1 TOURISM AND TASTE
From Romanticism to Cosmopolitanism
DOI: 10.4324/9781003455516-2
Romantic sensibilities have significantly shaped the past of the national parks, and cosmopolitan tastes stand to shape their future. Romanticism, a movement that emphasized individual selfexpression, emotion, imagination, nature, and the personal experience of the sublime (Swiggett 1903), gained traction in nineteenth-century Europe as a critique of the Enlightenment rationality that had ushered in the Industrial Revolution. Cosmopolitanism is a contemporary cultural discourse that values global perspectives, openness, and engagement with a range of cultural practices and groups (Skey 2012); it is often understood as a critique of nationalism, localism, and other parochial perspectives. These ideological frameworks animate experiences of travel and tourism in general and of eating in national parks in particular.
Far from the Madding Crowd: Romantic Contemplation, Nature, Gastronomy, and Taste
In 1865, Frederick Law Olmsted, best known as the father of US landscape design and landscape designer for New York’s Central Park, was an early key advocate for national parks. Influenced by Romanticism, Olmsted believed that the aesthetic experience of
beautiful landscapes could free the imagination (Fisher 1986).
Olmsted authored a report—a blueprint for the fitting together of travel, contemplation, class, and aesthetics—about his designs for the land that would later (in 1890) become Yosemite National Park.
In the report, Olmsted waxes rhapsodic in a manner bordering on purple prose about the features of the land there. Describing a stand of stately giant sequoias, Olmsted writes:
there are hundreds of such beauty and stateliness that, to one who moves among them in the reverent mood to which they so strongly incite the mind, it will not seem strange that intelligent travelers have declared that they would rather have passed by Niagara itself than have missed visiting this grove.
(Olmsted1865,np)
Olmsted swipes at the so-called less intelligent travelers who would flock to Niagara Falls, overrun by industry and commerce, framing visitors to Yosemite as distinct in their reverence.
Olmsted argued for the preservation of the Yosemite land and its consecration as a national park largely on the grounds of the civilizing effect that appreciating its beauty could have.
The power of scenery to affect men is, in a large way, proportionate to the degree of their civilization and to the degree in which their taste has been cultivated. Among a thousand savages there will be a much smaller number who will show the least sign of being so affected than among a thousand persons taken from a civilized community. This is only one of the many channels in which a similar distinction between civilized and savage men is to be generally observed. The whole body of the susceptibilities of civilized men and with their susceptibilities their powers, are on the whole enlarged. But as with the bodily powers, if one group of muscles is developed by exercise exclusively, and all others neglected, the result is general feebleness, so it is with the mental faculties. And men who exercise those faculties or susceptibilities of the mind which
are called in play by beautiful scenery so little that they seem to be inert with them, are either in a diseased condition from excessive devotion of be mind to a limited range of interests, or their whole minds are in a savage state; that is, a state of low development. The latter class need to be drawn out generally; the former need relief from their habitual matters of interest and to be drawn out in those parts of their mental nature which have been habitually left idle and inert.
(Olmsted1865,np)
Olmsted says in the report that rich people can buy land that inspires them and notes that they have plenty of opportunities to see this type of scenery for themselves, but he thinks the effects are so favorable for everyone that the government has a political duty to provide “great public grounds for the free enjoyment of the people under certain circumstances” (1865, np). He argues that “humble toilers” involved in “almost constant labor” have historically been provided by the governing classes with artificial pleasures for recreation, and that this has given them the appearance of “dullness and weakness and disease.” In contrast, he argues for the preservation of natural scenery so that even the humble toilers can stand to be transformed—civilized—by their appreciation of its beauty: “It is an important fact that as civilization advances, the interest of men in natural scenes of sublimity and beauty increases” (Olmsted 1865, np). Scenery could, in Olmsted’s mind, elevate popular taste (Sax 1980, 21), rather than just serving it. In this way, the national parks were imagined as tools for civilizing the uncivilized. Nature travel could be challenging in Olmsted’s day, but its transformative power was unparalleled. Romantics valorized highly aestheticized personal experiences and, in doing so, created the context into which gastronomy could emerge. Commonly understood as “the art of the table,” the concern of gastronomy was defined in 1825 as “the preservation of man by means of the best possible food”; it was concerned with taste and “the action of food […] on the moral of man, on his imagination” (Brillat Savarin 1825, Meditation III). Romanticism coincided with the
invention of the restaurant and a certain type of food writing and emblematized the sophistication and social positioning associated with modern gastronomy (Gigante 2007, section 1). Gastronomes around the turn of the nineteenth century made “fine art of food” and “crusaded for the value of the aesthetic in an age of increasing consumerism” (Gigante 2007, section 1). The culture of gastronomy awakened by Romanticism took food seriously as a canvas for the expression of aesthetic judgments and a site for flexing one’s intellect (Gigante 2007, section 9).
Travel has helped people to develop the ability to discern between environments that are aesthetically pleasing and unspoiled and those that are not (Urry 1995), and food is a central area of heightened discernment. Travel thus emerges as an important site for the cultivation of taste and the valorization of some tastes and experiences over others, and food in the context of travel is perhaps its apotheosis. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu wrote,
The opposition between the immediate and the deferred, the easy and the difficult, substance (or function) and form, which is exposed in particularly striking fashion in bourgeois ways of eating, is the basis of all aestheticization of practice and every aesthetic.
(Bourdieu1984,196)
With their remoteness and visual splendor, the national parks are obvious sites of aestheticization, and the foodways there are animated by tensions between easy and difficult, form and function, and the immediate and the deferred.
