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Social Science An Introduction to the Study of Society
Now in its eighteenth edition, Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society approaches its study from a common sense perspective, rather than a formalistic perspective more common in social science texts. Readers will see how seemingly diverse disciplines intermingle and connect to one another—anthropology and economics, for example. Te goal of the book is to teach students critical thinking and problem-solving skills that will allow them to approach social issues in an objective and informed way.
New to this edition are signifcant updates on:
■ Debates about the limits of democracy, and the developing Chinese political alternative.
■ Political, economic, and social implications of the Covid pandemic.
■ Assessment of the Donald Trump presidency.
■ Political, economic, and social implications of the movement from the Trump presidency to the Biden presidency.
■ Implications of the multitrillion-dollar budget defcits the US government has been running.
■ Te emergence of populist movements throughout the world.
■ Te Chinese political and economic challenge to the United States.
■ Recent developments in evolution theory.
■ Examples, data, recommended readings, and Internet questions.
■ Critical thinking questions.
David C. Colander received his PhD from Columbia University and was the Christian A. Johnson Distinguished Professor of Economics at Middlebury College in Middlebury, Vermont, from 1982 until 2013, when he was appointed Distinguished College Professor at Middlebury. In 2001–2002, he was the Kelly Professor of Distinguished Teaching at Princeton University. He has authored, co-authored, or edited more than 40 books and 200 articles on a wide range of topics. His books have been translated into a number of diferent languages, including Chinese, Bulgarian, Polish, Italian, and Spanish. He has been president of both the Eastern Economic Association and History of Economic Tought Society and has been on the editorial boards of numerous journals, including the Journal of Economic Perspectives and the Journal of Economic Education.
Elgin F. Hunt is deceased. He was one of the early authors of this book when it began in the 1930s, and took over as sole author in the 1950s. He continued revising the book until the late 1970s, when David C. Colander took over.
Te right of David C. Colander and Elgin F. Hunt to be identifed as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafer invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Macmillan 1955
Seventeenth edition published by Routledge 2019
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Colander, David C., author. | Hunt, Elgin F., author.
Title: Social science : an introduction to the study of society / David C. Colander and Elgin F. Hunt.
Description: 18th edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. | Earlier editions enterd under: Elgin F. Hunt. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifers: LCCN 2021032590 | ISBN 9781032150772 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032150741 (pbk) | ISBN 9781032150741 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Social sciences.
Classifcation: LCC H85 .H86 2022 | DDC 300—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021032590
ISBN: 9781032150772 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032150741 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003242390 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003242390
Typeset in Minion Pro by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9781032150741
Dedication
To my granddaughters, Adelaide and Amelia: May you inherit a peaceful world.
Contents
Preface xix
New to Tis Edition xxi
Acknowledgments xxiii
Part I Introduction 1
Chapter 1 Social Science and Its Methods 1
Social Science 5
Social Science as a System of Rules 6
Te Scientifc Method and Its Application 8
Methodology and the Social Sciences 10
The Methods of Social Science 12
An Example of the Social Science Method 13
Other Social Science Methods 14
Educated Common Sense in the Social Sciences 15
Te Use of Statistics 15
Te Interdisciplinary Approach 16
Te Impartial Spectator and the Veil of Ignorance 17
Values, Terminology, and Rhetoric 17
Conclusion 18
Key Points 18
Some Important Terms 19
Questions for Review and Discussion 19 For Further Study 19
Appendix: Historical Roots of Social Science 21
The Enlightenment 22 From Philosophy to Social Science 22
Some Important Terms 23
Chapter 2 Human Origins 24
The Origin of the Human Species 25
Darwin and the Teory of Evolution 25
Recent Developments in Genetics 28
A Revised Teory of Evolution 29
Some Implications of Recent Developments 29
Sociobiology 30
Punctuated Equilibrium Versus Gradual Change 31
The Evolution of Human Beings 31
Science, Faith, and Controversy 32
Predecessors of Modern Humans 34
DNA Evidence and the Descent of Humans 36
Conclusion 40
Key Points 40
Some Important Terms 41
Questions for Review and Discussion 41 For Further Study 41
Chapter 3 Origins of Western Society 43
From the Stone Age to the Agricultural Age 43
Early Civilizations 44
Te Cradle of Modern Civilization: Mesopotamia and Egypt 44
Development of Greek Civilization 46
Te Persian Empire 47
Roman Civilization 48
The Middle Ages (AD 476–1453) 50
The Renaissance 53
The Development of Modern Economic and Political Institutions 55
From Serfdom to Mercantilism 55
Te Emergence of Nation-States 56
Te Industrial and Political Revolutions of the 1750s to the 1850s 57
Learning to Live Together 58
Conclusion 59
Key Points 59
Some Important Terms 59
Questions for Review and Discussion 59 For Further Study 60
Part II Culture and the Individual 61
Chapter 4 Society, Culture, and Cultural Change 61
Culture and Multiculturalism 61
Multiculturalism 62
Te Shared Beliefs in Culture 63
Culture and the Nature of Society 63
Culture and Its Role in Human Societies 64
Te Elements of Culture 64
Cultural Integration 66
Culture, Society, and Social Change 67
Popular Teories of Social Change 68
Factors Causing Cultural Change 69
Language and Cultural Change 71
Factors Stabilizing Culture 72
Social Change Versus Social Stability 72
Social Change and Social Problems 73
Cultural Lag and Social Problems 73
Limitations of the Cultural Lag Teory 74
Contrasts Among Cultures 75
Te Interaction of Humans and Society 76
Cultural Relativism 76
Approach to the Study of Society 77
Key Points 77
Some Important Terms 77
Questions for Review and Discussion 78
For Further Study 78
Chapter 5 Geography, Demography, Ecology, and Society 80
Geography 80
Demography 81
Population Estimates 82
Determinants of Population Growth 82
Te Growth of Population Over Time 84
Te Problem of Counting 84
Te Malthusian Teory 85
Te Concept of Optimal Population 87
Te Question of Population Quality 87
Ecology: The Interaction of Geography, Demography, and Environment 88
Te Ecological Balance 89
Pollution 90
Conservation and the Price of Gasoline and Oil 91
Conclusion 92
Chapter 6
Key Points 92
Some Important Terms 92
Questions for Review and Discussion 92 For Further Study 93
Technology and Society 94
Technology and Social Change 94
The Industrial Revolution 96
Te Development of Industrialism in the United States 96
Standardization, Interchangeability, and Mass Production 97
Social and Economic Efects of Interchangeability 98
The Cultural and Social Basis for Technological Progress 99
Te Technological Foundation of Globalization 100
Technology and Social Change Revisited 100
Technology, Income Distribution, and Jobs 102
Natural Resources, Economics, and Technology 103
Natural Resources, Technology, and Climate Change 105
Te Anthropocene Age 105
Technology and Social Change in the Future 105
Te Information Revolution 106
Don’t Hold Your Breath Expecting Immediate Change 108
Conclusion: Speculating About the Future 108
Key Points 108
Some Important Terms 109
Questions for Review and Discussion 109 For Further Study 109
Chapter 7 Psychology, Society, and Culture 111
Socialization of the Individual 112
Signifcance of the Early Years of Childhood 112
Signifcance of Diferences in Individual Environment 113
Efects of Extreme Isolation on Children 114
Personality and Its Development 115
Te Nature/Nurture Debate 115
Explanations of Behavior 117
Te Well-Adjusted Individual 118
Adjustment and Normality 119
Te Freudian Concept of Personality 119
Pop Psychologies 122
Intelligence, Personal Adjustment, and Normality 122
Mental Tests 122
Intelligence and Personal Adjustment 126
Conclusion 126
Key Points 127
Some Important Terms 127
Questions for Review and Discussion 127
For Further Study 128
Chapter 8 Deviance, Crime, and Society 129
Deviance and Norms 129
Conficting Norms and Tension 130
Norms, Crime, and the Rule of Law 131
When Norms Confict: Straight Outta Compton 132
Major Theories on Deviance 134
Psychological and Biological Explanations of Deviance 135
Genetic and Biological Predisposition to Deviance 135
Sociobiology and Deviance 135
Sociological Explanations of Deviance 136
Economic Explanations of Deviance 138
Summary of Various Perspectives on Deviance 138
Crime, Law, and Order 138
Problem 1: Is the United States Trying to Exert Too Much Control Over Individuals? 139
Problem 2: Is Justice Applied Equally to All in the United States? 142
Problem 3: Deciding the Purpose of the Justice and Criminal System 144
Conclusion 146
Key Points 147
Some Important Terms 147
Questions for Review and Discussion 147 For Further Study 148
Part III Institutions and Society 149
Chapter 9 The Family 149
Variations in the Family Pattern 149
Number of Mates 150
Selection of Mates 151
Family Control 152
Single-Parent Families 152
Reckoning of Descent 153
Functions of the Family in Society 154
Matching Family Patterns With Family Functions 155
