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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgment
1 An Introduction to Electronic Waste
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Generation and Composition of E-Waste
1.3 Present Status of E-Waste Management and Recycling
1.4 Comparative Assessment of the Metallurgical Options for Metal Recovery
1.5 Future Prospects
1.6 Conclusion References
2 The Global Challenge of E-Waste Generation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Fate of Steel and Al Alloys
2.3 The Fate of Synthetic Polymers
2.4 The Fate of Glass Present in E-Waste
2.5 The Fate of Geochemically Scarce Elements in Electric and Electronic Components of E-Waste
2.6 What Happens to Other Significant Constituents of EWaste?
2.7 Conclusion: The Global Challenge of E-Waste
References
3 Generation, Composition, Collection, and Treatment of EWaste
Abbreviations
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Global E-Waste Generation Scenario
3.3 General Composition of E-Waste
3.4 E-Waste Collection Strategies
3.5 Formal E-Waste Management
3.6 Informal E-Waste Management
3.7 Treatment of E-Waste
3.8 Reuse and Refurbish
3.9 Recycle
3.10 Recovery
3.11 Reduce
3.12 Rethinking
3.13 Conclusion References
4 Toxicity Characterization and Environmental Impact of EWaste Processing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Impact of E-Waste
4.3 Environmental Impact
4.4 Health Impact
4.5 Ecological Impact
4.6 Impact from Processing E-Waste
4.7 Conclusions References
5 Exposure to E-Wastes and Health Risk Assessment
5.1 Introduction
5.2 E-Waste Categorization and Vulnerable Population
5.3 Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of E-Waste
5.4 Chemical Composition of E-Waste and Health Risks Associated with Their Exposure
5.5 Health Risk Assessments
5.6 E-Waste Management
5.7 Conclusion References
6 Metal Resources in Electronics: Trends, Opportunities and Challenges
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Composition of Different EEE Components: Past, Present, and Tendencies
6.3 Environmental Burden of the Electronic Devices
6.4 Recycling and Metal Recovery
6.5 Major Challenges in Management
6.6 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives References
7 Urban Mining of e-Waste: Conversion of Waste to Wealth
7.1 The Principles of Urban Mining and the Life Cycle of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
7.2 Materials for Recovery from Electrical and Electronic Equipment
7.3 The Collections and Social Attitude Toward Disposal of E-Waste
7.4 Discussion and Conclusion References
8 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno-Economic of E-waste Recycling
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Life Cycle Assessment of E-waste Systems
8.3 Techno-Economic Analysis
8.4 Conclusion
References
9 E-waste Recycling: Transition from Linear to Circular Economy
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Linear Economy and its Limitations
9.3 Circular Economy – Need of the Hour
9.4 The Transition from Linear to Circular Economy
9.5 Understanding E-Waste Through Smartphones
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 E-Waste Valorization and Resource Recovery
10.1 Introduction
10.2 E-Waste Composition
10.3 Resource Recovery Techniques
10.4 Valorization of E-Waste for Circular Economy
10.5 Opportunities and Challenges of Valorization of EWaste
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Hydrometallurgical Processing of E-waste and Metal Recovery
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Characterization
11.3 Leaching Techniques
11.4 Separation and Recovery
11.5 Emerging Technologies for E-Waste Recycling
11.6 Conclusion and Futures Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
12 Microbiology Behind Biological Metal Extraction
12.1 Background
12.2 Overview of E-Waste: A Global Hazard
12.3 E-Waste Categories and Classification
12.4 Environmental Hazards Due to E-Waste Composition
12.5 Health Risks from E-Waste Exposure
12.6 Bioremediation Techniques for E-Waste Management
12.7 Why Biological Methods for Metal Extraction from EWaste
12.8 Types of Bioremediation
12.9 Factors Influencing Microbial Metal Leaching
12.10 Conclusion
12.11 Future Prospects
References
13 Advances in Bioleaching of Rare Earth Elements from Electronic Wastes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 REEs Recovery Technology
13.3 Post-Leaching/Bioleaching Process
13.4 Conclusion and Outlook
References
14 Bioprocessing of E-waste for Metal Recovery
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Bioprocessing of E-waste for Metal Recovery
14.3 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation of Metals
14.4 Perspective and Future Aspects
Acknowledgments
References
15 State-of-the-Art Biotechnological Recycling Processes
15.1 Introduction
15.2 State-of-the-art Biotechnological Processes
15.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
16 Biorecovery of Critical and Precious Metals
16.1 Introduction to Critical and Precious Metals for Recovery
16.2 Precious Metal E-waste Recovery in the International Market
16.3 E-waste Sources and Progression
16.4 Conventional E-waste Metal Recovery Methods and Their Limitations
16.5 Biorecovery of Valuable Metals from Electronic Waste
16.6 Factors Affecting Biorecovery of Precious Metals
16.7 Confirmatory Tests for Recovered Metals from E-waste
16.8 Biorecovery and Environment Sustainability
16.9 Biorecovery and Socio-economic Sustainability
16.10 Conclusion
References
17 Biohydrometallurgical Metal Recycling/Recovery from Ewaste: Current Trend, Challenges, and Future Perspective
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Overview of Biological Approach for Recycling of Metals
17.3 Existing E-waste Management Challenges
17.4 Advance Technology for Recycling Metals
17.5 Future Development Strategies for E-waste Management
17.6 Conclusion and Recommendation
References
Index End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table. 1.1 E-waste generation for the major economies of the world for the y...