The movement for national parks in the US, which took flight in the second half of the nineteenth century, just on the heels of the dawn of transcontinental railroad travel, exemplified Romantic sensibilities that intertwined religious truth and nature. The Romantics believed that people could, through introspection and observation of nature, experience the sublime and discover the divine (Campbell 1987, 182–3). Wilderness landscapes were culturally desirable because they provided spaces for this kind of
experience, and because the challenging nature of accessing them reflected well on the traveler. Visiting the wilderness was, for people of a certain social standing, a desirable form of leisure activity and an expression of good taste (Urry 1995, 213). Following Olmsted’s lead, the establishment of national parks and the development of infrastructure that reduced the difficulty of getting to them helped to cultivate the interests of a wider swath of humanity beyond the moneyed elite. What people ate while on these Romantic quests to parklands was the consequence of federal regulation, political and cultural disenfranchisement, and a changing national and regional food system, and had the power then (as it does still today) to convey something about who they are and what they value.
Transporting Taste
Before the twentieth century, it was the upper classes who could afford to travel to the few existing national parks. To reach Yosemite Valley in the 1860s, “it was necessary to take a boat from San Francisco to Stockton, followed by a sixteen-hour stagecoach ride to Coulterville, and finally a fifty-seven-mile, thirty-seven-hour trek by horse and pack mule into the valley” (Sax 1980, 5). In the 1870s, the best route to reach Yellowstone required
a steamboat up the Missouri River 400 miles to the Yellowstone River, up that another 360 miles to the mouth of the Bighorn, then another 60 miles up the Bighorn to Clarks’ Fork. At this point a coach would take travelers the last 72 miles to the park’s border.
(ZaslowskyandWatkins1994,18)
To cover the thousand or so miles from Bismarck, North Dakota, to Yellowstone, it took at least three weeks and cost $100 (Zaslowsky and Watkins 1994, 18), a princely sum at the time.
The train and the transcontinental railroad, developed in the US around the same time that the idea of creating national parks took hold, democratized and changed the character of travel. Passing
through landscapes that they observed without otherwise engaging, travelers became tourists when riding the train. “To be a tourist meant to be divorced from the realities of any visited place, to recreate its essence in the context of the cultural baggage a traveler brought along” (Rothman 1998, 39). The capacity for reflective judgment that has come to serve today’s cosmopolitan travelers well was seeded by the Romantics, nurtured by the Victorians, and came of age on the trains. Writing of the Victorians, Feifer noted that “the more developed one’s sensitivity, the more one would want to linger over the landscape” (1985, 167). Although recreating in nature was long associated with aristocratic privilege (Meeker 1973, 4), transportation networks developed in the mid-nineteenth century would extend the privilege more widely. Similarly, the development of restaurant dining in the nineteenth century “made eating a form of entertainment and an object of conspicuous consumption as well as sustenance” (Lobel 2014, 6).
Trains allowed mass transit to the parks at least in theory, starting in 1901 when the Grand Canyon Railway rolled into the South Rim. No longer was the $15, eight-hour stagecoach ride from Flagstaff the only game in town—now, visitors could pay $3.95 for a much shorter train ride (History of the Train 2022). However, their ticket prices were still out of reach for most Americans. With the trains in play, simply going anywhere at all was no longer a marker of elite status; rather, where one went and what one did there provided a more important badge of distinction. One’s destination became socially significant, and working-class resorts were branded and disregarded as venues for low-rent mass tourism, “places of inferiority which stood for everything that dominant social groups held to be tasteless, common and vulgar” (Urry 1990, 16).
The National Park Service (NPS) was created in 1916 to conserve majestic landscapes and to provide for their enjoyment by the public, a dual purpose that has struck many observers as oxymoronic, as tourist use may in fact compromise the natural attributes of place. Founding NPS Director Stephen Mather recognized the importance of park concessions to an enjoyable public experience, noting that “scenery is a hollow enjoyment to a
tourist who sets out in the morning after an indigestible breakfast” (cited in National Park Service 2023). In fact, contrary to imagined “pure” conservation motives, the founding of the first US National Park, Yellowstone, in 1872 can be attributed to the influence of potential concessioners, executives from the Northern Pacific Railroad who anticipated a lucrative tourist trade.
Over the next century, the invention of the automobile, the development of the interstate highway system, and the increasing accessibility of air travel allowed a more-mobile-than-ever middle class to reach locations previously unthinkable for them. Tourism by car served audiences more interested in novelty, recreation, and experience than the cultural enlightenment promised in turn-of-thetwentieth-century park travels (Rothman 1998, 149; see also Runte 1987). For travelers of the 1920s, “travel was not designed to make them better, wiser, or more prepared; it merely restored them to their native condition, the way they had been before the rigors of urban civilized life wore them down” (Rothman 1998, 150). But the challenge to American values wrought by the advent of the Great Depression presented the parks with an opportunity to interpret, educate, and inspire, returning in some ways to the earlier Romantic impulse.
A growing national park system in the US, reached by newly available modes of transportation, became a site for personal expression for the striving professional and managerial middle class. But this did not please everyone. In the 1950s, members of the National Parks Association registered concern about the ways in which the public was using the parks. Paul Shepherd Jr. “bemoaned the commercialization and rapid pace of park visits, and felt that ‘a larger majority of visitors [were] unaware of the peculiar meaning … of the parks’” (Carr 2007, 54). The resurrection of the Romantic impulse promised to tame the threat of the damaging, novelty-mad American tourist, as a battle for the soul of the park traveler played out alongside the emergence of the era of the lifestyle, wherein “one expressed oneself more at leisure than at work; by one’s hobbies, one’s possessions, one’s tastes” (Feifer 1985, 224). Conservationoriented wilderness sites, with limited tourist service infrastructure,
are and were not fancy, but just exclusive enough to provide refuge from the tacky, the vulgar, the mass, and the inferior, even as tourism literally consumes the lands, threatening to deplete or exhaust that which makes the destination striking or significant (Urry 1995, 2).