Number and Stability of Mates 155
Selection of Mates 157
Other Western Family Characteristics and Functions of the Family 157
The Family in the United States Today 158
Matchmaking and Dating 160
Sex and Singles 161
Children 163
Senior Citizens 163
Family Disorganization and Divorce 164
Singles 166
Living Together 167
Te Future of the Family 167
Key Points 168
Some Important Terms 168
Questions for Review and Discussion 169
For Further Study 169
Chapter 10 Religion 171
The Nature of Religion 172
The Great Religions of Today 173
Hinduism 174
Buddhism 175
Judaism 176
Christianity 178
Islam 181
The Role of Religion in Society 183
Religion as a Source of Moral Values and Social Change 184
Impact of Religion on Education, the Arts, and Literature 184
Interfaith Eforts for Peace 185
Te Potential Confict Between Religion and Government 185
Key Points 185
Some Important Terms 186
Questions for Review and Discussion 186
For Further Study 186
Chapter 11 Education 188
Schools as Agencies of Social Control 189
Te Dual Trust of US Education 189
Education and US Democracy 189
The Development of US Education 190
Democratic Structure of the US School System 192
Formalization of the School System 192
Examining the School System 195
Technological Change and Teaching 195
Private Schools and Home Schooling 196
Charter Schools, Privatization, and the Problem of School Finance 196
Textbooks 197
School Dropouts 198
Multiculturalism, Collaborative Learning, and Institutional Fairness 198
How Good Are US Schools? 199
Te Search for Excellence 200
Changes in the College Curriculum 201
Is the US Educational System Equal? 202
How Much Education Should the Average Citizen Receive? 203
Interaction of Economics, Politics, and Social Institutions 204
Key Points 204
Some Important Terms 205
Questions for Review and Discussion 205
For Further Study 205
Chapter 12 Social and Economic Stratification 207
Types of Social Stratification 208
Estates 208
Castes 208
Social Classes 209
Social Mobility 212
Who Are the Upwardly Mobile? 213
Education and Social Mobility 214
Class Consciousness in the United States 215
Class Consciousness, Marx, and Weber 216
Economic and Social Inequality 216
Causes of Income Inequality 217
Jobless Recovery and Globalization 217
Measuring Poverty 218
Increasing Social and Economic Inequality 219 Policies to Reduce Inequality 220
Some Conclusions About the US Class System 220
Key Points 220
Some Important Terms 221
Questions for Review and Discussion 221
For Further Study 222
Chapter 13 Stratification, Minorities, and Discrimination 223
Race and Ethnicity 223
Questions of Ethnic and Racial Superiority 224
Ethnic and Racial Prejudice and Discrimination 225
Te Melting Pot 227
Minorities 227
Native Americans 227
Systemic Racism and Microaggressions 234
Hispanics 237
Asian Descent 237
Arab Americans and Americans of Middle Eastern Descent 239
Immigration and Minorities 239
Religious Minorities 242
Women 243
Senior Citizens 247
Physical Disabilities Discrimination 249
Conclusion 250
Key Points 250
Some Important Terms 250
Questions for Review and Discussion 251 For Further Study 251
Part IV Politics and Society 253
Chapter 14 The Functions and Forms of Government 253
The Primary Functions of Government 254
Maintaining Internal Order and External Security 254
Ensuring Justice 254
Safeguarding Individual Freedoms 254
Regulating Business’s and Individuals’ Actions 256
Promoting the General Welfare 256
Debates About the Nature of Government 257
Political Teory and Government 257
Tree Views of the Nature of Government 257
Elements of Truth in Each of the Views 261
Forms of Government 261
Democracies 261
Autocracy 265
Governments Are Far From Simple 270
Key Points 270
Some Important Terms 271
Questions for Review and Discussion 271 For Further Study 271
Chapter 15 Governments of the World 273
French Government 273
Te French Parliamentary System 274
Te French Executive Branch 276
Chinese Government 276
Chinese Governmental History 276
Chinese State Structure 277
Nigerian Government 278
British Infuence 279
Modern Nigeria’s Government: Te Fourth Republic 280
Difculties Facing Nigeria 281
A Final Comment 282
Russian Government 282
Saudi Arabian Government 285
Some Lessons About Governments 288
Future Changes in Governments 288
Key Points 289
Some Important Terms 289
Questions for Review and Discussion 289 For Further Study 290
Chapter 16 Democratic Government in the United States 291
Historical Development of US Government 292
The Structure of US Government 293 Structure of the National Government 293
Te Nature of Our National Government 295
The Political Process 304
Political Parties 304 Elections 305
Te Fourth Estate 307
Te Political Elite 309
Te Military-Industrial Complex and Pressure Groups 309 Evaluation of the Democratic Political Process 311
Key Points 312
Some Important Terms 312
Questions for Review and Discussion 312 For Further Study 313
Part V Economics and Society 314
Chapter 17 The Organization of Economic Activities 314
The Nature of an Economy 315 Functions of an Economy 315
Economics and the Social Sciences 315
Economic Wants and Economic Goods 315
Te Other Economic Problem 317
The Evolution of Economic Systems 317
From Feudalism to Mercantilism 318
From Mercantilism to a Pragmatic Market Economy 318 Planned and Unplanned Economies 321
How Planned Economies Are Supposed to Work 321
Why Central Planning Did Not Meet Its Goals 322
How Market Economies Are Supposed to Work 322
Supply and Demand 324
Modern Economies Are Pragmatic Market Economies 326
Conclusion 327
Key Points 327
Some Important Terms 328
Questions for Review and Discussion 328 For Further Study 329
Chapter 18 The Economy, Government, and Economic Challenges Facing the United States 330
Government’s Indirect Role in the Economy 330
Te Problem of Regulating the Economy 331
Whose Desires Does the Government Refect? 332
Fluctuating Attitudes Toward Regulation 333
Government’s Direct Role in the Economy 334
Where the Government Spends Its Money 334
Where Government Gets Its Money 335
Alternative Methods of Supply in a Pragmatic Market Economy 335
Some Controversial Roles of the Government 336
Income Redistribution Trough Government 336
Government’s Macroeconomic Role 339
Stabilizing the Economy 339
Monetary and Fiscal Policy 340
Economic Challenges Facing the United States in the Future 341
Te Debt Challenge 342
Te Globalization Challenge 343
Te Income Inequality Challenge 346
Te Climate Change Challenge 347
Conclusion 348
Key Points 348
Some Important Terms 348
Questions for Review and Discussion 349 For Further Study 349 Part VI
Chapter 19 International Political Relations 351
The State in International Relations 352 The Nation-State 353
Te Establishment and Disappearance of Nation-States 354
The Rise of the European Union 355
Sovereignty of States 357
Power in the World Community 357
Te Nature and Sources of National Power 358
Te End of US Hegemony and the Rise of Chinese Military Power 359
Other Sources of Power 360
Maintaining Security 361
Foreign Policies 363
Geography and Foreign Policy 364
Values, Ideologies, and Foreign Policy 364
The United States in the World Community 366
Te President and Foreign Policy 367
US Foreign Policies 368
Key Point 370
Some Important Terms 370
Questions for Review and Discussion 370 For Further Study 371
Chapter 20 International Economic Relations 372
What Makes International Trade Different? 373
Foreign Exchange Markets 373
Fixed and Flexible Exchange Rate Systems 373
Balance of Payments and Balance of Trade 376
Advantages and Disadvantages of International Trade 377
Tree Advantages of Trade 378
Disadvantages of Trade 378
Why Economists Generally Support Free Trade 378
Why You Can’t Get the Advantages Without the Disadvantages 379
Restrictions on International Trade 380
Tarifs on Imports 380
Import Quotas 382
Removing Trade Restrictions 382
Globalization 383
Globalization, Trade Imbalances, and Exchange Rates 384
Conclusion 384
Key Points 384
Some Important Terms 384
Questions for Review and Discussion 385 For Further Study 385
Chapter 21 The Political Economies of Developing Countries 386
Problems of Developing Countries 388
Te Political Consensus Problem 388
Te Corruption Problem 390
Te Economic Problem 391
Te Debt Problem 393
Te Population Problem 393
Te Brain Drain Problem 393
Mission Impossible: Advice to a Potential Leader 394
Options of Developing Countries 395
Political Options 395
Economic Options 395
Foreign Policy Options 395
Population Options 395
Te Brain Drain Option 395
Who Will Be the Next Leader? 396
Case Studies 396
China 396
Venezuela 399
Uganda 401
Conclusion 403
Key Points 404
Some Important Terms 404
Questions for Review and Discussion 404
For Further Study 405
Chapter 22 International Institutions and the Search for Peace 406
The Problem of War 408
Te Causes of War 408
Approaches to the Problem of War 409
The United Nations 411
Is the UN Worth It? 412
Te UN’s Role in Keeping the Peace 414
Other UN Approaches 416
The Outlook for Peace 417
Trouble Spots of the World 419
Conclusion 424
Key Points 424
Some Important Terms 425
Questions for Review and Discussion 425 For Further Study 426
Index 427
Preface
Social science is taught in diverse ways. Some courses take a global perspective, some an anthropological perspective, some a psychological perspective, some a sociological perspective, and some a historical perspective—to name just a few. In my view, although each individual social science perspective has something to ofer, what distinguishes the social science course is that it looks at problems from as many diferent perspectives as possible, relying on the scholar’s educated common sense to choose the perspective that is most useful for a particular problem. Te educated common sense perspective is the social science perspective.
