essa gli si strinse addosso singhiozzando.

Per la prima volta le braccia di lui la cinsero con tenerezza, e lei lo ringraziò con un sorriso felice.

— Troppo tardi! — diss’egli. La frase di Lizzie gli tornò in monte. Sono malato — oh, non fisicamente!... ma la mia anima, il cervello sono malati. Ho perduto il gusto di vivere. Tutto per me è lo stesso. Se m’aveste detto questo pochi mesi fa, la cosa sarebbe stata diversa. Ora è troppo tardi.

— Non è troppo tardi! — esclamò lei. — Vedrete! Vi proverò che il mio amore è ingrandito, che tengo più ad esso che alla «mia classe» e a tutto ciò che mi è caro! Io metto sotto i piedi tutti i pregiudizî; la vita non mi fa più paura. Io abbandonerò mio padre e mia madre, e i miei amici non oseranno più pronunciare il mio nome. Se volete, sono vostra, da ora, felice e orgogliosa di essere la vostra amante. Se ho tradito l’amore, voglio ora, per amor dell’Amore, tradire tutto ciò che me l’aveva fatto rinnegare.

Lei si alzò, stette davanti a lui, radiosa.

— Aspetto, Martin... — mormorò. — Aspetto che voi mi vogliate. Guardatemi.

Egli la guardò. La vide splendida. Essa riscattava davvero la sua condotta passata, si mostrava finalmente una vera donna, superiore alle leggi di ferro delle convenzioni borghesi. Era splendida, magnifica, sublime. Eppure... che gli succedeva dunque? Ciò che lei faceva non lo toccava nè lo commoveva; egli l’apprezzava freddamente, l’ammirava cerebralmente; ma il suo cuore non aveva

sussultato; egli non la desiderava più. Nuovamente la frase di Lizzie gli tornò alla mente.

— Sono malato, molto malato, — diss’egli con un gesto disperato. — Sino a qual punto, ora soltanto me n’accorgo: qualche cosa in me s’è spenta. Io non ho mai avuto paura della vita, ma non avrei mai creduto di poter essere stufo della vita. La vita m’ha talmente saturato d’emozioni, che sono svuotato d’ogni desiderio di qualunque cosa. Se potessi desiderare, desidererei voi. Vedete come sono malato! — Egli rovesciò il capo e chiuse gli occhi; e come il fanciullo che, piangendo, dimentica il suo dolore per spiare i cerchi luminosi che danzano sotto le palpebre umide, Martin dimenticò la sua malattia, la presenza di Ruth, tutto, per abbandonarsi alla visione di un’immensa cortina di fogliame attraversato dai raggi del sole ardente, che si formava e fiammeggiava sotto le sue palpebre. Quel sole troppo vivo l’abbagliava, gli faceva male; eppure egli lo guardava... perchè?

Riacquistò coscienza di sè, al rumore della maniglia della porta. Ruth se ne andava.

— Come farò a uscire? — disse lei, con voce di pianto. — Ho paura!

— Oh! chiedo scusa! — esclamò lui, saltando in piedi. — Sono fuori di me, come vedete. Avevo dimenticato che siete qui.

Si toccò la testa col dito. — Vedete, non sto molto bene. Vi accompagno io. Usciremo per la porta di servizio, e nessuno ci vedrà. Abbassate il velo, e tutto andrà bene.

Essa gli si tenne aggrappata al braccio, lungo i corridoi male illuminati, e l’angusta scalinata.

— Sono in salvo, — disse lei, quando furono sul marciapiede, e, vivacemente, lei fece un movimento per svincolare il braccio.

— No, no, vi accompagno sino a casa, — rispose Martin.

— No, ve ne prego; è inutile, — disse lei.

E nuovamente essa tentò di svincolare il braccio.

Martin ebbe un barlume di curiosità: ora che lei era sicura, aveva paura! Non aveva che un’idea sola: sbarazzarsi di lui, al più presto. Egli rinunziò a comprendere la ragione di questo, che attribuì a nervosità, e trattenendola sotto il braccio, dolcemente, continuò ad accompagnarla.

Prima dell’angolo della via, un uomo si ficcò di colpo in un portone: sebbene avesse il bavero alzato, fu riconosciuto da Martin: era Norman, il fratello di Ruth.

Procedendo, Ruth e Martin, conversarono un po’: lei era come inebetita; egli apatico. Egli le annunziò soltanto che partiva, ritornava nei mari del sud, lei gli chiese scusa d’essere andata da lui. E non vi fu altro. Si salutarono, si strinsero la mano, si dissero buona sera, egli si tolse il cappello, poi la porta si rinchiuse con fracasso, egli accese una sigaretta e tornò indietro. Nel passare davanti il portone nel quale aveva visto sparire Norman, si fermò per affermare ad alta voce:

— Lei mentiva! lei mi faceva credere che affrontava i peggiori rischi, mentre sapeva benissimo che suo fratello, che l’aveva accompagnata, l’attendeva per ricondurla a casa.