Chapter 2
Table. 2.1 Relatively recently developed synthetic polymers are emerging in ...
Table. 2.2 Geochemically scarce elements that may be functional, or dysfunct...
Table. 2.3 Estimated losses (as % of input) of geochemically scarce function...
Table. 2.4 Reported geochemically scarce elements produced by plants co-proc...
Table. 2.5 Estimated current recoveries (in % of the amount present in e-was...
Chapter 3
Table. 3.1 Fates of different e-waste components after utilization.
Chapter 4
Table. 4.1 Environmental impact of common substances present in e-waste.
Table. 4.2 Health impact of common substances found in ewaste.
Chapter 5
Table. 5.1 Routes of exposure to various chemical components of e-waste and ...
Table. 5.2 Noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risk assessment scales.
Chapter 6
Table. 6.1 Metallic composition of PCBs found by different authors in a peri...
Table. 6.2 Composition differences for different types of PCBs
Table. 6.3 Mass fraction of LED lamps' macro components over time.
Table. 6.4 Composition of waste white LEDs
Table. 6.5 Composition of screens according to different authors
Table. 6.6 Permanent magnets' characteristics relevant for applications
Chapter 7
Table. 7.1 Comparing primary energy required for the extraction of materials...
Table. 7.2 Brief characteristics of the main materials in manufacturing elec...
Chapter 8
Table. 8.1 Real-time LCA application on various E-waste management strategie...
Table. 8.2 Details of environmental LCA of different technologies.
Chapter 9
Table. 9.1 Types of industrial economies.
Table. 9.2 Environmental, social, and economic benefits of CE.
Table. 9.3 Eco-innovations for implementation of CE.
Chapter 10
Table. 10.1 Material composition of different types of WEEE.
Table. 10.2 The summary of value-added products prepared using different par...
Table. 10.3 Top leading companies working in the global ewaste management a...
Chapter 11
Table. 11.1 Literature review of the chemical composition of the main elemen...
Table. 11.2 Literature review of the alkaline leaching of ewaste.
Table. 11.3 Examples of chemical groups and formulas of cationic and anionic...
Table. 11.4 Examples of chemical groups and formulas of chelating resins (In...
Table. 11.5 Properties of ILs.
Table. 11.6 Different types of DESs and their general formulas reproduced (S...
Table. 11.7 Physicochemical and thermal properties of DES (Padwal et al. 202...
Chapter 12
Table. 12.1 E-waste sources, components, and their hazardous effect on the e...
Table. 12.2 Detoxifying strategies for different metals adopted by metal-tol...
Table. 12.3 Microorganisms used for heavy metal remediation from e-waste (Pu...
Chapter 13
Table. 13.1 Distribution and production of rare earth oxides worldwide.
Table. 13.2 Types of microorganisms applied to rare earth element extraction...
Table. 13.3 Efficiency of bioleaching precious metals using cyanogen-produci...
Table. 13.4 A summary of studies using MFC for recovery of metals from solut...
Chapter 14
Table. 14.1 Recent investigations on bioprocessing of metal recovery from e-...
Chapter 15
Table. 15.1 Biosorption capacity of different biomasses for precious metals ...
Table. 15.2 Stability constant of metal and siderophore complexes.
Chapter 16
Table. 16.1 Microorganisms used for bioleaching of precious metals.
Chapter 17
Table. 17.1 Metals content (% and ppm values) in different e-wastes.
Table. 17.2 Microorganisms and optimum conditions applied for the solubiliza...
Table. 17.3 Organisms and percent metal leaching from ewaste.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Benefits of e-waste recycling.
Figure 1.2 Generalized steps involved in pyrometallurgical recovery of metal...
Figure 1.3 Schematic representation of hydrometallurgical recovery of metals...
Figure 1.4 Schematic representation of biohydrometallurgical recovery of met...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Flow diagram of a general WEEE management system (Masud et al. 20...
Figure 3.2 E-waste generation scenario in (a) Asia region, (b) Europe region...
Figure 3.3 Health hazards and risks associated with electronic waste (Jaibee...
Figure 3.4 Environmental impacts of e-waste (Dopp & Rettenmeier, 2013; Masud...
Figure 3.5 Global e-waste management strategies (Borthakur & Govind, 2017; L...
Figure 3.6 Formal E-waste process (Strike, 2021; WA, 2021).
Figure 3.7 Flow process of EPR policy.
Figure 3.8 Flow diagram of a take-back policy.
Figure 3.9 Informal E-waste Process (Barker, 2020; Record, 2019; Starr, 2019...
Figure 3.10 Illustrates the intricate interdependencies between reuse barrie...
Figure 3.11 Recycling of e-waste and recovery of valuable materials.
Figure 3.12 A simplified flowchart of the electronic goods recycling process...
Figure 3.13 A simplified diagram of the process steps at a material recovery...
Figure 3.14 Four ways to reduce e-waste carbon footprint.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 E-waste processing.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Composition of e-waste.
Figure 5.2 Global e-waste production.
Figure 5.3 Exposure pathways of e-waste.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Evolution of PCBs over the years.
Figure 6.2 Design variability of LED lamps (a) and typical components (b)....
Figure 6.3 Screen design evolution. (a) CRT display design. (b) PDP displ...
Figure 6.4 Timeline of battery evolution.
Figure 6.5 Elemental composition variation (wt.-%) of PM in accordance with ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Urban mining tasks in the circular economy.
Figure 7.2 Environmental impact costs in the life cycle of electrical and el...