Te goal of a social science course is to convey this educated common sense perspective to students. Tat’s not an easy task; as Voltaire once said, common sense is not so common 1 What he meant by this is that what seems like common sense from one perspective, can seem quite stupid from another. Te common sense that we are striving for is an educated common sense—a common sense that has faced vigorous competition from other perspectives. Trough the competition of ideas, “common” sense becomes a more and more nuanced common sense. Eventually, with enough competition, common sense becomes educated common sense. Educated common sense involves understanding the nuance in any common sense view, and a recognition of the limits of common sense.
Educated common sense is an important concept for students to learn. At the end of an earlier edition, I included a sheet for students to grade the book and to send me suggestions for improvement. A number of students did this, and their suggestions have played an important role in shaping the book. Most, I’m happy to say, were highly positive, but a few attacked the book and the course. One particularly memorable student funked me on just about every chapter and wrote the following:
Until you and this so-called science become legitimized I’d rather spend time gorging myself and then vomiting. Guesses, hypotheses, maybes, might bes don’t belong in college; they belong in elementary school.
Tat student obviously read the book, because he is correct: Te book doesn’t tell the student what is right or wrong, and it does report guesses, hypotheses, and maybes. But that student is wrong about what does and what doesn’t belong in college. Guesses, hypotheses, and maybes are precisely what belong in college, because by the time students are in college they can be expected to have the maturity to understand that knowledge is nothing but good guesses, reasonable hypotheses, and logical maybes. Social science doesn’t tell you what’s right. It presents the observations and the theories as fairly as it can and provides you with guidance and training to sif through them and make your own decisions.
Te educated common sense perspective blends nuance with facts and truths into a kaleidoscope vision of the world that allows one to see it from multiple perspectives, and to be comfortable with oneself and one’s ideas even as one recognizes one’s faults and limitations. Te goal of the course is to make students open to others’ insights but also comfortable with their own insights and sensibilities that they have developed through living and refection. Te skill is ofen called critical thought, but I prefer to call it educated common sense because critical thought too ofen is associated with scholars’ perspectives, and does not take adequate account of the deep knowledge and sensibility that all people discover by just living. It was that knowledge and sensibility that the original common sense term was meant to capture. Educated
1 Actually Voltaire was not the only person to have made this point. Many others, before and afer, have made the same observation. Te reason it has been said so ofen is that it is just common sense that common sense is not so common.
common sense modifes, but does not replace, common common sense. It respects knowledge of the mind, but does not make a fetish of it.
In my view, colleges teach too little educated common sense. All too ofen our educational system rushes students into specializations before students have an overall picture—before they know where they want to go. Once they have an overall picture, specialization is necessary, but to make them specialize before having an overall picture is unfair to students. Students who specialize too early don’t develop a common sense perspective; they aren’t sensitive to the interrelationships and resonances among disciplines. At worst, they become slaves of their discipline’s approach. At best, they have the wisdom to recognize that there are many approaches to a problem, but their lack of training forces them to recreate the wheel. Knowledge of the other disciplines would have saved them the trouble and been far more efcient.
Tat is why I am a strong advocate of the social science course and have been urging colleges to merge their various social science departments into one composite department that focuses more on the interrelationships among the various social sciences than is currently done. Te general social science course is one of the most important courses students take in college and, in my view, it is a prerequisite to taking courses in specifc social science disciplines. It puts those other disciplines in perspective.
New to This Edition
Te last edition of this book was published in 2019, which meant that it refected the state of social science in 2018; this edition is published in 2022, which means that it refects the state of social science in 2021. In those three years much has changed. Politically, in the United States, in 2018 Donald Trump was president, and was challenging many of the political mores that governed politics. In 2021, Joseph Biden was president, and was taking a much more traditional approach to policy. He said he wanted to be a unity president, but that was difcult with large groups of both the Democratic and Republican parties unwilling to compromise and calling for elimination of the moderate middle on both sides.
While in ofce Trump was impeached twice, but was acquitted both times along highly partisan lines. Some Trump supporters (with Trump’s encouragement) called Joe Biden’s election rigged, leading a group of Trump supporters to break into the halls of Congress in violent protest. Almost all neutral observers believed that Biden won the election legally, and there was a peaceful transfer of power. But it is unclear what would have happened had the election results been much closer and subject to debate about who won. Would either side have accepted the result? It is unclear to me what the result would have been. So, it is fair to say that, domestically, our system of government was challenged. In the eastern US academic establishments where I hang out for the most part, Donald Trump is not considered with much fondness. Anything went wrong, and it was pretty clear that Trump would be blamed. And if things went right, it would be in spite of him, rather than because of him. Tat visceral reaction to Trump made it impossible to have what I considered a reasonable discussion of politics with many of my friends, and we resolved the problem by limiting our discussions of certain areas of politics. But even for those opposed to Trump, he served a useful role—they could blame whatever went wrong on him. And so, I blame this new edition on him.
Why can it be blamed on him? He so infuenced the discussion about politics and US foreign policy that the pre-Trump discussion was no longer up to date. Trump changed the face of US politics and changed the debate in US culture. His term in ofce brought to the fore issues in economics (trade policy and health care), politics (partisanship, identity of parties, and the divisions within parties), culture (issues of migration and immigration such as DACA), and foreign policy (America First, sovereignty, and globalization) that required revision of all economics and political science focused chapters. Joseph Biden’s win over him in the 2020 election meant that things would be moving back to normal, but it would be a new post-Trump normal, not the pre-Trump normal. It is that new normal that I try to convey in this edition. To emphasize Trump’s continuing importance through his legacy, I lef the Chapter 1 introduction describing reactions to Trump’s 2016 victory to capture the difering views on Trump and to emphasize that US democracy is being severely challenged, and that there are diametrically opposed perspectives that need to be acknowledged and addressed.
It isn’t only domestically that US democracy is being challenged. Internationally, democracy is being challenged as well. China argued that it ofered a “guided Democracy” alternative in which the Communist Party rules over a limited democratic government. Tis Chinese alternative to Western democracy will likely become more and more important as China continues to grow as an economic and military power. Tat power is changing not only the assessment of political ideologies but also the balance of power and nature of foreign policy. Te United States is no longer a hegemon, and adjusting to the new reality is a difcult task that is creating serious tensions in the world. Tis 18th edition attempts to capture those changes. Outside of politics the world has experienced signifcant challenges. Since the last edition, the coronavirus pandemic has greatly infuenced both the politics and the economic condition of world societies, making the alternative ways countries have dealt with it a good way of contrasting the costs and benefts of alternative political systems. Tat also brought about changes
in the economic chapters, as the US government and governments around the world dealt with the pandemic by running large multitrillion-dollar defcits, justifying those defcits by seeing the pandemic as a “one in a hundred year crisis.” Given the types of crises the world faces—the potential of nuclear annihilation, unprecedented climate change, and breakdowns of existing political conventions—it isn’t clear that the pandemic is the only “one hundred year event” that we will experience this decade. I have also made numerous changes to refect new scholarship in specifc areas. Examples, data, recommended readings, and Internet questions were all updated. To encourage students to explore the ideas more deeply. I also added Questions for Review and Discussion to every chapter.
Despite all these changes, the book remains what it was in the previous edition—a relatively neutral (at least as neutral as I am able to be), hopefully educated, common sense overview and introduction to the social sciences and social science thinking about the major issues of our day.
Acknowledgments
As always, the book benefts from the suggestions of reviewers, colleagues, and students who have emailed me. I’d like to thank them all.