As more people traveled, the mobility of the upper classes provided them with cultural capital that helped them to evaluate and distinguish between different environments and to register as important their impressions of which ones had value and which were to be despised (Urry 1995, 175). In the present day, Americans with high cultural capital tend to understand sophistication through cosmopolitanism, “as having had a chance to travel, to learn languages, to discover various culinary traditions, and, more generally, to widen one’s horizons—which goes along with the quest for self-actualization” (Lamont 1992, 107). Vacation destinations and the eating experiences that accompany them signal refinement in this context, making national parks fascinating sites for struggles of cosmopolitan self-making.
Getting to Cosmopolitanism
Since their founding, national parks have been places for introspection, communing with nature, experiencing the sublime, finding one’s authentic self, and also virtue-signaling. From the start, national parks were pitched toward those who could afford the time and substantial expense involved in traveling to remote locations— those with capital, economic and cultural. Victor and Edith Turner asserted that “modern pilgrimages may be read as ‘meta-social commentaries’ on the troubles of the epoch and a search for vanishing virtues” (1978, 38). In the late 1800s, wealthy travelers made exhausting and expensive pilgrimages to the parks to escape the dirty and overcrowded industrial cities of the east. The romantic ethos of national parks prioritized leaving behind the mundanity of daily life, instead traveling widely to commune with nature, to experience solitude and awe-inspiring vistas, and thus to reflect and change one’s life for the better.
Perhaps not much has changed in the last 150 years since Yellowstone National Park was founded. Much as spas and springs served as resorts for the wealthy, for whom a medical motive for travel—taking the therapeutic waters—excused the traveler temporarily from the demands of the Protestant work ethic (Bartlett 1985), today’s national parks may also serve not only an aesthetic problem for visitors but also a moral one. In the overworked US, where 52% of workers left vacation days on the table in 2017 (US Travel Association 2018), we still frown to some extent on vacations. But there is redemptive value in communing with nature, hiking, or achieving spiritual rejuvenation in the outdoors, so the parks can solve a moral problem for visitors. National park travel allows the leisure of visitors to pass as a quest for health, thus making their recreation both socially acceptable and morally satisfactory (Bartlett 1985, 114). The food experiences in the parks bear some examination, then, as they do not always serve this mission well.
US national parks remain attractive to travelers who gain distinction through turning away from hyper-connected, mediasaturated reality and rampant consumption of a never-ending supply of goods; these travelers instead seek “nature,” authenticity, and solitude as they travel slow, basking in the transformation offered by what has come to be known as the “experience economy.” Today, highly mobile travelers from affluent parts of the world travel far, “often to take largely inward journeys: to practice ‘simplicity’ and ‘slowness’ and experience ‘authenticity’” (Howard 2012, 12). But the global flows of information enabled by transportation networks and communication technologies mean that cosmopolitanism isn’t just something that rich people do; rather, it’s a cultural repertoire, available to many people across class and cultural boundaries.
Today, national parks are viable destinations for slow travel, which has emerged as a preferred status signifier. Slow travel exemplifies resistance to the artificial pleasures lamented by Olmsted, eschewing the fast, cheap, and out of control in favor of something quieter, smaller, and more special. Many elements of the parks lend themselves to slow travel, as their often-remote locations mean that they take time and effort to get to, and they’re off the grid, lacking
televisions, strong Wi-Fi, and sometimes even cell service. Reservations are harder to get at many park lodges and campsites than the hottest new urban eatery, their elusiveness and exclusivity adding to their appeal. These features, along with their magnificent scenery, make park travel particularly appealing for tasteful travelers who have been cultivated to make distinctions and who enjoy communing with nature and slowing down, and reaping the social value of doing these activities. But these travelers find a food scene that is not generally as inspirational as the scenery. The food available in national parks has tended to emphasize neither culinary heritage, organic principles, nor the sensory embodiment of the journey, all cosmopolitan-friendly features of slow travel (Fullagar, Wilson, and Markwell 2012, 4), but this is changing, as cosmopolitan values have started to inflect the future of food in the parks.
The national parks are well set up for slow travel, as a great number of them are remote or not easy to get to. In most, there’s enough infrastructure that the traveler is never really required to “rough it,” but there’s enough distance from luxurious creature comforts (gourmet food, high thread-count sheets, light-speed WiFi) that the travel itself reflects something importantly “alternative” about the traveler, enhancing their cultural capital (Munt 1994, 108). I’m particularly interested in the park food experiences of tastemakers and cultural intermediaries, for whom authentic experiences take precedence over experiences that require great amounts of economic capital (which they often do not have). Food is a way of communicating social identity, and through their cosmopolitan choices and attitudes, eaters can maintain distinctiveness from what they imagine as a parochial Other; however, they can also connect across differences.
Foodies are known to be anxious about consumerism and to find consumption morally freighted (de Solier 2013, 80). Educated foodies participate in cosmopolitan discourses when they imagine themselves as culturalists—people who self-make through experiences and the cultivation of knowledge—rather than materialists, who accumulate things; and they particularly love food because they can enjoy material culture without the anxiety-
producing accumulation it usually entails (de Solier 2013, 81). This attitude places certain pressures on food experiences during national park travel that the NPS, concessioners, and enterprising locals have been shifting toward providing.
Although a small number of people live and work in the national parks, for most people, time spent there is not everyday life. Because it’s vacation, there’s no cooking to be done, except perhaps for cooking while camping out, in which case the contextual limitations prevent realcooking. Fire bans in many of the parks and concerns about animal and camper safety have produced a situation in which camp cooking is often quite limited or outright nonexistent; thus, there is no showcase for the morally precious labor of food production. This situation puts more pressure on national park restaurants, which are then (inevitably) even more disappointing, because they present so few opportunities for the kind of romantic consumption—that is, consumption that is “imaginative, remote from experience, visionary, and preferring grandeur or passion or irregular beauty” (Campbell 1987, 1)—that cosmopolitanism requires. The ethics and aesthetics of omnivorous cosmopolitans, which involve openness to the high and low, and to connecting across difference, but disregard for the facile—“easy, shallow, cheap, easily decoded and culturally undemanding” (Bourdieu 1984, 486)—are put to the test in the eating environments of national parks.