Figure 7.3 Average material content in six categories of household e-waste....
Figure 7.4 Fate of end of life electrical and electronic equipment – Decisio...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Elements of techno-economic model.
Figure 8.2 Model of the costs and revenues in an MRP (metal recovery process...
Figure 8.3 Stages of the LCA.
Figure 8.4 A general illustration of system boundaries of all the model scen...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Linear and circular economies.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Typical composition of e-waste and WPCBs.
Figure 10.2 Individual sub-processes involved in the pretreatment of e-wast...
Figure 10.3 A circular economy approach toward e-waste management and valori...
Figure 10.4 Schematic representation of steps followed to recover metallic f...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Hydrometallurgical process flowsheet.
Figure 11.2 Pourbaix equilibrium potential–pH Diagram of (A) Au and (B) Ag p...
Figure 11.3 Structure of Au-thiosulfate complex, adapted from (Zhao et al. (...
Figure 11.4 Example of chemical structures of common organic extractants use...
Figure 11.5 Example of chelating reaction between the resin (iminodiacetate)...
Figure 11.6 Schematic of extraction process via ILs, adapted from reference....
Figure 11.7 Schematic representation of leaching of LiCoO2 using ChCl:citric...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Different strategies for heavy metal extraction from e-waste.
Figure 12.2 Types of bioremediation techniques and mechanisms.
Figure 12.3 Different Metal detoxification strategies adopted by metal-toler...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 The distribution of rare earth consumption in China in 2022 and ...
Figure 13.2 Schematic diagram of metal (M) leaching mechanism of A. ferrooxi...
Figure 13.3 Various post-leaching metal recovery methods.
Figure 13.4 An integrated process for vanadium purification from burnt oil a...
Figure 13.5 A process using solvent extraction (SX) for recovering REEs from...
Figure 13.6 An example of ion exchange with a copper ion.
Figure 13.7 A flowsheet for recovering REEs, Ga, and Al from fly ash using a...
Figure 13.8 Illustration of MFC for wastewater treatment in the anode chambe...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Bioleaching mechanism
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Comparison of different processes for metal recovery.
Figure 15.2 Illustration of a peptide-functionalized column for the selectiv...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Recapturing of metals using chemical method.
Figure 16.2 Recycling methods.
Figure 16.3 Treatment process – steps.
Figure 16.4 Recapturing of gold by the photocatalytic method based on TiO2/S...
Figure 16.5 Summary of the process of pyrometallurgy in recovery from e-wast...
Figure 16.6 Types of bioleaching processes.
Figure 16.7 Metal sulfides dissolution using (A) thiosulfate and (B) polysul...
Figure 16.8 Direct and Indirect mechanisms of bioleaching.
Figure 16.9 Types of metal mobilization mechanisms.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Contact and noncontact bioleaching mechanisms.
Figure 17.2 Application of bioinformatics for biohydrometallurgy.
Management of Electronic Waste Resource
Recovery, Technology and Regulation
Edited by
Anshu Priya
City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Priya, Anshu, editor.
Title: Management of electronic waste : resource recovery, technology and regulation / edited by Anshu Priya.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2024] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023046576 (print) | LCCN 2023046577 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119894339 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119894346 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119894353 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Electronic waste–Management.
Classification: LCC TD799.85 .M36 2024 (print) | LCC TD799.85 (ebook) | DDC 621.3815028/6–dc23/eng/20231102
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023046576
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023046577
Cover image(s): Wiley
Cover design: © liangpv/Getty Images
Dedicated to my dearest grandfather, Mr. Anand Swaroop Varma, for his countless blessings, immense love, and endless support. You are a great source of encouragement to me. Thank you for inspiring me always. I owe it all to you...
List of Contributors
Abhinav Ashesh
KPMG India
Gurgaon
Haryana
India
Mishra Bhawana
Department of Environmental Sciences
Central University of Himachal Pradesh (CUHP)
Shahpur
Dharamshala
Kangra
Himachal Pradesh
India
Amilton Barbosa Botelho Junior
Department of Chemical Engineering
Polytechnic School
University of Sao Paulo
Sao Paulo
Brazil
Marcelo P. Cenci
Materials Engineering Department
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
Porto Alegre/RS
Brazil
Mital Chakankar
Department of Biotechnology
Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf
Dresden
Germany
Venkata Ravi Sankar Cheela
Civil Engineering Department
MVGR College of Engineering (A)
Vizianagaram
Andhra Pradesh
India
Pranav Prashant Dagwar
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering
SRM University-AP
Amaravati
Andhra Pradesh
India
and
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI)
Nagpur
Maharashtra
India
Shailesh R. Dave
Xavier Research Foundation
Loyola Centre for Research and Development
St. Xavier's College Campus
Ahmedabad
India
Pant Deepak
Department of Environmental Sciences
Central University of Himachal Pradesh (CUHP)
Shahpur, Dharamshala, Kangra
Himachal Pradesh
India
Deblina Dutta
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering
SRM University-AP
Amaravati
Andhra Pradesh
India
Tingyue Gu
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
Institute for Sustainable Energy and the Environment
Ohio University
Athens
OH
USA
Subrata Hait
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Patna
Patna
Bihar
India
Pg Rusydina Idris
Civil Engineering Programme Area
Universiti Teknologi Brunei
Gadong
Brunei Darussalam
Kaviul Islam