Over the last few editions the reviewers have included Paul Demetriou, Havering College; Edgar Bravo, Miami Dade College Kendall Campus; Victor J. Ingurgio, University of Oklahoma, Norman; Tabitha N. Otieno, Jackson State University; Alex Gancedo and Harold Silva, Miami Dade College; Caroline Lewis, University of Wales Trinity Saint David; Ruth McGrath, Teesside University; John Kilburn, Texas A&M International University; Heather Grifths, Fayetteville State University; Charles Matzke, Michigan State University; Ted Williams III, Kennedy-King College, City Colleges of Chicago; William Plants, University of Rio Grande; David S. Schjott, Northwest Florida State College; Emmanuel Agbolosoo, Navajo Community College; Ali Al-Taie, Shaw University; Verl Beebe, Daytona Beach Community College; John Beineke, Kennesaw State College; Tomas J. Bellows, Te University of Texas at San Antonio; Dallas A. Blanchard, University of West Florida; Ducarmel Bocage, Howard University; William K. Callam, Daytona Beach Community College; Pam Crabtree, New York University; Bruce Donlan, Brevard Community College; Anthony Douglas, Lornan, Mississippi; William M. Downs, Georgia State University; Phil A. Drimmel, Daytona Beach Community College; J. Ross Eshleman, Wayne State University; Dana Fenton, City University of New York, Borough of Manhattan Community College; Cyril Francis, Miami Dade College North Campus; Richard Frye, Neuro-Diagnostic Lab, Winchester Memorial Hospital, Winchester, Virginia; Vikki Gaskin-Butler, University of South Florida St. Petersburg; Judy Gentry, Columbus State Community College; Paul George, Miami Dade College; Don Grifn, University of Oklahoma; Heather Grifths, Fayetteville State University; Charles F. Gruber, Marshall University; Ghulam M. Hanif, St. Cloud State University (Minnesota); Roberto Hernandez, Miami Dade New World Center; Charles E. Hurst, Te College of Wooster; Sharon B. Johnson, Miami Dade College; Kenneth C. W. Kammeyer, University of Maryland; Rona J. Karasik, St. Cloud State University; Lynnel Kiely, Truman College; H. D. Kirkland, Lake City Community College; Patricia E. Kixmiller, Miami Dade College; D. R. Klee, Kansas City, Missouri; Casimir Kotowski, Harry S. Truman City College; Errol Magidson, Richard J. Daley Community College; James T. Markley, Lord Fairfax Community College; Stephen McDougal, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse; David J. Meyer, Cedarville University; Karen Mitchell, University of Missouri; Catherine Montsinger, Johnson C. Smith University; Lynn Mulkey, Hofstra University; Roy Mumme, University of South Florida; Eleanor J. Myatt, Palm Beach Junior College; Quentin Newhouse Jr., Howard University; Earl Newman, Henry Ford Community College; Annette Palmer, Howard University; Robin Perrin, Pepperdine University; Joseph Pilkington-Duddle, Highland Beach, Florida; William Primus, Miami Dade College North Campus; Roger Rolison, Palm Beach Community College; William H. Rosberg, Kirkwood Community College; Dan Selakovich, Oklahoma State University; Henry A. Shockley, Boston University; Julie Smith, Mount Aloysius College; Ruth Smith, Miami Dade College; Scharlene Snowden, City University of New York, Medgar Evers College; Ronald Stubbs, Miami Dade College; Larry R. Stucki, Reading Area Community College; Barry Tompson, University of Rio Grande; Judy Tompson, University of Rio Grande; Elizabeth Trentanelli, Miami Dade College; Margaret Tseng, Marymount University; Edward Uliassi, Northeastern University; Angela Wartel, Lewis Clark State College; David Wells, Glendale Community College; Ted Williams, City College of Chicago; W. M. Wright, Lake City Community College; Norman R. Yetman, Te University of Kansas; and George Zgourides Primus, Miami Dade College North Campus, among others who wished to remain anonymous.
To my knowledge, this is the longest continuing college textbook in the United States. It began in the 1930s when some Chicago professors put together their notes and turned them
Acknowledgments
into a book. It evolved through the 1940s and 1950s into a standard text, and then in the 1960s, Elgin F. Hunt took it over as the sole author. I took it over in the late 1970s, totally updating and revising it to refect new developments. I have kept his name on the title to refect the origins of the book and the fact that it is a collective efort of previous scholars, with a changing group of people working on it.
I would also like to thank all the people at Taylor & Francis involved with this, including Production Editor, Francesca Tohill, and Copyeditor, Dana Richards. Dean Birkenkamp and Lewis Hodder did a great job supervising and handling all the editorial issues. I would also like to thank Amelia Pollard, a former student of mine at Middlebury College. She worked on various aspects of the book. I thank them for their hard work. Finally, I want to thank my wife for helping me fnd the time to work on the book.
Part I Introduction
Social Science and Its Methods
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Defne social science and explain why it is important
• List the various social sciences
• State the nine steps that make up the scientifc method
• Discuss some reasonable approaches to problems in social science
• Diferentiate the historical method from the case method and the comparative method
• Distinguish educated common sense from common sense
• Explain why a good scientist is always open to new ways of looking at issues
chapter 1
Teories should be as simple as possible, but not more so.
—Albert Einstein
On January 6, 2021, a crowd of US citizens broke into the halls of the US Congress in an attempt to disrupt the ratifcation of the Electoral College formal election of President Joe Biden. Tus marked the end of the four-year term of Donald Trump as president of the United States. His years as president were fraught with turmoil. He was impeached twice by Congress, with votes refecting party lines. Te liberal elite never accepted him as a legitimate president, and his opponent in 2016 called his election illegitimate, even as she conceded defeat. Teir belief was that a well-functioning democracy would never have elected him. Conservatives were mixed on Trump, but about 30 percent of the US population strongly agreed with him, and he lost the election in 2020 by only a small number of votes in a few swing states. Te vote could have easily gone the other way, had things played out a little diferently. Te turmoil was predictable. Tus, in the last edition, I opened the book with the following description of election night when Trump was elected:
On November 8, 2016, people gathered around the television at (insert just about any Eastern Seaboard College or University) expecting to cheer Hillary Clinton becoming the frst woman president of the United States. Te mood was happy; polls predicted a Clinton victory. As the night progressed, the mood changed. Donald Trump, her Republican opponent, who many establishment Republicans had opposed, was doing better than expected; Trump actually had a chance; Trump was leading; Trump had won! Shock and awe is about the only way to describe it. For many in that group, Trump’s victory was cataclysmic—they saw it as marking an end of American democracy as they knew it.
Tat same evening people gathered around the television in (insert just about any southern, rural, mainly white, working-class, midwestern, non-university town) and had a reverse reaction. Finally, they had been heard. Someone was coming into ofce who would tell it like it is, drain the swamp, and stick the liberal Eastern establishment elite’s political correctness up their collective wazoo, where they felt it belongs. Tey were concerned about justice for all, but they wanted a justice for all that included justice for them. Tey were tired of being considered despicable; they were tired of wishy-washy politicians whose views were so fltered that they were at best pablum of the mind. Tey were tired of politicians who felt they had the right to force their values and worldviews on everyone 1
Other groups dispersed around the country had diferent reactions. For example, there were those who would be directly afected by the policies Trump had advocated in the campaign. Tese included black people, minorities, and immigrants, among others. Teir concerns were not intellectual; their concerns were real and pragmatic. What would Trump’s election mean for policy? Would immigration be ended? Would Dreamers (children who were brought to the United States illegally, but who had lived just about their entire life there) be deported? Would anti-discrimination policies be ended? . . . Welcome to social science.
Trump stayed in ofce for four years. His time in power was divisive. Te Eastern liberal establishment never came to accept that he had won, and fought to push him out of ofce through impeachment and whatever other legal methods they could fnd. Trump saw such attempts as signs that a “deep state” existed that ruled the United States and that was unwilling to accept his election. He responded by challenging the fairness and legitimacy of the US election system.
Recent previous editions of this book began with a discussion of the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, and its efect on society and culture. September 11 served as a focal point for discussions of the interconnections among political, social, cultural, and economic aspects of life. It was an event that pulled the United States together. Trump’s victory was a quite diferent event, but it also served as a focal point of the interconnections—only this time the focus, was on forces pulling US society apart, not pushing it together. Te United States has become polarized politically, culturally, and economically. Te animosity on both sides continued through Trump’s presidency, which is why the election of 2020 was equally divisive. In the 2020 election, for a variety of reasons, Trump had lost important elements of his supporters since 2016. His opponent, Joe Biden, advocated a more civil approach, but he was also interested in implementing his policies in whatever way he could. Neither side showed a willingness to understand the other side’s view and to compromise on policy to a degree that would lead to any bipartisan policy agreement. So whether the older civility can be brought back, or whether it has been permanently replaced by visceral infghting among elites and calls for illegitimacy on both sides, remains to be seen. Tose questions will be key social questions that will be explored throughout the book. Tat’s because social science is the study of social, cultural, psychological, economic, and political forces that guide individuals in their actions— it is the analysis of those forces that push society apart and pull it together. In the election of 2020, you could see those forces are work. A politician who promised to pull the United States together, defeated Trump. Whether he can actually do so remains to be seen.
Formal social science is relatively new. Nevertheless, a vast amount of information has been accumulated concerning the social life of human beings. Tis information has been used in building a system of knowledge about the nature, growth, and functioning of human societies. Social science is the name given to that system of knowledge.