For those who can make the journey, parks offer limited opportunities for virtuous consumption alongside like-minded others. In the context in which “patterns of consumption and practices of the self such as eating and table manners mark class differences on to the body” (Bell and Valentine 1997, 23), eating and taste in national parks communicate about the status of the traveler. If everyone can go to the parks, how might one be set apart? As traditional markers of cultural legitimacy are shifting (Bellavance 2008, 190) and socioeconomic inequality rises in the late twentiethcentury US, taste both reflects and shapes these inequalities; per Juliet Schor, “taste ceases to be a personally and socially innocent category” (1998, 29). The era of social media has made formerly invisible experiences like dining, leisure activities, and tourism
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(32.) A —The Thirty-second Spirit is Asmoday, or Asmodai. He is a Great King, Strong, and Powerful. He appeareth with Three Heads, whereof the first is like a Bull, the second like a Man, and the third like a Ram; he hath also the tail of a Serpent, and from his mouth issue Flames of Fire. His Feet are webbed like those of a Goose. He sitteth upon an Infernal Dragon, and beareth in his hand a Lance with a Banner. He is first and choicest under the Power of A , he goeth before all other. When the Exorcist hath a mind to call him, let it be abroad, and let him stand on his feet all the time of action, with his Cap or Head-dress off; for if it be on, A will deceive him and call all his actions to be bewrayed. But as soon as the Exorcist seeth Asmoday in the shape aforesaid, he shall call him by his Name, saying: “Art thou Asmoday?” and he will not deny it, and by-and-by he will bow down unto the ground. He giveth the Ring of Virtues; he teacheth the Arts of Arithmetic, Astronomy, Geometry, and all handicrafts absolutely. He giveth true and full answers unto thy demands. He maketh one Invincible. He showeth the place where Treasures lie, and guardeth it. He, amongst the Legions of A governeth 72 Legions of Spirits Inferior. His Seal is this which thou must wear as a Lamen upon thy breast, etc.
(33.) G .—The Thirty-third Spirit is Gäap. He is a Great President and a Mighty Prince. He appeareth when the Sun is in some of the Southern Signs, in a Human Shape, going before Four Great and Mighty Kings, as if he were a Guide to conduct them along on their way. His Office is to make men Insensible or Ignorant; as also in Philosophy to make them Knowing, and in all the Liberal Sciences. He can cause Love or Hatred, also he can teach thee to consecrate those things that belong to the Dominion of A his King. He can deliver Familiars out of the Custody of other Magicians, and answereth truly and perfectly of things Past, Present, and to Come. He can carry and re-carry men very speedily from one Kingdom to another, at the Will and Pleasure of the Exorcist. He ruleth over 66 Legions of Spirits, and he was of the Order of Potentates. His Seal is this to be made and to be worn as aforesaid, etc.
(34.) F .—The Thirty-fourth Spirit is Furfur. He is a Great and Mighty Earl, appearing in the Form of an Hart with a Fiery Tail. He
never speaketh truth unless he be compelled, or brought up within a triangle, △. Being therein, he will take upon himself the Form of an Angel. Being bidden, he speaketh with a hoarse voice. Also he will wittingly urge Love between Man and Woman. He can raise Lightnings and Thunders, Blasts, and Great Tempestuous Storms. And he giveth True Answers both of Things Secret and Divine, if commanded. He ruleth over 26 Legions of Spirits. And his Seal is this, etc.
(35.) M .—The Thirty-fifth Spirit is Marchosias. He is a Great and Mighty Marquis, appearing at first in the Form of a Wolf[20] having Gryphon’s Wings, and a Serpent’s Tail, and Vomiting Fire out of his mouth. But after a time, at the command of the Exorcist he putteth on the Shape of a Man. And he is a strong fighter. He was of the Order of Dominations. He governeth 30 Legions of Spirits. He told his Chief, who was Solomon, that after 1,200 years he had hopes to return unto the Seventh Throne. And his Seal is this, to be made and worn as a Lamen, etc.
(36.) S , S .—The Thirty-sixth Spirit is Stolas, or Stolos. He is a Great and Powerful Prince, appearing in the Shape of a Mighty Raven at first before the Exorcist; but after he taketh the image of a Man. He teacheth the Art of Astronomy, and the Virtues of Herbs and Precious Stones. He governeth 26 Legions of Spirits; and his Seal is this, which is, etc.
(37.) P .—The Thirty-Seventh Spirit is Phenex (or Pheynix). He is a great Marquis, and appeareth like the Bird Phœnix, having the Voice of a Child. He singeth many sweet notes before the Exorcist, which he must not regard, but by-and-by he must bid him put on Human Shape. Then he will speak marvellously of all wonderful Sciences if required. He is a Poet, good and excellent. And he will be willing to perform thy requests. He hath hopes also to return to the Seventh Throne after 1,200 years more, as he said unto Solomon. He governeth 20 Legions of Spirits. And his Seal is this, which wear thou, etc.