E diede in uno scroscio di risa.

— Oh, questi borghesi! Quand’ero povero, non mi si doveva vedere con sua sorella; ora che ho un conto corrente in banca, è lui a condurmela. — E già voltava i tacchi per andarsene, quando un vagabondo che seguiva la stessa direzione, gli chiese l’elemosina.

— Sentite, datemi dieci soldi per dormire all’asilo notturno! — questa voce fece voltare Martin. Un momento dopo, egli stringeva la mano di Joe.

— Ti ricordi quando ci siamo lasciati alle Acque Termali? — disse l’altro. — Ti ho detto che ci saremmo riveduti; lo sentivo. Ed eccoci qua! — Tu hai un buon aspetto, — fece Martin, con accento di ammirazione. — Sembri ingrassato.

— Ma sicuro, perdiana! — e la faccia di Joe era raggiante di gioia.

— Non sapevo che cosa volesse dire vivere, prima di fare il vagabondo. Ora peso quindici libbre di più e sto benone, proprio benone. Perbacco! mi mangiavo il sangue, a forza di lavorare, una volta! Fare il vagabondo è una faccenda che mi va benissimo.

— Ma intanto sei costretto a cercarti un letto. — disse Martin, celiando.

— E fa freddo, questa sera.

— Ah, neh! io cerco un letto! — Joe si frugò nella tasca dei calzoni e ne trasse fuori una manciata di moneta spicciola: — To’! e questo?

— diss’egli trionfalmente. — Tu avevi un’aria chic, perciò ho tirato il colpo!

Martin si mise a ridere, e si confessò vinto.

— Pochissimo per me, — dichiarò l’altro. — Non mi ubriaco più; sebbene non vi sia nulla che me lo impedisca, se voglio. Mi sono ubriacato una volta sola dacchè ti ho visto, e l’ho fatto apposta: perchè avevo la pancia vuota. Quando lavoro come un bruto, bevo come un bruto; quando vivo da uomo libero, bevo da uomo libero; un bicchiere di tanto in tanto, quando mi salta in testa, e basta.

Martin gli diede convegno pel giorno dopo e rientrò nell’albergo. Si fermò al bureau per sapere la partenza dei piroscafi.

La Mariposa sarebbe partita per Tahiti cinque giorni dopo.

— Telefonate domattina e fissatemi una cabina di lusso, — disse all’impiegato. — Non sul ponte, ma in basso, all’esterno, da babordo. Ricordatevi: a babordo. Segnatelo: sarà meglio. Giunto in camera, si mise a letto e si addormentò come un bambino.

Gli avvenimenti della sera non gli avevano fatto alcuna impressione: nessuna sensazione lasciava traccia nel suo spirito, ormai: quel guizzo di piacere provato nel vedere Joe era durato un breve istante. Subito dopo, la presenza dell’ex-lavandaio, la stanchezza della conversazione, l’avevano annoiato. Anche il pensiero di partire fra cinque giorni, pel suo caro Pacifico, non lo entusiasmava punto.

Chiuse dunque gli occhi e dormì normalmente, riposatamente, otto ore filate, senza muoversi, senza sognare. Il sonno era l’oblìo, così che ogni giorno egli si svegliava con rammarico. La vita era una noia spaventosa, per lui; e tanto lunga, la vita!...

CAPITOLO

XLV.

— Senti un po’, Joe! — così l’accolse il vecchio compagno dei giorni tristi, la mattina dopo. — Io conosco un francese che abita nella 28.ª strada: egli ha guadagnato un bel po’, ritorna in Francia e vende la sua lavanderia, una bella piccola lavanderia a vapore, magnifica. Se ti vuoi sistemare, ecco un affare che va bene per te. To’, prendi questo; comprati della roba decente e va alle dieci nell’ufficio di questo tale.

Egli mi ha fatto vedere la lavanderia; e la mostrerà anche a te. Se ti piace e se credi che valga il prezzo — 60.000 — dimmelo, e sarà tua. Ora lasciami: ho da fare; ti vedrò dopo.

— Senti, Mart, — fece l’altro, con voce lenta, nella quale si veniva accumulando la collera. Io sono venuto questa mattina per vederti, capisci? Non sono venuto per vedere una lavanderia. Vengo per chiacchierare, da vecchio buon compagno, e tu mi pianti una lavanderia sulla testa. Be’, ti dirò: te la puoi tenere la tua lavanderia, e andartene al diavolo!...