All knowledge is (1) knowledge of human beings, including their culture and products, and (2) knowledge of the natural environment. Human culture has been changing, and knowledge about it has been gradually accumulating ever since the far distant time when humans frst assumed their distinctively human character. But until rather recent times, this knowledge was not scientifc in the modern sense. Scientifc knowledge is knowledge that has been systematically gathered, classifed, related, and interpreted. Science is concerned with learning the concepts and applying those concepts to particulars, rather than just learning a vast amount of information.
1 Te phrasing is, I suspect, jarring for many readers—that’s not the way textbooks sound. I use the Trumpesque phrasing in the same way that Trump uses it (as explained in his Art of the Deal—to jar, and to set discussion agenda on his terms). I now return to normal textbookeze.
Primitive peoples acquired much of their knowledge unconsciously, just as we today still begin the use of our native language and acquire many of the basic elements in our culture unconsciously. For the most part, they accepted the world as they found it, and if any explanations seemed called for, they invented supernatural ones. Some primitive peoples believed that every stream, tree, and rock contained a spirit that controlled its behavior. In modern times, our emphasis is on the search for scientifc knowledge. We have divided human knowledge into a number of areas and felds, and every science represents the systematic collection and study of data in one of these areas, which can be grouped roughly into two major felds—social science and natural science. Each of these felds is subdivided into a number of specialized sciences or disciplines to facilitate more intensive study and deeper understanding. Social science is the feld of human knowledge that deals with all aspects of the group life of human beings. Natural science is concerned with the natural environment in which human beings exist. It includes such sciences as physics and chemistry, which deal with the laws of matter, motion, space, mass, and energy; it also includes the biological sciences, which deal with living things. Tere is more to knowledge than scientifc knowledge. Tere is also phronesis, or wisdom, which is a combination of knowledge acquired through philosophical refection and inquiry and practical knowledge that one acquires through learning by doing. Whereas scientifc knowledge relies on logic, rationality, and empirical proofs, phronesis relies on all those plus an instinctual feel for something, and understanding acquired through careful refection and discussion with others. Some aspects of phronesis are instinctual; for example a bird that instinctually knows to migrate south for the winter, or a mother who knows instinctually how to comfort her baby, has knowledge, but it is not scientifc knowledge. How that knowledge is learned and how one “knows” it is difcult to determine, but it is knowledge.
Street Smarts and Book Smarts
Many of you are taking this course because you have to as part of your degree requirements. A number of you will be somewhat skeptical about the value of the course, and more broadly, the value of the degree. We are sympathetic to your concerns. There is not a lot in this course that will be directly applicable to finding a job, or increasing your pay. Much of it is simply educated common sense. So why is it required?
The answer is that it provides you with the beginning of “book smarts.” What are “book smarts”? They are the equivalent to “street smarts”—the instinctual knowledge you get about how to operate successfully in your environment. If you put someone in a new environment, he or she will often flounder—say the wrong thing, miss a joke, interpret an action incorrectly. Over time, one gains street smarts by osmosis—by being in the street; you just know this is how you should act. This is how you can push for something.
There is a similar type of business smarts. Kids who grow up in families in business—where parents have good jobs, and come home and talk about what happened at work— absorb business smarts by osmosis. They become part of their interactions. Depending on the nature of the job, business smarts include street smarts, but they also include knowing when to dump the attitude and fit in—to do what the boss thinks needs to be done, even when the boss is, shall we say, stupid. Business smarts also include what might be called book smarts—a knowledge of how to discuss issues and how to make people realize you are smart. This course involves teaching you book smarts. It conveys to you the thinking of individuals who have been most successful in college and who advise governments and businesses. Learning the individual facts is less important than learning the reasoning approach
that these people use—in a way, it is like learning a foreign language. Making it through the course conveys to employers that you understand the process; and when you get an associate or college degree, this signals employers that you have achieved sufficient book smarts to operate in their world, which you have to do if you want a job.
You probably do not want too much book smarts. Business requires a combination of book and street smarts. People with PhDs in some fields, such as English or humanities, are as problematic for many business management jobs as are those with no degree at all. Those with PhDs analyze things too much for most businesses. In business, what is wanted is people who understand book smarts, but who can integrate those book smarts with street smarts.
How important is such a signal? That depends. If your name is Kareem, Tamika, Rashid, Ebony, Aisha, or Tyrone, you probably need it more than if your name is Kristen, Greg, Neil, Emily, Brett, Anne, or Jill. How do we know that? Because social scientists have shown it through experiments in which they sent out resumes that were identical except for the names. Resumes with “black-sounding” names had only a 6.7 percent chance of receiving a response, while resumes with “white-sounding” names had a 10.1 percent chance. These researchers found the same amount of built-in “name” discrimination in less-skilled jobs, such as cashier and mailroom attendant, as in more heavily skills-based jobs. How do you get around this? By taking a course such as social science and getting a degree, which signals to the employer that you have “book smarts.” We will talk more about these issues in later chapters, but here we just want to point out that it is issues such as these that make up the subject matter of social science.
Tese alternative types of knowledge are important for social science since social policy is built on a blend of scientifc, philosophical, and practical knowledge. Science tells us what physically is possible; philosophy and practical knowledge tell us what the goals of policy should be; and a blend of all three tells us how to best achieve those goals. We won’t spend a lot of time discussing these alternative types of knowledge, other than to acknowledge their importance and to remind you that science on its own does not lead to policy solutions. Science helps guide, but does not determine, what we should do.
I will, however, introduce you to one tool that moral philosophers use to arrive at philosophical truths—it’s called the veil of ignorance or the impartial spectator tool. It involves removing yourself from your particular situation, and judging an issue from the perspective of someone who doesn’t know which individual he or she will be, and thus will be more likely to be impartial. Te goal is to escape one’s particular narrow perception of the problem and to arrive at a more neutral view that is more likely to gain broad consensus. Since it is hard to look at issues from other’s perspectives, the impartial spectator tool requires extensive discussions and interactions with others who come from diferent backgrounds and likely disagree with you.
Tose discussions are to be carried out not with the goal of winning an argument, but instead with the goal of searching jointly for the truth—a method sometimes called argumentation for the sake of heaven—argumentation whose goal is not to win for the sake of winning, but to further one’s understanding. Such argumentation leads to what might be called philosophical and moral truths.
In adding these philosophical truths into one’s insights, a third feld of studies—the humanities—becomes important. Humanities deals with literature, music, art, and philosophy.
Te humanities are closely related to social science in that both deal with humans and their culture. Social science, however, is most concerned with those basic elements of culture that determine the general patterns of human behavior. Te humanities deal with special aspects of human culture and are primarily concerned with our attempts to express spiritual and aesthetic values and to discover the meaning of life. Whereas the social sciences study issues in a systematic, scientifc way, the focus of the humanities is more on the emotions and feelings themselves than on the system employed to sharpen that focus. Policy requires a blending of the humanities with science.
Te importance of social science goes far beyond the specifc social sciences. It is social science thinking that underlies much of the law as well as our understanding of international relations and government. All these felds are the natural by-products of social science inquiry. Tus, a knowledge of social science is necessary for anyone trying to understand current world events.
The Evolving Social Sciences
The themes of this book are evolution and change. Thus, it would be surprising if the divisions among the social sciences that currently exist still remain ten years from now. Indeed, with the development of new technology and technological advances in the physical sciences, the distinction among the various sciences is blurring and new sciences are developing. As these fields develop, the boundaries of the various social sciences change.
Interaction among the various social sciences is creating new fields, such as economic psychology, psychological economics, and sociopolitical anthropology. In economics and political science, too, a group of economists is calling for the reintegration of these two fields into political economy, and some schools do have departments of political economy. Change is also occurring in the natural sciences, and there is interaction between the natural and social sciences. New developments in genetic theory, which will be discussed in Chapter 2, have caused many to believe it is time for a new social science, called cognitive science, which combines
psychology, linguistics, philosophy, social anthropology, and molecular biology. Although it is still in the process of formation, a tentative definition of cognitive science is the study of how the mind identifies problems and how it solves those problems. For instance, there are more ways to write the letter s than there are people who know how to write that letter (all people who write, plus the printing press and computer software and innumerable typefaces designed for them). Let us identify the problem as how to recognize the letter s when we see it. We know the result of the exercise: Everyone who knows how to read can instantly recognize most renditions of the letter s (the handwriting of a few college students and some physicians excepted). But we do not currently know how we do it. Or, how do you distinguish the face of your roommate from the face of your mother, from the face of the letter carrier, from the face of Brad Pitt? There has been speculation about how the mind works for almost as long as there have been minds, theories, and even experiments, but few specific riddles have been conclusively solved. Cognitive science is making inroads in answering such questions.