(38.) H , or M .—The Thirty-eighth Spirit is Halphas, or Malthous (or Malthas). He is a Great Earl, and appeareth in the Form
of a Stock-Dove. He speaketh with a hoarse Voice. His Office is to build up Towers, and to furnish them with Ammunition and Weapons, and to send Men-of-War[21] to places appointed. He ruleth over 26 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(39.) M .—The Thirty-ninth Spirit is Malphas. He appeareth at first like a Crow, but after he will put on Human Shape at the request of the Exorcist, and speak with a hoarse Voice. He is a Mighty President and Powerful. He can build Houses and High Towers, and can bring to thy Knowledge Enemies’ Desires and Thoughts, and that which they have done. He giveth Good Familiars. If thou makest a Sacrifice unto him he will receive it kindly and willingly, but he will deceive him that doth it. He governeth 40 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(40.) R .—The Fortieth Spirit is Räum. He is a Great Earl; and appeareth at first in the Form of a Crow, but after the Command of the Exorcist he putteth on Human Shape. His office is to steal Treasures out King’s Houses, and to carry it whither he is commanded, and to destroy Cities and Dignities of Men, and to tell all things, Past, and What Is, and what Will Be; and to cause Love between Friends and Foes. He was of the Order of Thrones. He governeth 30 Legions of Spirits; and his Seal is this, which wear thou as aforesaid.
(41.) F .—The Forty-first Spirit is Focalor, or Forcalor, or Furcalor. He is a Mighty Duke and Strong. He appeareth in the Form of a Man with Gryphon’s Wings. His office is to slay Men, and to drown them in the Waters, and to overthrow Ships of War, for he hath Power over both Winds and Seas; but he will not hurt any man or thing if he be commanded to the contrary by the Exorcist. He also hath hopes to return to the Seventh Throne after 1,000 years. He governeth 30 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(42.) V .—The Forty-second Spirit is Vepar, or Vephar. He is a Duke Great and Strong and appeareth like a Mermaid. His office is to govern the Waters, and to guide Ships laden with Arms, Armour, and Ammunition, etc., thereon. And at the request of the Exorcist he can cause the seas to be right stormy and to appear full of ships.
Also he maketh men to die in Three Days by Putrefying Wounds or Sores, and causing Worms to breed in them. He governeth 29 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(43.) S .—The Forty-third Spirit, as King Solomon commanded them into the Vessel of Brass, is called Sabnock, or Savnok. He is a Marquis, Mighty, Great and Strong, appearing in the Form of an Armed Soldier with a Lion’s Head, riding on a palecoloured horse. His office is to build high Towers, Castles and Cities, and to furnish them with Armour, etc. Also he can afflict Men for many days with Wounds and with Sores rotten and full of Worms. He giveth Good Familiars at the request of the Exorcist. He commandeth 50 Legions of Spirits; and his Seal is this, etc.
(44.) S .—The Forty-fourth Spirit is Shax, or Shaz (or Shass). He is a Great Marquis and appeareth in the Form of a Stock-Dove, speaking with a voice hoarse, but yet subtle. His Office is to take away the Sight, Hearing, or Understanding of any Man or Woman at the command of the Exorcist; and to steal money out of the houses of Kings, and to carry it again in 1,200 years. If commanded he will fetch Horses at the request of the Exorcist, or any other thing. But he must first be commanded into a Triangle, △, or else he will deceive him, and tell him many Lies. He can discover all things that are Hidden, and not kept by Wicked Spirits. He giveth good Familiars, sometimes. He governeth 30 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(45.) V .—The Forty-fifth Spirit is Viné, or Vinea. He is a Great King, and an Earl; and appeareth in the Form of a Lion,[22] riding upon a Black Horse, and bearing a Viper in his hand. His Office is to discover Things Hidden, Witches, Wizards, and Things Present, Past, and to Come. He, at the command of the Exorcist will build Towers, overthrow Great Stone Walls, and make the Waters rough with Storms. He governeth 36 Legions of Spirits. And his Seal is this, which wear thou, as aforesaid, etc.
(46.) B .—The Forty-sixth Spirit is called Bifrons, or Bifröus, or Bifrovs. He is an Earl, and appeareth in the Form of a Monster; but after a while, at the Command of the Exorcist, he putteth on the
shape of a Man. His Office is to make one knowing in Astrology, Geometry, and other Arts and Sciences. He teacheth the Virtues of Precious Stones and Woods. He changeth Dead Bodies, and putteth them in another place; also he lighteth seeming Candles upon the Graves of the Dead. He hath under his Command 6 Legions of Spirits. His Seal is this, which he will own and submit unto, etc.
(47.) U , V , or V .—The Forty-seventh Spirit is Uvall, or Vual, or Voval. He is a Duke, Great, Mighty, and Strong; and appeareth in the Form of a Mighty Dromedary at the first, but after a while at the Command of the Exorcist he putteth on Human Shape, and speaketh the Egyptian Tongue, but not perfectly.[23] His Office is to procure the Love of Woman, and to tell Things Past, Present, and to Come. He also procureth Friendship between Friends and Foes. He was of the Order of Potestates or Powers. He governeth 37 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, to be made and worn before thee, etc.
(48.) H .—The Forty-eighth Spirit is Haagenti. He is a President, appearing in the Form of a Mighty Bull with Gryphon’s Wings. This is at first, but after, at the Command of the Exorcist he putteth on Human Shape. His Office is to make Men wise, and to instruct them in divers things; also to Transmute all Metals into Gold; and to change Wine into Water, and Water into Wine. He governeth 33 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(49.) C .—The Forty-ninth Spirit is Crocell, or Crokel. He appeareth in the Form of an Angel. He is a Duke Great and Strong, speaking something Mystically of Hidden Things. He teacheth the Art of Geometry and the Liberal Sciences. He, at the Command of the Exorcist, will produce Great Noises like the Rushings of many Waters, although there be none. He warmeth Waters, and discovereth Baths. He was of the Order of Potestates, or Powers, before his fall, as he declared unto the King Solomon. He governeth 48 Legions of Spirits. His Seal is this, the which wear thou as aforesaid.