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Iowa State University
Ames
IA USA and
School of Science and Engineering
Canadian University of Bangladesh
Dhaka
Bangladesh
Rohan Jain
Department of Biotechnology
Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf
Dresden
Germany
Sharifa Khatun
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology
Rajshahi
Bangladesh
Atul Kumar
Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology
CSK HP Agricultural University
Palampur
Himachal Pradesh
India
Sunil Kumar
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI)
Nagpur
Maharashtra
India
Sabine Kutschke
Department of Biotechnology
Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf
Dresden
Germany
Franziska Lederer
Department of Biotechnology
Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf
Dresden
Germany
Mahadi Hasan Masud
Mechanical & Automotive Discipline
School of Engineering
RMIT University, Bundoora Campus
Melbourne
VIC
Australia and
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology
Rajshahi
Bangladesh
Nahid Imtiaz Masuk
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology
Rajshahi
Bangladesh
Shivangi Mathur
Department of Biotechnology
President Science College
Gujarat University
Ahmedabad
Gujarat
India
Sabine Matys
Department of Biotechnology
Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf
Dresden
Germany
Pankaj Meena
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI)
Nagpur
Maharashtra
India
Soumya V. Menon
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
School of Sciences
Jain (Deemed to be) University
Bengaluru
Karnataka
India
José C. Mengue Model
Materials Engineering Department
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
Porto Alegre/RS
Brazil
Monjur Mourshed
Mechanical & Automotive Discipline
School of Engineering
RMIT University, Bundoora Campus
Melbourne
VIC
Australia
and
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology
Rajshahi
Bangladesh
Seyyed Mohammad Mousavi
Biotechnology Group
Chemical Engineering Department
Tarbiat Modares University
Tehran
Iran and
Modares Environmental Research Institute
Tarbiat Modares University
Tehran
Iran
Daniel D. Munchen
Materials Engineering Department
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
Porto Alegre/RS
Brazil
Ashkan Namdar
Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering
Khajeh Nasir Toosi University of Technology
Tehran
Iran
Tannaz Naseri
Biotechnology Group
Chemical Engineering Department
Tarbiat Modares University
Tehran
Iran
Piotr Nowakowski
Silesian University of Technology
Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering
Katowice
Poland
Biswaranjan Paital
Redox Regulation Laboratory
Department of Zoology
Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology
Bhubaneswar
Odisha
India
Katrin Pollmann
Department of Biotechnology
Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf
Dresden
Germany
Anshu Priya
School of Energy and Environment
City University of Hong Kong
Kowloon
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of Peritrichaceae, 151 f.
Sex, ternary, of Pandorina, 128 f.
Sexual fusion of Halteridium, 103, 105
Sheath, tentacular, of Suctoria, 159
Sheep, host of Sarcocystis tenella, 108 n.
Shell, of Diatomaceae, 84; of Foraminifera and of Rhizopoda—see Test; of Radiolaria—see Skeleton; cuticular, of Flagellates, 113—see Theca; siliceous reticulate, of Silicoflagellates, 110; -substance of Foraminifera, 62; of Polytrema, 62
Shipley, 197 n.
Sickle-cells, sickle-germs, 48, 94 f., 97, 101; of Lankesteria, 95; of Sarcosporidiaceae, 108
Side-plates, of arms of Crinoidea, 589; of Pentacrinidae, 591; of Comatulidae, 594
Siderastraea, 373, 375, 403; S. sideraea, 403
Siebold, v., on Sporozoa, 94
Siedlecki, on Sporozoa, 94; on reproduction of Lankesteria, 96 n.; on life-cycle of Coccidiidae, 99
Sierra Leone, prophylaxis of malaria at, 106
Sigma (a slender rod-like spicule curved in the shape of the letter C), 220, 222
Sigmaspire (a slender rod-like spicule twisted through about a single revolution of a spiral, and consequently having the form of a C or an S according to the direction in which it is viewed), 222
Siliceous plates, of test of Rhizopods, 29, 53 f.
Siliceous skeleton of Heliozoa, 71, 74; of Radiolaria, 76 f.; of Silicoflagellata, 110; of Sponges, 171 f., 175 f., 195 f.
Silicified cell-wall of some Dinoflagellates, 130
Silicispongiae, 195, 197
Silicoflagellata, 86, 110, 114
Silkworm infested by disease pébrine, due to Nosema bombycis, 107
Simpson, on life-cycle of Ciliata, 148 n.
Siphon, of Echinus esculentus, 516; of Echinarachnius parma, 546, 547
Siphonia, 215
Siphonoglyph, 334, 334, 369, 410
Siphonogorgia, 349
Siphonogorgiidae, 349
Siphonophora, 297 f.; dactylozooids, 299; food, 304; gastrozooids, 299; gonozooids, 302; hydrophyllia, 300; life-history, 302; nectocalyces, 298; pneumatophore, 300, 307 f.; stolon, 301
Siphonozooids, 332; of Pennatulacea, 359
Sipunculidae, 576
Sipunculus, 563
Skeleton, intermediate or supplemental of Perforate Foraminifera, 59, 63, 66; of Heliozoa, 71, 74; of Raphidiophrys, 74; of Radiolaria, 76 f., 77 f., 81 f., 84; of Spumellaria, 77, 77, 83; of Actinomma asteracanthion, 77; of Acantharia, 76 f., 78, 80, 82; of Xiphacantha, 78; of Dorataspis, 80; of Nassellaria, 76, 78, 82, 83; of Lithocercus annularis, 82;
of Theoconus, 80; of Phaeodaria, 76, 79, 82, 84, 85; of Aulactinium actinastrum, 82; of Challengeridae, 85; of Pharyngella, 85; of Haeckeliana, 85; of Tuscarora, 85; of Diatomaceae, 84; gelatinous, of Volvox, 126; —see also Shell, Test, Theca —of Asterias rubens, 434 f.; of disc of Ophiuroidea, 493; internal, of Echinarachnius parma, 545, 548; of Clypeastroidea, 548; of Laganum, 548; of Clypeaster, 548; of Echinocyamus, 548; of Echinanthidae, 549; of Laganidae, 549; of Holothuria nigra, 560; of Holothuroidea, 569; of Aspidochirota, 569; of Dendrochirota, 569; of Elasipoda, 569; of Molpadiida, 569; of Synaptida, 569; calyx and arm in Crinoidea, 588 Sladen, on classification of Asteroidea, 460
Sleeping-sickness, 120
Snow, red, 125
Solaster, 453, 455, 463; fossil, 475;
S. endeca, 463;
S. papposus, 463
Solasteridae, 453, 455, 458, 462, 466
Solenocaulon, 350
Sollas, I. B. J., on Sponges, 163 f.