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SUOMALAINEN RYIJY
Kysymyksessä oleva ryijy on nyt myyty juutalaiselle. Siihen oli kudottu kokonainen elämäntarina: tarina onnellisesta avioliitosta, joka päättyi miehen uljaaseen kuolemaan. Se sisälsi myös elämänfilosofian, joka on mutkaton ja luterilainen. Tarinan eli minun isoäitini ja hän omisti myöskin tuon elämänkatsomuksen.
Koko paikkakunta on keltainen.
Joku kapea juova vain on vihreätä ja valkoista
ja sinistä näillä main.
Ja tuulimylly on kankaalla ja jauhaa ja pyörii ja soi.
Ja poika seisoo sen vieressä ja nauraa minkä voi.
Ja tyttö on miltei punainen, hän on aivan palavissaan.
Ja poika on juuri kosinut ja tyttö on antanut jaa'n.
MORAALI:
Vaan taivaalla ovat symboolit.
On ensiksi elämänpuu:
joka siitä maistaa, hän elämästä ja onnesta huumautuu.
Ja taivaalla on tuntilaseja — jonossa, rivittäin —: ajan hiekka tippuu laseista, käy nöyränä, kumarapäin luo hautas mustan, se määräsi on, se jokaisen määrä on.
Ja Jumalan silmä on taivaalla: elämä on loputon.
HISTORIA:
Vaan keskellä ryijyä vuosiluku on vanha ja himmentynyt.
Minun isoäitini rukouksia monia hymissyt on kutoessaan ja muistaessaan nuoren miehen sen, joka seilasi aavoja valtameriä tyyrissä Alicen.
Minun isoäitini yksin jäi leskeksi ja puutteeseen kun Alice, uljas fregatti upposi lasteineen…
PUER NATUS IN BETLEHEM
Me istuimme kirkossa kaikin, etupenkissä, hytisten. Ja ikkunaholveissa tuikuttivat liekit kynttelien ja huurua tulvi ovesta, kun kansaa saapui. Ja soi papinkello tornissa levottomana. Urut jo huminoi kuin kaukainen syksyukkonen. Ja nyt jo veisattiin ja lukkarin basson kohina yhtyi vapiseviin ja valittaviin huiluihin vanhojen urkujen. Vaan kirkon yllä veisasivat parvet enkelien.
Me istuimme kirkossa kaikin, etupenkissä, hytisten. Tänä aamuna tunsimme elävän rovastin sanojen: ne juoksivat saarnatuolista, luo ihmisten tulivat. Me näimme miltei kalveten: ne olivat ihanat, ne olivat hunajan pisarat tai Saaronin liljat tai pyhä manna Siionin korvessa, jota kerran syödä sai koko Juudan kansa nälissään. Ne täyttivät taivaan ja maan ja ihmeellisen lohdutuksen toivat tullessaan.
Me istuimme kirkossa kaikin, etupenkissä, hytisten. Ja äkkiä näimme kedot ja laumat paimenten: ne olivat alttarin luona. Koko Juudean kalpea maa oli hitaasti alkanut kynttelin liekkien lomitse pilkoittaa. Se oli himmeä ensin, se oli kuin utuinen yö. Vaan nyt jo, katso, lammaskatras kedolla ruohoa
syö ja purppuraviitta-paimenet sauvaansa nojaavat. Ja nyt jo, katso, enkeliparvet, suuret, valoisat koko taivaan täyttävät soitollaan. Ja nyt jo paimeniin on tarttunut onni ja riemahdus. He rientävät Betlehemiin.
Oi, pieni piltti lepää keskellä eläinten. Hän on kuin lehdellä kaste, hän on aivan nnellinen, hän ei tiedä kalkista, orjanruususta, ristinpuusta. Hän on juuri taivaasta lähtenyt ja nähnyt elämän hyvin ihmettelevin silmin. Hän on lapsi viaton. Vaan tähti on hänen yllänsä. Se Kuoleman tähti on. Oi, hyvä Maaria, taudita hänet seimessä unehen, oi, hyvä Maaria, tuuditathan hänet syvään unehen.
Me istuimme kirkossa kaikin, etupenkissä, hytisten. Me miltei itkimme kajahdellessa rovastin sanojen. Sitä pientä pilttiä paimenet suuresti ylistivät ja aamun tullen saapuneet itämaan tietäjät. Vaan myöhemmin hänet tylysti ristille ripustettiin. Me emme tätä käsittäneet, me vaivuimme kyyneliin: me olimme pieniä lapsia. Ja kynttiläin himmeitten me näimme kanssamme surevan kuolemaa Jeesuksen.
Me istuimme kirkossa kaikin, etupenkissä, hytisten. Me kuulimme rovastin sanovan lempeän aamenen. Ja katosta lensi enkeli. Se purjehti valkoisin ja kirkkaanvärisin siivin ihmisten penkkeihin. Se veisasi riemulaulua meidän kanssamme. Sen me sitten näimme monesti keskellä unien.
Puer natus in Betlehem, Cust' iloitze Jerusalem, Halle, Halleluja.
VAATIMATTOMASTA HAUTAUKSESTA
Kylän laidassa asui tyttö, jota lapsena ihailin.
Hän kuoli sitten ja taivaassa sai morsiuskammarin, kuten kaikki pienet tytöt, jotka varhain kuolevat.
Hänet pantiin arkkuun valkeaan ja surevat vanhemmat sen ottivat varoen polvilleen rekeen istuessaan ja ajoivat kiviportille lumisen hautausmaan.
Minä olin niin pieni poika. En paljon ymmärtänyt.
Minä kuulin, kun kulkuset helisivät. Marjatta, Marjatta nyt on tulossa, sanoin äidilleni, nyt mennään tervehtimään.
Vaan sitten näin itkevän Miettiskän ja Miettisen kumaran pään.
Ja äkkiä olin ääneti. Ja valtavan onneton.
Ja minä en tiennyt ollenkaan, mikä kuolema on.
Ja kirkonkellot läppäsivät vanhassa tornissa…
Ja isäni, joka on pappi, tuli portille paljain päin: hänen kainalossansa käsikirjan mustat kannet näin.
Ja lukkari tuli myöskin. Ja sitten he veisasivat ja kääntyivät hitaasti takaisin menemään molemmat.
Ja Miettisen vanhemmat pojat, ja Kasper ja Heinonen ja Miettinen itse ja Kalle kulkivat laahustaen
ja kantoivat pientä arkkua. Oi, äiti, sano, oi, miks kirkon tornissa iso-kello noin taukoamatta soi?
Ja äitini puristi kättäni ja me joukkoon liityttiin ja mentiin ääneti lumista tietä. Pieniin kämmeniin kävi tammipakkanen kovasti. Missä siis Marjatta on? minä kysyin hiljaa äidiltäni ja olin onneton.
Ja kirkonkellot läppäsivät vanhassa tornissa.
Hän on mennyt taivaan saleihin. Hänen ruumiinsa haudataan: hänen valkoinen arkkunsa lasketaan juuri helmaan maan. Minun äitini itki myöskin ja silitti päätäni. Niin minä silloin hyrähdin minäkin katkeriin kyyneliin. Minä tiesin äkkiä jotakin, jonka kaikki toiset jo ties. On Kuolema ollut minulle sitten niin tuttu mies…
LEGENDA VÄSYNEISTÄ NAISISTA
On kolme köyryä niskaa, kolme naista ahkeraa. Tämän päivän ehtooksi kitketty on koko naurismaa. Olen uupunut, sanoo Malviina, olen kaamean uupunut, minun niskaani polttaa ja sydäntäni on kummasti vihlaissut. Ja Sanna: Lähden täältä, menen pojua imettämään, hän on siellä hirveän janoissaan. Vaan Miina: Minä jään tähän viime minuutille, vaikka loppuni sitten ois: saa kartanon rengit kuljettaa minun ruumiini kauniisti pois.
On kolme köyryä niskaa, kolme naista kalpeaa, jotka kankein jaloin piennarta pitkin kotiinsa vaeltaa. Tuli Jumalan kääsit vastaan. Ja pieni enkelikin on kiivennyt hymyillen Jumalan rinnalle Jumalan kääseihin. Ja Jumala katsoo heitä ja viittaa kädellään. Ja raudikko-orhi karahduttaa koivikon hämärään.
On kolme köyryä niskaa, kolme naista ihanaa, he naurispellon pientareella nauraen vilkuttaa.
SOTAMIEHEN HAUTAUKSESTA
Rummut, rummut: Tararam, tararam. Me olimme kunniakomppania, me tiesimme: juhlallisesti joka ainoa askel
ja jäykkien kasvojen eljet niinkauankuin marssia kaupungin kaduilla kesti. Me olimme ennen kuin veljet, kun elimme keskellä rauhanaikaa. Nyt rummut raikaa: Tararam, tararam.
Rummut, rummut: tararam, tararam.