(50.) F .—The Fiftieth Spirit is Furcas. He is a Knight, and appeareth in the Form of a Cruel Old Man with a long Beard and a
hoary Head, riding upon a pale-coloured Horse, with a Sharp Weapon in his hand. His Office is to teach the Arts of Philosophy, Astrology, Rhetoric, Logic, Cheiromancy, and Pyromancy, in all their parts, and perfectly. He hath under his Power 20 Legions of Spirits. His Seal, or Mark, is thus made, etc.
(51.) B .—The Fifty-first Spirit is Balam or Balaam. He is a Terrible, Great, and Powerful King. He appeareth with three Heads: the first is like that of a Bull; the second is like that of a Man; the third is like that of a Ram. He hath the Tail of a Serpent, and Flaming Eyes. He rideth upon a furious Bear, and carrieth a Boshawk upon his Fist. He speaketh with a hoarse Voice, giving True Answers of Things Past, Present, and to Come. He maketh men to go Invisible, and also to be Witty. He governeth 40 Legions of Spirits. His Seal is this, etc.
(52.) A .—The Fifty-second Spirit is Alloces, or Alocas. He is a Duke, Great, Mighty, and Strong, appearing in the Form of a Soldier[24] riding upon a Great Horse. His Face is like that of a Lion, very Red, and having Flaming Eyes. His Speech is hoarse and very big.[25] His Office is to teach the Art of Astronomy, and all the Liberal Sciences. He bringeth unto thee Good Familiars; also he ruleth over 36 Legions of Spirits. His Seal is this, which, etc.
(53.) C or C .—The Fifty-third Spirit is Camio, or Caim. He is a Great President, and appeareth in the Form of the Bird called a Thrush at first, but afterwards he putteth on the Shape of a Man carrying in his Hand a Sharp Sword. He seemeth to answer in Burning Ashes, or in Coals of Fire. He is a Good Disputer. His Office is to give unto Men the Understanding of all Birds, Lowing of Bullocks, Barking of Dogs, and other Creatures; and also of the Voice of the Waters. He giveth True Answers of Things to Come. He was of the Order of Angels, but now ruleth over 30 Legions of Spirits Infernal. His Seal is this, which wear thou, etc.
(54.) M , or M .—The Fifty-fourth Spirit is called Murmur, or Murmus, or Murmux. He is a Great Duke, and an Earl; and appeareth in the Form of a Warrior riding upon a Gryphon, with a Ducal Crown upon his Head. There do go before him those his
Ministers with great Trumpets sounding. His Office is to teach Philosophy perfectly, and to constrain Souls Deceased to come before the Exorcist to answer those questions which he may wish to put to them, if desired. He was partly of the Order of Thrones, and partly of that of Angels. He now ruleth 30 Legions of Spirits. And his Seal is this, etc.
(55.) O .—The Fifty-fifth Spirit is Orobas. He is a great and Mighty Prince, appearing at first like a Horse; but after the command of the Exorcist he putteth on the Image of a Man. His Office is to discover all things Past, Present, and to Come; also to give Dignities, and Prelacies, and the Favour of Friends and of Foes. He giveth True Answers of Divinity, and of the Creation of the World. He is very faithful unto the Exorcist, and will not suffer him to be tempted of any Spirit. He governeth 20 Legions of Spirits. His Seal is this, etc.
(56.) G , or G .—The Fifty-sixth Spirit is Gremory, or Gamori. He is a Duke Strong and Powerful, and appeareth in the Form of a Beautiful Woman, with a Duchess’s Crown tied about her waist, and riding on a Great Camel. His Office is to tell of all Things Past, Present, and to Come; and of Treasures Hid, and what they lie in; and to procure the Love of Women both Young and Old. He governeth 26 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(57.) O , or V .—The Fifty-seventh Spirit is Oso, Osé, or Voso. He is a Great President, and appeareth like a Leopard at the first, but after a little time he putteth on the Shape of a Man. His Office is to make one cunning in the Liberal Sciences, and to give True Answers of Divine and Secret Things; also to change a Man into any Shape that the Exorcist pleaseth, so that he that is so changed will not think any other thing than that he is in verity that Creature or Thing he is changed into. He governeth 30[26] Legions of Spirits, and this is his Seal, etc.
(58.) A , or A .—The Fifty-eighth Spirit is Amy, or Avnas. He is a Great President, and appeareth at first in the Form of a Flaming Fire; but after a while he putteth on the Shape of a Man. His office is to make one Wonderful Knowing[27] in Astrology and all the Liberal Sciences. He giveth Good Familiars, and can bewray Treasure that
is kept by Spirits. He governeth 36 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(59.) O , or O .—The Fifty-ninth Spirit is Oriax, or Orias. He is a Great Marquis, and appeareth in the Form of a Lion,[28] riding upon a Horse Mighty and Strong, with a Serpent’s Tail;[29] and he holdeth in his Right Hand two Great Serpents hissing. His Office is to teach the Virtues of the Stars, and to know the Mansions of the Planets, and how to understand their Virtues. He also transformeth Men, and he giveth Dignities, Prelacies, and Confirmation thereof; also Favour with Friends and with Foes. He doth govern 30 Legions of Spirits; and his Seal is this, etc.
(60.) V , or N .—The Sixtieth Spirit is Vapula, or Naphula. He is a Duke Great, Mighty, and Strong; appearing in the Form of a Lion with Gryphon’s Wings. His Office is to make Men Knowing in all Handcrafts and Professions, also in Philosophy, and other Sciences. He governeth 36 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal or Character is thus made, and thou shalt wear it as aforesaid, etc.