E già s’avviava, furioso, quando Martin l’afferrò per la spalla e gli fece fare una giravolta.

— Ascolta, Joe! — diss’egli, se fai l’imbecille, ti rompo la faccia. E in ricordo della nostra vecchia amicizia, te la rompo per bene. Su, vuoi o non vuoi?

Joe l’aveva abbracciato, ma siccome Martin aveva il vantaggio della presa, tentò invano di svincolarsi: vacillando per la camera, andarono a finire, con gran fracasso, su una poltroncina di vimini, che si ruppe in parecchi pezzi. Joe giaceva sotto, con le braccia in

croce, solidamente mantenuto, e un ginocchio di Martin sullo stomaco: ansava, soffiava, sbuffava come una foca, quando Martin lo lasciò.

— Ora, parliamo un po’, — disse Martin. — Non giova fare il cattivo con me, vecchio mio. Voglio prima di tutto terminare questa faccenda della lavanderia; poi potrai ritornare e parleremo del buon vecchio tempo. T’ho detto ch’ero occupato. Guarda! — Un cameriere era entrato con un voluminoso fascio di lettere e riviste.

— Come vuoi che faccia a guardare tutta questa roba e a chiacchierare nello stesso tempo? Va’ a vedere la lavanderia, e poi ritornerai.

— Be’, — finì per ammettere Joe con malagrazia. — Credevo che tu volessi sbarazzarti di me; mi sono ingannato. Ma sai, Mart, non mi vinci alla boxe: ho le braccia più lunghe delle tue.

— Ci metteremo i guanti, un giorno di questi, e vedremo! — disse Martin sorridendo.

— Sicuro! appena la lavanderia sarà avviata. — Joe allungò il braccio;

— Vedi questo? Be’, lo sentirai.

Martin emise un respiro di sollievo quando la porta si rinchiuse dietro il lavandaio. Diventava misantropo; di giorno in giorno, gli riusciva sempre più difficile mostrarsi cortese col prossimo. La presenza della gente l’annoiava, la loro conversazione l’irritava; egli diventava nervoso, e subito dopo il primo contatto, cercava un pretesto per sbarazzarsene.

Anzichè fare lo spoglio dello corrispondenza, egli rimase a poltrire sdraiato, per una mezz’ora, senza far nulla, quasi senza pensare. Poi si scosse, e incominciò lo spoglio. C’erano una dozzina di richieste d’autografi, che con uno sguardo solo egli riconobbe; delle richieste di danaro da mendicanti di professione; delle lettere di pazzi, dall’inventore d’una macchina a motore perpetuo e dallo scienziato che ha scoperto che la terra è l’interno d’una sfera vuota

sino all’illuso, che chiede dei mezzi per comperare la penisola della California meridionale e fondarci una colonia comunista.

Poi delle lettere di donne che volevano conoscerlo; tra le quali una sola lo fece sorridere, perchè conteneva la ricevuta del noleggio della sedia in chiesa, quale prova di pietà e rispettabilità.

Redattori di giornali e di riviste e case editrici contribuivano in gran parte a formar la valanga quotidiana delle lettere: i primi gli si inginocchiavano per avere manoscritti; i secondi per avere i suoi libri. Poveri manoscritti disprezzati! E dire che per essi aveva impegnato tutto quanto possedeva, per lunghi penosi mesi! La posta gli portava anche degli chèques inaspettati dall’Inghilterra, per diritti di pubblicazione su traduzioni straniere.

Il suo agente inglese gli annunciava la vendita dei diritti di traduzione in tedesco per tre libri e l’informava che le edizioni svedesi sulle quali non gli spettava nulla — la Svezia non faceva parte della convenzione di Berna, — erano già in vendita. Gli si domandava anche il permesso di tradurre in russo una delle sue opere, essendo la Russia esclusa anch’essa dalla convenzione di Berna.

Egli esaminò il grosso mucchio di ritagli che l’Argo della Stampa gli mandava, lesse ciò che dicevano di lui e della sua voga, ch’era diventata incredibile. Ciò dipendeva senza dubbio dal fatto che tutta la sua produzione letteraria era stata lanciata al pubblico in un torrente magnifico che lo aveva preso d’assalto. Anche per Kipling era accaduto lo stesso: egli era quasi moribondo quando la folla capricciosa si mise di colpo a leggerlo. E questa stessa folla, Martin se ne ricordava molto bene. — avendo letto Kipling e avendolo acclamato, senza però capirne neppure la prima parola, aveva poi fatto un brusco voltafaccia, mesi dopo, e l’aveva straziato per bene.

Martin, così pensando, ghignò. Certo, lo stesso trattamento avrebbero usato a lui.