Me marssimme hitaasti, kiväärit olalla, kasvot jäässä, hyvin hitaasti marssimme ruumisvaunujen jäljessä, joissa meidän veljemme arkussa makas, granaatinsirpale päässä, ja järki aivoista, sielu rinnasta poissa.
Hän kuoli keskellä rauhanaikaa.
Ja rummut raikaa: Tararam, tararam.
Rummut, rummut: tararam, tararam. Ah, veljemme oli nyt ruumis. Hän oli jo mätä.
Hänen nimensä oli jo sisällyksetön sana.
Me ääneti mietimme jokainen kaikkea, kaikkea tätä kun marssimme jäykkänä kunniakomppaniana.
Me elämme keskellä rauhanaikaa.
Ja rummut raikaa: Tararam, tararam.
MIKKO PUHTISESTA
Olin tutkinut puoleen yöhön. Olin löytänyt viimein sen jota kaipasin dokumenteista. Mikko Puhtinen oli von der Buchtien kantaisä, ukonkarilas: toden totta, jo laski hiukan, oi kreivitär, kunnias!
Minä aukaisin uudinta hiukan ja katselin yöhön ja näin, miten Otavan kyöpelivaunu oli vierinyt länteen päin. Näin, kuinka puistossa kaikki oli himmeän hiljaista. Niin tulin vihdoin silmäni ohjanneeksi flyygelin ikkuniin.
Kuka valvoo siellä? mä huusin.
Joku vastasi: Puhtinen.
Meren äärellä, kuutamossa, minä tapasin neidon sen, meren äärellä.
Otin liinan ja shaalin ja lähdin ja kolkutin voimakkain ja rohkein iskuin. Ja flyygelin pariovet auki sain.
Koko porstua tuoksui homeelle. Näin valuvan kynttilän suurpirtin honkapöydällä. Peräpenkillä istui hän, toden totta, Mikko Puhtinen, hyvin vakavin naamoin. Ja pää oli hänellä jalo. Ja ilmeessä oli jotakin viehättävää.
Oi, hyvää iltaa, mä sanoin,
oi, Mikko Puhtinen.
Meren äärellä, kuutamossa, minä tapasin neidon sen, meren äärellä.
Minä niiasin hänelle syvään. Vaan jäykkänä istui hän.
Minun rohkea tuloni häntä ei näyttänyt häiritsevän.
On ihana yö, minä sanoin. Hän tuijotti, tuijotti vain. Tänä yönä, jatkoin, meidän sukupuumme selville sain.
Koko Buchtien, Liewencronain, von Birckendahlien suvut juontuvat teistä, teistä, oi Mikko Puhtinen. Miten onnellinen te olette, oi Mikko Puhtinen…
Meren äärellä, kuutamossa, minä tapasin neidon sen, meren äärellä.
Hän syöksähti kiivaasti ylös. Hänen silmänsä vavahtivat.
Hän iski honkapöytään teräsnyrkkinsä molemmat.
Se on valhe, hän huusi. Sitten hän itsensä hilliten taas lysähti raskaasti penkille. Olen Mikko Puhtinen, joka syntyi suomalaiseks, joka eli kuin Suomen mies, joka milloinkaan ei tietänyt, miten painaa juhdan ies, joka iski pirulta parran, joka ruotsilta listitsi pään, joka hirtettiin kuin suomalainen ja karsikon hämärään pääs isäinsä luokse nukkumaan. Olet kumminkin sanonut, että poikani poika on Birckendahl tai kreivi von der Bucht?
Mene, huuda: Mikko Puhtinen, joka ammoin hirtettiin, on kirouksensa singonnut joka ainoaan petturiin!
Olen suomalainen, hän sanoi, olen Mikko Puhtinen.
Meren äärellä, kuutamossa minä tapasin neidon sen, meren äärellä. * * *
Meren äärellä, kuutamossa minä tapasin neidon sen, meren äärellä kulki hän autiolla laulua hyräillen. Minä otin häneltä laulun hänen kantaisästään ja kirjoitin sen kirjaan herra Mustapään.
DOMINUS KRABBE
1. Pappilan nuorenherran kertomus
Hän vaelsi alakuloisena, kuten nuoret miehet aina, vaikka sydäntä ei suinkaan vielä maailman huolet paina, hän vaelsi tukka liehuen ja mieli jossain poissa.
Hän kuuli, kuinka lasikellot soivat vaahteroissa. Hän kulki kotipihalla ja samalla maailmalla.
Hän seisoi hetken epäröiden kanslian ikkunan alla.
Suviyössä valitti tuuli, lasikellot, lasikellot…
Ja laiha liekki tuikutti, tuikutti ikkunasta. Hän hätkähti ja vaivoin välttyi takaisin juoksemasta. Se on isäni tietysti, mietti hän, hän valvoo poikaansa tänään. Oi, poika, poika, isälläsi on suruja nieltävänään: sinä etkö kadu viipymistäsi kylän karkeloissa vain sielus mistaat ja sydämesi syntipaikoissa noissa.
Hän tarrasi ikkunaluukkuihin ja keljuili ylös vähän ja miltei kauhusta kirkaisi kun katsoi sisään. Tähän hän totta ei ollut
valmistunut keskellä nykyistä aikaa: suviyössä olis siis kaikitenkin hitonmoista taikaa!
Hän käsitti salamannopeasti: kaamea menninkäinen oli kansliassa ja kirjoitti. Jokin uho, kalsea, jäinen kävi lasien lävitse pihalle kuin luurangon kostea hiki… Hän tunsi äkkiä Pappi Krabben. Se istui ruutua liki, se kohotti tyhjän katseensa, hän tunsi tuon saman saaliinhimon syttyvän siihen, jonka niin, oli sakaristossa maaliin ja kankaaseen joku mestari ennen siveltimellä luonut. Niin, tietysti se taaskin oli krouvissa viinoja juonut (se krouvi sijaitsi kirkolla, hänet erotti piispa siksi, kun hän möi viinaa ja joi hän viinaa henkensä pidättimiksi).
Hän sisään kävi ja rohkaisten luontonsa rykäisi ovella lujaan ja arveli sillä saattaneensa haamun umpikujaan. Vaan se oli aivan rauhallinen, ei syöksynyt ilmaan lainkaan. »Oi iltaa poikani», sanoi se vain, »miten suuren kunnian sainkaan kun vaivauduit minun luokseni näin myöhään yöllä ja tahdoit minun mieltäni riemastuttaa, niin, oi poikani, mahdoit, mahdoit hyvin nukkua vain sinun vuoteellas. Vaan äläpäs, äläpäs huoli, jos sitten hieman juteltais, ota, istu, tuossa on tuoli…»
Ja sitten hän haamulta tietää sai: se kirkossa saarnata halas. Se kylmeni harppujen huminalle ja taivaasta vaelsi alas, se hetkeksi vanhan pappilan kanslian pulpettipenkille palas ja sytytti haarakynttilän ja istuen myöhään yöhön koko palavan henkensä voimalla vaipui saarnanvalmistustyöhön.
Sen sulka rapisi paperilla ja kirjainten jono musta kuin huusi jo lain ja evankeliumin sanoman julistusta… Suviyössä valitti tuuli.
Lasikellot, lasikellot soivat vaahteroissa.
Vaan sitten se haihtui kuin usma pois. Ei näkynyt enää häntä. Hän oli riuska ja kippura ja paksu ja pienenläntä ja yllä keltainen sortuukki ja jalassa pieksunhylyt, kuten sakariston taulussa, ja silmät jäiset ja tylyt.
2. Piika Amandan kertomus
Ja meidän piika Amanda oli herännyt aamulla varhain, vaikka piikain uni, kuten tunnettua, on juuri amulla parhain. Hän oli kuullut nurkissa kolkutusta. Ja hissun kissun kulki jokin kaamea olento porstuassa ja ovia ryskien sulki, ja juoksi pihalla, puutarhassa ja anturat maahan iski kuin nuija-juntta, ja kumminkaan ei haukkunut Halli-piski.
Ja Amanda kylmässä hiessä ui ja nousi ja ovelle juoksi ja raoitti varovaisesti ja palasi ikkunan luoksi kun mitään ei nähnyt eteisessä, ja aukaisi ikkunanverhot. Vaan ulkona värisi aurinko ja kedolla leikkivät perhot ja lehmät ynisi karjatarhassa. Lahdella sumu leijas… Mikä hitto häntä unien keskeltä turhaan ylös peijas?
Vaan äkkiä kämmenin hamuilevin hän punaiset kasvonsa peitti: jokin valkoinen olento tallin edessä satulan selkään heitti pienvärisen korskuvan valakkahevosen, ja itse hyppäsi selkään.
Oli haamulla liperit leuan alla ja jalassa pieksunhylyt, kuten sakariston taulussa, ja silmät jäiset ja tylyt…
3. Renki Epramin kertomus
Ja meidän Eprami kuului olleen tulossa kotiin. Hän mietti, miten iloisen yön hän Nikulan Alman aitassa juuri vietti.