(61.) Z .—The Sixty-first Spirit is Zagan. He is a Great King and President, appearing at first in the Form of a Bull with Gryphon’s Wings; but after a while he putteth on Human Shape. He maketh Men Witty He can turn Wine into Water, and Blood into Wine, also Water into Wine. He can turn all Metals into Coin of the Dominion that Metal is of. He can even make Fools wise. He governeth 33 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(62.) V , or V , or V , or U .—The Sixty-second Spirit is Volac, or Valak, or Valu. He is a President Mighty and Great, and appeareth like a Child with Angel’s Wings, riding on a Two-headed Dragon. His Office is to give True Answers of Hidden Treasures, and to tell where Serpents may be seen. The which he will bring unto the Exorciser without any Force or Strength being by him employed. He governeth 38 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is thus.
(63.) A .—The Sixty-third Spirit is Andras. He is a Great Marquis, appearing in the Form of an Angel with a Head like a Black Night Raven, riding upon a strong Black Wolf, and having a Sharp and Bright Sword flourished aloft in his hand. His Office is to sow
Discords. If the Exorcist have not a care, he will slay both him and his fellows. He governeth 30 Legions of Spirits, and this is his Seal, etc.
(64.) H , or H , or H , or F .—The Sixtyfourth Spirit is Haures, or Hauras, or Havres, or Flauros. He is a Great Duke, and appeareth at first like a Leopard, Mighty, Terrible, and Strong, but after a while, at the Command of the Exorcist, he putteth on Human Shape with Eyes Flaming and Fiery, and a most Terrible Countenance. He giveth True Answers of all things, Present, Past, and to Come. But if he be not commanded into a Triangle, △, he will Lie in all these Things, and deceive and beguile the Exorcist in these things, or in such and such business. He will, lastly, talk of the Creation of the World, and of Divinity, and of how he and other Spirits fell. He destroyeth and burneth up those who be the Enemies of the Exorcist should he so desire it; also he will not suffer him to be tempted by any other Spirit or otherwise. He governeth 36 Legions of Spirits, and his Seal is this, to be worn as a Lamen, etc.
(65.) A .—The Sixty-fifth Spirit is Andrealphus. He is a Mighty Marquis, appearing at first in the form of a Peacock, with great Noises. But after a time he putteth on Human shape. He can teach Geometry perfectly. He maketh Men very subtle therein; and in all Things pertaining unto Mensuration or Astronomy. He can transform a Man into the Likeness of a Bird. He governeth 30 Legions of Infernal Spirits, and his Seal is this, etc.
(66.) C , or C , or K .—The Sixty-sixth Spirit is Cimejes, or Cimeies, or Kimaris. He is a Marquis, Mighty, Great, Strong and Powerful, appearing like a Valiant Warrior riding upon a goodly Black Horse. He ruleth over all Spirits in the parts of Africa. His Office is to teach perfectly Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, and to discover things Lost or Hidden, and Treasures. He governeth 20 Legions of Infernals; and his Seal is this, etc.
(67.) A , or A .—The Sixty-seventh Spirit is Amdusias, or Amdukias. He is a Duke Great and Strong, appearing at first like a Unicorn, but at the request of the Exorcist he standeth before him in Human Shape, causing Trumpets, and all manner of
Musical Instruments to be heard, but not soon or immediately Also he can cause Trees to bend and incline according to the Exorcist’s Will. He giveth Excellent Familiars. He governeth 29 Legions of Spirits. And his Seal is this, etc.
(68.) B .—The Sixty-eighth Spirit is Belial. He is a Mighty and a Powerful King, and was created next after L . He appeareth in the Form of Two Beautiful Angels sitting in a Chariot of Fire. He speaketh with a Comely Voice, and declareth that he fell first from among the worthier sort, that were before Michael, and other Heavenly Angels. His Office is to distribute Presentations and Senatorships, etc.; and to cause favour of Friends and of Foes. He giveth excellent Familiars, and governeth 50 Legions of Spirits. Note well that this King Belial must have Offerings, Sacrifices and Gifts presented unto him by the Exorcist, or else he will not give True Answers unto his Demands. But then he tarrieth not one hour in the Truth, unless he be constrained by Divine Power. And his Seal is this, which is to be worn as aforesaid, etc.
(69.) D .—The Sixty-ninth Spirit is Decarabia. He appeareth in the Form of a Star in a Pentacle, at first; but after, at the command of the Exorcist, he putteth on the image of a Man. His Office is to discover the Virtues of Birds and Precious Stones, and to make the Similitude of all kinds of Birds to fly before the Exorcist, singing and drinking as natural Birds do. He governeth 30 Legions of Spirits, being himself a Great Marquis. And this is his Seal, which is to be worn, etc.
(70.) S , S , or S .—The Seventieth Spirit is Seere, Sear, or Seir. He is a Mighty Prince, and Powerful, under A , King of the East. He appeareth in the Form of a Beautiful Man, riding upon a Winged Horse. His Office is to go and come; and to bring abundance of things to pass on a sudden, and to carry or recarry anything whither thou wouldest have it to go, or whence thou wouldest have it from. He can pass over the whole Earth in the twinkling of an Eye. He giveth a True relation of all sorts of Theft, and of Treasure hid, and of many other things. He is of an indifferent Good Nature, and is willing to do anything which the Exorcist
desireth. He governeth 26 Legions of Spirits. And this his Seal is to be worn, etc.
(71.) D —The Seventy-first Spirit is Dantalion. He is a Duke Great and Mighty, appearing in the Form of a Man with many Countenances, all Men’s and Women’s Faces; and he hath a Book in his right hand. His Office is to teach all Arts and Sciences unto any; and to declare the Secret Counsel of any one; for he knoweth the Thoughts of all Men and Women, and can change them at his Will. He can cause Love, and show the Similitude of any person, and show the same by a Vision, let them be in what part of the World they Will. He governeth 36 Legions of Spirits; and this is his Seal, which wear thou, etc.