Sollas, W. J., on Sponges, 165 n., 168, 172 n., 176 n., 183 n., 207 n., 208, 212 n., 215 n., 216, 219 n., 233 n., 234 n., 238 n.; on Palaeodiscus, 557
Solmaridae, 296
Solmaris, 296, 297
Soluble substances in greater or less concentration, effect on protoplasm, 7 f., 22 f.
Sore, Oriental, 121
Spallanzani, on origin of organisms of putrefaction, 43
Spanioplon, 223
Sparshall's discovery of Noctiluca, 135
Spatangidae, 554, 559
Spatangoidea, 529, 549 f., 556, 559, 561, 577
Spatangus, 553, 555; S. purpureus, 555; S. raschi, 555
Specialisation in Metazoa and Volvox compared, 129 f.
Specific gravity of living protoplasm, 13 n.
Spencer, Herbert, on limit of growth, 23
Spencer, W. B., on Hydroids, 271 n., 279
Spencerian, fission at limit of growth, 23; rhythm, 30 f.
Sperm, Spermatozoon, 17, 31, 33 f.; = spermogametes, 33; penetration of ovum by, 34; rheotaxy of, in Mammals and Sauropsida, 34; of Sporozoa, 18; of Pterocephalus, 99, 108 n.;
of Stylorhynchus, 99, 100; of Coccidium, 100, 101 f.; of Acystosporidae, 104 f.; of Sarcocystis tenella, 108 n.; of bisexual Protozoa and most Metazoa comparable with Flagellata, 109; of Volvox globator, 127 f.; of Eudorina, 129
Spermatogone (= a brood-mother-cell, whose offspring are sperms) of Coccidiaceae, 100 f.; of Volvox globator, 127 f.; of Eudorina, 129; of Acystosporidae, 104 f.
Spermatozoon, 17, 18
—see also Sperm
Sperosoma, 536
Sphaeractinia, 283
Sphaerechinus, 539, 540, 541;
S. granularis, 541
Sphaerella, 111;
S. lacustris, 126; S. nivalis, 125;
S. pluvialis, 125 f., 126
Sphaerellaria, 77, 77; geological occurrence of, 88
Sphaeridium, of Strongylocentrotus, 523; of Echinus esculentus, 524; of Echinarachnius parma, 545; of Echinocardium cordatum, 551
Sphaeroidea, 77, 77 f.
Sphaeronectes, 306
Sphaeronectinae, 306
Sphaerophracta, 78, 80
Sphaerozoea, 77 n.
Sphaerozoidae, 85
Sphenopus, 404
Spheraster (an aster in which the centrum is large, with a diameter equal to or greater than one-third the length of the actines), 233
Sphere, 184
Spicatae, 362
Spicules, calcareous, of Coccolithophoridae, 114; siliceous, of Heliozoa, 71, 74; of Radiolaria, 83; of Silicoflagellata, 110; of Sponges, 170 f.; composition, 170; structure, 171, 172; classification, 183; forms of, 184, 222, 224; development, 232; of Alcyonaria, 334 f., 336
Spindle, in cell-division by mitosis, 25 f.; intranuclear, of Euglypha, 29
Spines, of pelagic Foraminiferal shell, 66, 69; of Globigerina bulloides, 69; of Asteroidea, 454; of arms of Ophiothrix fragilis, 479; of arms of Ophiuroidea, 491; of Echinus esculentus, 505 f.; of Endocyclica, 531 f.; of Cidaridae, 532; of Arbaciidae, 532; of Echinothuriidae, 532; of Colobocentrotus, 532; of Heterocentrotus, 532; of Echinarachnius parma, 543; of Echinocardium cordatum, 550
Spinipora, 284, 286
Spintharophora, 216, 217 f.
Spinulosa, 461, 462 f.