Hänen ajatuksensa ruusunpunaiset kiersivät tuttuja maita, hänen huulensa vihelsi nuotteja villejä, drillejä onnekkaita.
Hän astui rennosti Ripakon kujaa kun aurinko nousi. Hän saapui järvelle kimmeltävälle ja yli sen sousi ja katseli kuinka korsissa sipisi, aalloilla lipisi tuuli. Hän telkkien vitinän, ruislinnun haikean ritinän kuuli. Hän niitulla näki vilkkuvan keltaisten kurppien nokkien, hän pajuista äkkäsi kerttujen parvet ja ilmasta lokkien. Hänen venheensä kokka törmäsi suhisten kaislaan ja santaan ja notkein ja nuorin jäsenin hyppäs hän pappilan rantaan. Poissa on kulta…
Ja aurinko heitteli pappilan laseihin punaista tulta.
Ja Eprami lauloi haikeesti: Poissa on kulta…
Hän mollissa lauloi ja asteli rennosti taloa kohti.
Oi aikainen aamu! Se mutkikas polku läpi koivikon johti.
Hän lauloi mollissa: Poissa on kulta. Ja koivikko hymys.
Vaan äkkiä paukkui ja tantere soi. Ja Eprami lymys ikikokoisen koivun rungon turviin ja kalveten näki: oli liikkeellä valkeat menninkäiset ja hautojen väki. Pikimustalla ratsulla karkasi kelmeä vainaja ohi ja ruoskalla vinkuvasiimaisella sen kupeita sohi. Verenkarvainen liekki suitsusi ympäri hevosen
suusta. Ja ratsastajalla naama lie ollut pelkästä luusta, pyhä piplia toisessa kainalossa ja jalassa pieksunhylyt, kuten sakariston taulussa, ja silmät jäiset ja tylyt…
4. Kirkonvartija Optaatuksen kertomus
Ja kirkonvartija Optaatus, joka soittaa kelloja aamuin ja on, kuten kaikki kirkonvartijat, tarkka tuntija haamuin, meni aamulla varhain sakaristoon ja aikoi siivota siellä: näet on niin raskasta antaa rovastin liialti tomuja niellä, se tekee kurkun karkeaksi ja saarna ei oikein luista…
Vaan semmoista suurta säikähdystä ei Optaatus toista muista: pikimusta ratsu on köytettynä lampetin lenkkiin ja kauraa se rouskii nuorilla hampaillaan. Ja nurkassa joku nauraa röhönaurua, paksua, karmivaa. Kun Optaatus sinne kääntyy, hänen hyvänsävyinen naamansa kauhusta vinoon vääntyy. Se on pappi Krabbe, se syntinen mies, jonka kuva on kaapin päällä. Mitä hittoja hänkin, vainaja, on näin päivällä vielä täällä: kuten tunnettua on vainajilla aikaa yhdestä viiteen ja sitten niitten on lähdettävä takaisin kiireesti hiiteen… Oli haamulla rillit nenänpäässä ja jalassa pieksunhylyt, kuten sakariston taulussa, ja silmät jäiset ja tylyt…
5. Pappilan neitien kertomus
1.
Me menimme juhlapukuisina herkän-hartaalla miellä ja yhteen kartanon Mirjamin kanssa satuimme kirkkotiellä. Me hymyilimme ja tervehdimme. Ja Mittumaarian pellot oli kukkamerenä: päivänkukat ja apilaat ja kellot kuin laineet kohisi aidan takana. Väkevä koivujen haju ja kasteen tuoksu syöksyi vastaan kuin myrskytuuli raju. Ja helähti kirkon isokello, kun kellonsoittaja veti koko hartiavoimalla kellon nuoraa. Sitten pimpitti heti papinkello kimein kilinöin. Se viittasi meidän isään. Me tukkaamme hiukan sipaisimme ja marssimme rivissä sisään.
Koko kirkkorahvas kahahti ja sitten suvivirsi soi holveissa ja sen soidessa kaikkosi sydänten kirsi. Se on kaikkein virtten suloisin, ah, siinä on jaloa voimaa, sen väristessä ja helistessä totisesti soi maa… Vaan se meni poikki. Me hämmästyimme. Virtemme jäi puoliin. Jokin peljättävä kummitus oli kiivennyt saarnastuoliin. Joku vaimo kirkaisi perällä. Joku pudotti kirjansa. Joku oli jäykistynyt ja huulille oli syöksynyt manaushoku. Ja isämme, hän oli sakaristosta tullut ovelle asti ja seisoi ja tuijotti saarnastuolia perin tuikeasti. Ja lukkari yritti virttä taas. Vaan sävel soristen kuoli… Ja sitten meillä ei enää ollut muuta kuin saarnastuoli ja kummitus saarnastuolissa. Se kohotti luurankonyrkin ja pauhasi meille lain sanoja lausein kiivain ja jyrkin. Sen kaljulla oli kalotti ja jalassa pieksunhylyt, kuten sakariston taulussa, ja silmät jäiset ja tylyt.
2.
Me kuulimme, kuinka Herra teki armon Juudean maalle kun Johanneksen lahjoitti sille vanhalle Sakariaalle, me kuulimme,
kuinka Herodias oli häijy ja jumalaton kun eli alla Herodeksen kuninkaallisen katon, me kuulimme, miten Salome tanssi Herodeksen nähden, me kuulimme, miten Herodes antoi Salomen tanssin tähden pyhän Johanneksen mestattavaksi aivan ilman syytä, me kirosimme Salomea, sitä kurjaa, kurjaa kyytä, me siunasimme Johannesta, hyvää Jumalanmiestä, joka edelläkävi ja Messiaalle tiedot antoi tiestä. — Vaan saarnattuaan tähän asti kummitus taukosi vähän. »Minä tahdon tähän lisätä, minä tahdon lisätä tähän että kaikki tietäis sen seurakunnassa: Olen kuin Herodes muinen, tämä käsivarsi ja nyrkki tässä, tämä nyrkki kalmanluinen on kuoleman miekkaa pidellyt ja tappanut miehen kerran, ja totisesti se mies oli myös, kuten Johannes, mies Herran. Oi ystävät, ystävät, kalvetkaa, sillä kenkään, kenkään teistä ei taida silmin synnittömin Herran edessä seistä. Te olette kaikki Herodeksia, joka ainoa miehen murhan on tehnyt omassa sielussansa tähden himon turhan. Kuka luulee itsensä viattomaksi Seebaotin nähden? Joka ainoa oman itsensä on tappanut Salomen tähden…»
3.
Ja liikutus kävi seurakunnossa, itku nousi ja laski. Ja rahvas oli kuin vastakaadettu, vastakulottu kaski, ja vastakylvetty: odottaa sai milloin nousis oras. Joku akka huusi ja mylvi melkein, joku ukko manas ja poras, joku kimeäääninen pojan-nappula penkillä seisten huusi: »Oi taivaan profeetta, taivaan profeetta, Messias, Messias uusi.» Ja kaksi vanhaa-emäntää hihitti mieltä vailla, ja kaunis tyttö ristikongilla tanssi Salomen lailla…
Ja kummitus vihdoin lopetti. Emme nähneet enää häntä.
Hän oli riuska ja kippura ja paksu ja pienenläntä ja leuassa pieni piikkiparta ja jalassa pieksunhylyt, kuten sakariston taulussa, ja silmät jäiset ja tylyt.
6. Vanhan haudankaivajan kertomus
Hän kuului juuri siirtäneen mädän hautalaudan pois kiviaidalle reunustalta vastaluodun haudan ja sitten ääneti istahtaneen. Ja hän hautarivit näki ja mietti, että siinä se nukkui pitäjän vanha väki: oli paroonia ja riiarinnaa ja rovastia ja muuta — vaan itseasiassa kuitenkin vain rapiata luuta, joka helponlaisesti murenee ja tomuks ja tuhkaks hajoo, kun kaivaessaan lapion terällä hiukkasenkin kajoo…
Niin, sielu, sanovat, ikuisesti veisaa ilossa taivaan, vaan ruumis, miksi se katoaa, miks ruumiin madot sai vaan… Ja hän sytytti niveräpiippunsa. Niin, oli se kysymys vakaa. Hän hymähti lievästi itsekseen. Vaan silloin puitten takaa tuli hitaasti ratsu ja ratsumies. Mitä kummaa ne tekivät tässä pyhää kirkkorauhaa sunnuntaina noin julkeesti häiritsemässä? Ravas ratsu Krabben haudalle. Hävis ratsumies satulasta. Ja silloin hauturi äkkäsi, hän äkkäsi silloin vasta: oli miehellä piirteet kauheat, oli silmät jäiset ja tylyt, kuten sakariston taulussa, ja jalassa pieksunhylyt.