(72.) A .—The Seventy-second Spirit in Order is named Andromalius. He is an Earl, Great and Mighty, appearing in the Form of a Man holding a Great Serpent in his Hand. His Office is to bring back both a Thief, and the Goods which be stolen; and to discover all Wickedness, and Underhand Dealing; and to punish all Thieves and other Wicked People and also to discover Treasures that be Hid. He ruleth over 36 Legions of Spirits. His Seal is this, the which wear thou as aforesaid, etc.
T be the 72 Mighty Kings and Princes which King Solomon Commanded into a Vessel of Brass, together with their Legions. Of whom B , B , A , and G , were Chief. And it is to be noted that Solomon did this because of their pride, for he never declared other reason why he thus bound them. And when he had thus bound them up and sealed the Vessel, he by Divine Power did chase them all into a deep Lake or Hole in Babylon. And they of Babylon, wondering to see such a thing, they did then go wholly into the Lake, to break the Vessel open, expecting to find great store of Treasure therein. But when they had broken it open, out flew the Chief Spirits immediately, with their Legions following them; and they were all restored to their former places except B , who entered into a certain Image, and thence gave answers unto those who did offer Sacrifices unto him, and did worship the Image as their God, etc.
OBSERVATIONS.
First, thou shalt know and observe the Moon’s Age for thy working. The best days be when the Moon Luna is 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14 days old, as Solomon saith; and no other days be profitable. The Seals of the 72 Kings are to be made in Metals. The Chief Kings’ in Sol (Gold); Marquises’ in Luna (Silver); Dukes’ in Venus (Copper); Prelacies’ in Jupiter (Tin); Knights’ in Saturn (Lead); Presidents’ in Mercury (Mercury); Earls’ in Venus (Copper), and Luna (Silver), alike equal, etc.
T 72 Kings be under the Power of A , C , Z or Z , and G , who are the Four Great Kings ruling in the Four Quarters, or Cardinal Points,[30] viz.: East, West, North, and South, and are not to be called forth except it be upon Great Occasions; but are to be Invocated and Commanded to send such or such a Spirit that is under their Power and Rule, as is shown in the following Invocations or Conjurations. And the Chief Kings may be bound from 9 till 12 o’clock at Noon, and from 3 till Sunset; Marquises may be bound from 3 in the afternoon till 9 at Night, and from 9 at Night till Sunrise; Dukes may be bound from Sunrise till Noonday in Clear Weather; Prelates may be bound any hour of the Day; Knights may from Dawning of Day till Sunrise, or from 4 o’clock till Sunset; Presidents may be bound any time, excepting Twilight, at Night, unless the King whom they are under be Invocated; and Counties or Earls any hour of the Day, so it be in Woods, or in any other places whither men resort not, or where no noise is, etc.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF THE 72 CHIEF SPIRITS OF THE GOETIA, ACCORDING TO RESPECTIVE RANK.
(Seal in Gold.) K .—(1.) Bael; (9.) Paimon; (13.) Beleth; (20.) Purson; (32.) Asmoday; (45.) Viné; (51.) Balam; (61.) Zagan; (68.) Belial.
(Seal in Copper.) D —(2.) Agares; (6.) Valefor; (8.) Barbatos; (11.) Gusion; (15.) Eligos; (16.) Zepar; (18.) Bathim; (19.) Sallos; (23.) Aim; (26.) Buné; (28.) Berith; (29.) Astaroth; (41.) Focalor; (42.) Vepar; (47.) Vual; (49.) Crocell; (52.) Alloces; (54.) Murmur; (56.) Gremory; (60.) Vapula; (64.) Haures; (67.) Amdusias; (71.) Dantalion.
(Seal in Tin.) P P .—(3.) Vassago; (12.) Sitri; (22.) Ipos; (33.) Gäap; (36.) Stolas; (55.) Orobas; (70.) Seere.
(Seal in Silver.) M .—(4.) Samigina; (7.) Amon; (14.) Lerajé; (24.) Naberius; (27.) Ronové; (30.) Forneus; (35.) Marchosias; (37.) Phenex; (43.) Sabnock; (44.) Shax; (59.) Orias; (63.) Andras; (65.) Andrealphus; (66.) Cimeies; (69.) Decarabia.
(Seal in Mercury.) P .—(5.) Marbas; (10.) Buer; (17.) Botis; (21.) Marax; (25.) Glasya-Labolas; (31.) Foras; (33.) Gäap; (39.) Malphas; (48.) Häagenti; (53.) Caïm; (57.) Ose; (58.) Amy; (61.) Zagan; (62.) Valac.
(Seal in Copper and Silver alike equal.) E , or C .—(17.) Botis; (21.) Marax; (25.) Glasya-Labolas; (27.) Ronové; (34.) Furfur; (38.) Halphas; (40.) Räum; (45.) Viné; (46.) Bifrons; (72.) Andromalius.
(Seal in Lead.) K .—(50.) Furcas.
N .—It will be remarked that several among the above Spirits possess two titles of different ranks; e.g., (45.) Viné is both King and
Earl; (25.) Glasya-Labolas is both President and Earl, etc. “Prince” and “Prelate” are apparently used as interchangeable terms. Probably the Seals of Earls should be made of Iron, and those of Presidents in mixture either of Copper and Silver, or of Silver and Mercury; as otherwise the Metal of one Planet, Mars, is excluded from the List; the Metals attributed to the Seven Planets being: to Saturn, Lead; to Jupiter, Tin; to Mars, Iron; to the Sun, Gold; to Venus, Copper; to Mercury, Mercury and mixtures of Metals, and to Luna, Silver.
In a manuscript codex by Dr. Rudd, which is in the British Museum, Hebrew names of these 72 Spirits are given; but it appears to me that many are manifestly incorrect in orthography. The codex in question, though beautifully written, also contains many other errors, particularly in the Sigils. Such as they are, these names in the Hebrew of Dr. Rudd are here shown. (See Figures 81 to 152 inclusive.)