Spiral, of stalk and stalk-muscle in Vorticella, 156 f.; ridge on tentacles of Suctoria, 160 f., 162
Spiraster (a spire of one or more turns, produced on the outside into several spines), 222
Spirillina, 59, 64
Spirochaeta (= Treponema, 111), 120 f.; "S." zeemannii, 120 f.;
S. obermeieri, 121
Spirochona, 138; adoral wreath of, 138 n.; bud-fission of, 147
Spiroloculina, 59, 63
Spirostomum, 137, 153 f.; supposed nervous fibrils in, 143
Spongelia, 225
Spongelidae, 220
Sponges (= Porifera), 163 f.;
spicules, 170, 171, 172, 177 f., 183, 184, 187 f., 198 f., 222, 224, 231 f., 232; canal system, 170, 171, 191, 198, 210, 235 f.; physiology, 234 f.; distribution, in space, 239; in time, 241; history, 166; reproduction, 172, 226 f.; nervous system, 39; immune from Gregarines, 99; relations to Protista, 41; to Choanoflagellates, 122 f., 168, 181
Sponge-sand, a source of Foraminiferal tests, 62
Sponge-spicules, in arenaceous shell of Foraminifera, 64
—see also Spicules
Spongicola (= Nausithoe), 206, 318;
S. fistularis, 317; (a Decapod Crustacean), 206; S. venusta, 206
Spongidae, 220
Spongilla, 217, 225, 230, 232, 237, 238; S. lacustris, spicule, 232
Spongin, 176, 217, 239
Spongioderma, 351
Spongocardium gilchristi, 215
Spongodes, 330, 335, 348, 349
Spongophare, 210
Spontaneous, generation, 42 f.; rendered improbable by life-histories of Flagellates, 118; —movements of Protista, 23
Sporadopora, 284, 285
Sporange (= a sac containing spores), of Myxomycetes, 91 f.; of Didymium, 92; of Actinomyxidiaceae, 98
Spore, 31; of Actinophrys, 72; of Actinosphaerium, 73 f.; of Acantharia, 86 n.; of Myxomycetes, 90 f.; of Didymium difforme, 92; of Sporozoa, 94 f.; of Gregarinidaceae, 97 f.; of Lankesteria, 95; of Gregarina blattarum, 98; of Stylorhynchus, 100; of Coccidiaceae, 97; of Coccidiidae, 97; of Coccidium schubergi, 101; of malarial parasites, 104; of Acystosporidae, 97; of Myxosporidiaceae, 98, 107; of Myxobolus mülleri, 107; of Actinomyxidiaceae, 98; of Sarcosporidiaceae, 98, 108; of Bodo saltans, 117; of Flagellates highly resistant to heat, 118 —see also Oospore, Zoospores, Zygotospore Sporocyst, 88, 89; of Proteomyxa, 88;
of Bodo saltans, 117 f.
Sporoducts of Gregarina blattarum, 98 f.
Sporogony, 296
Sporont of Gregarines, 98 f.
Sporozoa, 31, 33, 40, 48, 50, 94 f.; formation of chromidia, 29 f.; habitat, 48; relations, 48 f.; movements, 50, 125 n.;
Acystosporidae most primitive group of, 106; distinction from Flagellata, 109
Sporozoite, 95 f.; of Lankesteria, 95; of Coccidiaceae, 99 f., 101; of Haemosporidae, 102; of Acystosporidae, 104 f.
Sporulation, 31; in Noctiluca, 133 f.; = Brood-formation, q.v.
Springer, on classification of Crinoidea, 589
Springing movements, of Flagellates Dallingeria, 114, and Bodo saltans, 114, 117; of tailed Ciliata, 141 n.; of Pleuronema, 154
Spumellaria (Peripylaea), 76, 76 f., 77; skeleton, 77, 83
Spyroidea, 78
Squamulina, 59, 65
Stalk or stem, of Clathrulina, 74; of Flagellates, 112 f.; of Anthophysa, 112; of Diplomita, 112; of Choanoflagellates, 121, 122; of Monosiga, 122; of Polyoeca, 113, 122; of Peritrichaceae, 141 n.; of Schizotricha socialis, 152;
of Vorticella, 157; of Carchesium, 158; of Epistylis, 158; of Zoothamnium, 158; of Suctoria, 159, 160, 162; of Pelmatozoa, 430, 579; of Crinoidea, 580; of Carpoidea, 580, 596; of Cystoidea, 580, 597; of Blastoidea, 580, 599; of Antedon rosacea, 581, 585; of Actinometra, 588; of Rhizocrinidae, 588, 590; of Holopus, 588, 592; of Hyocrinus, 588, 590; of Pentacrinidae, 588, 591, 592; of larva of Asterina gibbosa, 610; of Brachiolaria, 612; of larva of Antedon rosacea, 619; of ancestral Crinoidea, 600; of ancestral Echinodermata, 621
Starch, 15, 37; in Zooxanthella, 86; in Flagellata, 110, 115
Starfish = Asteroidea, q.v.
Stationary pairing-nucleus, 150
Statocysts, 252, 288
Statolith, 252, 289
Statoplea, 279
Statorhab in Geryonia, 252
Stauractin, 234
Stauromedusae, 310, 316, 320
Steganophthalmata, 314
Steganopora, 284, 286
Stein, von, on Protozoa, 45 f.; misinterpretation of parasitic Suctoria in Ciliata, 161; on Suctoria, 162
Stelechotokea, 347
Stelletta, 213, 214, 222
Stem—see Stalk
Stem-ossicles, of Pentacrinidae, 588, 591; of Hyocrinus, 588, 590; of Rhizocrinidae, 588, 590; of larva of Antedon rosacea, 619
Stenoscyphidae, 321
Stenoscyphus inabai, 321
Stentor, 137, 154; regeneration, 35; supposed nervous fibrils, 143; meganucleus, 144; conjugation, 149; attachment, 152;
S. coeruleus, 154;
S. igneus, 154;
S. polymorphus, young, and adult in fission, 156
Stentorin, blue, 154 n.