Perchè no? Ebbene, egli avrebbe giocato a quella folla un bel tiro a modo suo: se ne andava laggiù nei mari del sud, dove avrebbe

costruito la sua casa di verzura, commerciato in perle e copra, avrebbe saltato i banchi di scogli su fragili piroghe e pescato il pescecane, e cacciato la capra selvatica sui picchi che strapiombano nella vallata di Taiohae.

E, a un tratto, tutta la disperazione del suo stato gli apparve; vide chiaramente che era entrato in una via senza uscita. Tutta la vita che era in lui si avvizziva, svaniva, se ne andava verso la morte. Egli sentì in tutta la sua profondità il desiderio di dormire per sempre. Un tempo odiava il sonno che gli rubava momenti preziosi di vita: sulle ventiquattr’ore le quattro ore di sonno lo privavano di quattro ore di vita. Con quanto rammarico s’addormentava allora! Con quanto rammarico viveva ora! La vita non era buona; mancava di sale, aveva un sapore amaro. Ora, poichè tutta la vita che non aspira a continuare è prossima alla cessazione, Martin si mise per una china pericolosa. Un vago istinto di conservazione gli fece sentire che doveva partire al più presto.

Egli si guardò intorno, e il pensiero di dover fare le valige l’annoiò tanto che decise di farle all’ultimo momento. Intanto si sarebbe occupato del suo equipaggiamento.

Uscì, entrò in un negozio di strumenti da caccia e da pesca, e vi trascorse la mattinata a scegliere carabine automatiche, proiettili e lenze perfezionate. Ma per comperare la mercanzia in previsione di scambi futuri, gli bisognava giungere prima a destinazione, giacchè quel genere di commercio era soggetto, come gli altri, ai mutamenti della moda. D’altra parte, la sua mercanzia poteva comperarla in Australia. Questa soluzione lo sollevò: l’idea di iniziare un’attività qualsiasi gli ripugnava in quel momento. Ritornò dunque all’albergo, pensando con gran contentezza alla comoda poltrona che l’aspettava, e lanciò un borbottio disperato quando, entrando in camera, trovò Joe che vi stava con gran sussiego. Joe era entusiasta della lavanderia; tutto era concordato: egli poteva prenderne possesso dal giorno dopo. Martin s’era steso sul letto e aveva chiuso gli occhi mentre l’altro chiacchierava. I suoi pensieri lo conducevano lontano, tanto lontano, ch’egli non

s’accorgeva neppure di pensare. Doveva fare un vero e proprio sforzo per rispondere, a intervalli, a una domanda di Joe. Eppure, aveva avuto sempre dell’affetto per Joe. Ma ecco! Joe era troppo esuberante, e si espandeva in modo così chiassoso da stancare lo spirito malato di Martin ed esasperarne i nervi ipersensibili.

Quando Joe gli ricordò che dovevano fare una partita di pugilato, un giorno, loro due, egli avrebbe voluto urlare, dall’irritazione.

— Ricordati, Joe, che dovrai far funzionare la lavanderia secondo le regole che ti stavano a cuore, alle Acque Termali, — gli disse. — Un lavoro non eccessivo; niente lavoro notturno, e neppure ragazzi al cilindro; niente impiego di ragazzi; e salarî convenienti.

Joe fece un segno d’assenso, e mostrò il taccuino.

— Guarda, vecchio! Ho segnato qui le regole, prima di colazione, questa mattina. Che te ne pare?

E le lesse ad alta voce, e Martin approvò, mentre s’augurava che Joe lo liberasse al più presto della sua presenza. Quando si svegliò, il pomeriggio era inoltrato. Lentamente egli riacquistò coscienza della vita e si guardò intorno: Joe se l’era svignata vedendolo addormentato, evidentemente. È stata una delicatezza, da parte sua, — fece egli tra sè; — poi chiuse nuovamente gli occhi e si riaddormentò.

Nei giorni che seguirono, Joe fu troppo assorto nell’ordinamento della lavanderia, per annoiarlo troppo; e solo alla vigilia dell’imbarco, i giornali annunciavano che Martin Eden partiva sulla «Mariposa». Durante uno di quei rari momenti nei quali l’istinto della conservazione era ancora desto, egli andò da un medico per farsi visitare accuratamente. Il medico non gli trovò nulla: il cuore, i polmoni furono dichiarati perfetti; tutti i suoi organi, stando al giudizio del dottore, erano sani e funzionavano normalmente.

— Voi non avete nulla, signor Eden, — disse. — Voi siete in condizioni perfette. Sinceramente, ammiro la vostra salute; è meravigliosa. Guardate che torace! Qui, e nello stomaco, sta il

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