Stephalia, 308
Stephanophyes, 300, 307;
S. superba, 307
Stephanophyinae, 307
Stephanophyllia, 404
Stephanoscyphus, 318;
S. mirabilis, 206
Stephanosphaera, 111, 128
Stephoidea, 78 f.
Stereoplasm, 394
Stereosoma, 331, 334, 337, 344
Stereotaxy, 20
Sterilisation of colonial cells in Volvox, 129
Sternata, 554
Sternum = Plastron, q.v.
Sterraster (an aster with very numerous actines soldered together by subsequently deposited silica, which extends almost to their extremities), 224
Sterrula, 341
Stewart's organs, of Cidaridae, 531; of Echinothuriidae, 531; of Arbaciidae, 531, 539; of Diadematidae, 538
Stichaster, 474
Stichasteridae, 456, 474
Stichodactylina, 380, 383
Sticholonche, 86; host of Amoebophrya, 161
Stichopathes, 407, 408
Stichopus, 570
Stichotricha, 138
Sticklebacks, prey on Anopheles, 106
Stimuli, 8 f.;
inducing responsive movements, 19 f.
Stoichactis kenti, 378, 383
Stolč, on Pelomyxa, 53 n.
Stolon, 301
Stolonifera, 342
Stomach, present in Metazoa, 38; of gnats, seat of syngamy of Acystosporidae, 103, 104 f.; of Asterias rubens, 438; of Echinus esculentus, 516; of Holothuria nigra, 562; of Antedon rosacea, 583; of Dipleurula, 605; absent in Hyocrinus, 589
Stomatoca (Tiaridae, 273), 415
Stomatograptus, 282
Stomodaeum, of Anthozoa, 327; of Ctenophora, 415; of Echinus esculentus, 516; of Dipleurula, 605; of metamorphosing Auricularia, 615; of larva of Antedon, 619
Stomolophus, 325
Stony Corals, 326
Strain-figure of cell dividing by mitosis, 25, 26, 27
Strained condition of cytoplasm during syngamy, 34
Streaming of granules in protoplasm, 17
Streptocaulus, 277
Streptophiurae, 491, 494, 500, 502
Strobila, 317
Stromacystis, 596
Stromatopora, 283
Stromatoporidae, 283
Strombidium (Torquatella), 137, 155 n.
Strongyle, 183, 224
Strongylocentrotus, 512, 522, 533, 540;
S. droëbachiensis, 512, 523, 541;
S. lividus, 541;
S. purpuratus, 542
Stryphnus ponderosus, 222
Studer, 340
Stylactis, 268, 270;
S. abyssicola, 268;
S. minoi, 268;
S. vermicola, 268, 269;
S. spongicola, 268
Stylaster, 285, 286
Stylasteridae, 285
Stylasterina, 283
Stylatula darwinii (Virgulariidae, 362), 360
Style, 284
Stylocordyla stipitata, 216
Stylonychia, 138 f.; meganucleus of, 144;
S. mytilus, 138, 139 f.
Stylopodium, 60, 61
Stylorhynchus, 97, 99; syngamy of, 100
Stylostichon, 225
Stylus, 183, 184
Sub-costal canals, 415
Sub-tentacular canal of Antedon rosacea, 586
Suberites, 219, 224, 230; S. domuncula, 219
Suberogorgia, 351
Sucker(s), of Mesodinium, 152; of Trachelius, 153 n.
Suction mechanism in Choanophrya, 159, 161
Suctoria, 158 f., 160, 162; animal nutrition of, 40
Sugar, 15
Sulculus, 369
Sulcus, 369
Supero-marginal ossicle of Asteroidea, 436
Supplemental skeleton of Foraminifera, 63, 66
Surface, protoplasmic movements in relation to a, 20—see Thigmotaxy, Stereotaxy; ratio of mass to, 14, 23 f.;
-tension in relation to protoplasmic movements, 17; to penetration of ovum by sperm, 34
Surra disease, 119
Swarmers of Foraminifera, 67 f.; of Dinoflagellates, 131 —see also Zoospores
Sycettidae, 187
Sycon, 187, 221; S. carteri, 187; S. coronatum, 187;
S. setosum, development, 188, 189, 231; S. raphanus, development, 190, 226
Symbiosis, 86, 125, 219;
Pelomyxa, 53;
Heliozoa, 73; Radiolaria, 80, 86;
Acantharia, 80; Ophrydium, 158; Paramecium bursaria, 153;
Scyphidia scorpaenae, 125; Stentor polymorphus, 154; Vorticella sertulariae, 125; Ephydatia fluviatilis, 175; Hydra viridis, 126, 256; Turbellaria, 73, 126; Convoluta, 73; Millepora and Zooxanthellae, 261; in Gymnoblastea, 268; Lar and Sabella, 273; Cannopora and Aulopora, 283; in Scyphozoa, 311; Alcyonaria and Zooxanthellae, 339; Solenocaulon and Alpheus, 350; Eunicella and Cirripede, 356; Verrucella and Ophiurid, 357; Pteroeides and Crab, 361; Ptilosarcus and Hydroid, 361; Zoantharia and Zooxanthellae, 373 f.; Adamsia and hermit crabs, 377, 381; Melia and Sea-anemone, 378;
Stoichactis and Amphiprion, 378; Pocilloporidae and Hapalocarcinus, 402; in Zoanthidae, 405
—see also Zoochlorella, Zooxanthella
Sympodium, 583
Sympodium, 344; S. coralloides, 341
Sympterura, 502
Synalcyonacea, 342
Synapta, 577; S. similis, 429; S. digitata, 576; its larva, 608; its pupa, 615; S. inhaerens, 577
Synapticula, 402;
of Eupsammiidae, 404
Synaptida, 568, 569, 577, 578
Syncoryne, 265, 272, 297
Syncrypta, 110, 112
Syngamy (= Conjugation), 33 f.;
Rhizopoda, 56 f.;
Radiolaria, 85;
Flagellates, 115 f.;
Chlamydomonadidae, 115 f., 125; between resting-cells, 115 f.;
by a fertilising tube, 125; Volvocaceae, 128 f.;
Suctoria, 161
—Equal, exogamous, Trichosphaerium sieboldii, 54, 56;
Chlamydophrys stercorea, 57;
Foraminifera, 68 f.;
Actinophrys sol, 72; Gregarines, 97 f.;
Lankesteria, 95;
Monocystis, 96;
Cercomonas dujardinii, 116 n.;
Lamblia, 116 n.;
Polytoma uvella, 116 n.;
Tetramitus rostratus, 116 n.;
Trichomonas, 116 n.;
Chlamydomonadidae, 125;
Dinoflagellates, 131;
Noctiluca, 133; Ciliata, 148 f.
—Equal, endogamous, Amoeba coli, 57;
Actinosphaerium, 73 f.;
Stephanosphaera, 128
—Unequal (binary, bisexual), Centropyxis aculeata, 57;
Radiolaria (?), 85;
Stylorhynchus, 99, 100;
Pterocephalus, 99; Coccidiaceae, 97, 100 f.;
Coccidium, 100, 101 f.;
Adelea ovata, 101;
Acystosporidae, 97, 104 f.;
Sarcosporidiaceae, 108;
Dallingeria drysdali, 116 n.;
Monas dallingeri, 116 n.;
Bodo saltans, 116 n., 117 f.;
B. caudatus, 116 n.;
Halteridium, 120;
Chlamydomonadidae, 125;
Volvox, 127 f.;
Pandorina morum (ternary), 128, 129;
Eudorina, 129;
Peritrichaceae, 151, 157;
Vorticella, 157
Syphilis in relation to Treponema pallidum, 121
Syringolites, 344
Syringopora, 283, 329, 343, 344
Syzygy (= association) of Gregarines, 99; in Crinoids, 582, 587
Tabulae, 257, 345, 385, 387
Tail-like appendages, of certain Ciliata, 141 n.; (spine) of Caenomorpha uniserialis, 154, 155
Tamoya punctata, 319
Tan-pits infested by Fuligo varians, 92
Tapeworms, nutrition of, 38; alternation of generations in, 44
Tarsaster, 474
Tealia = Urticina, q.v.
Tedania, 223
Tegmen, of Crinoidea, 580; of Antedon rosacea, 581, 585; of Hyocrinus, 590; of Articulata, 595; of Camerata, 595
Telestidae, 348
Telesto, 346, 348; T. prolifera, 347; T. rubra, 336, 347
Telolecithal (= segmentation limited to one region of the oosperm owing to excess of yolk), 133 n.
Telosporidia, 97 f.
Temnopleurinae, 539
Temperature, in relation to protoplasmic movements, 7; to breeding, 47; to fission of Ciliates, 148; changes of, stimulus of, 19, 22; maximum (Dallinger and Drysdale's experiments), 118
Tension, surface-, 17, 34
Tentacles, of Actinobolus and Ileonema, 152; of Suctoria, 158 f., 160, 162; of Hydrozoa, 251 f.; of Scyphozoa, 311 f.; of Anthozoa, 327; of Alcyonaria, 331 f.; of Zoantharia, 366 f.; of Ctenophora, 414 f.; of Holothuroidea, 561 f.; of Pelmatozoa (= podia), 579 f.
Tentacle-scale, of Ophiothrix fragilis, 480
Tentacular (= transverse) plane, 414
Tentaculata, 417
Tentaculifera (= Suctoria), 159 f., 160, 162
Tentaculozooids, 265
Tentilla, 299
Termites, Trichonymphidae parasitic in, 123
Terrestrial Protozoa, 48
Tertian fever, a parasitic disease, 104 f.
Tessera, 320, 321
Test, classificatory value of, 51 n.; of Euglypha, 29; of Rhizopoda, 29, 53, 54, 55; of Trichosphaerium sieboldii, 54;
of Arcella vulgaris, 55; of Diffugia pyriformis, 55; of Hyalosphenia lata, 55; of Quadrula symmetrica, 55; of Foraminifera, 58 f., 61, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69; of Allogromidiaceae, 60; of Microgromia socialis, 60; of Lieberkühnia, 61; of marine Foraminifera, 62 f.; of Discorbina, 63; of Frondicularia, 63; of Globigerina, 63; of Lagena, 63; of Nodosaria, 63; of Nummulites, 63; of Planorbulina, 63; of Saccammina, 63; of Spiroloculina, 63; of Allogromia, 65; of Miliola, 65; of Quinqueloculina, 65, 67; of Rotalia, 65; of Squamulina, 65; of Biloculina, 67; (gelatinous) of Nuclearia, 74; of Chrysomonadaceae, 110, 113 f.; (chitinous) of Tintinnidae, 152, 155
—see also Shell, Skeleton, Theca
Tethya, 211, 218, 222; gemmule, 230; scleroblasts, 233, 233; T. lyncurium, 218
Tetilla, 212, 213, 218, 233; T. casula, 212; T. pedifera, 211, 213
Tetracoralla, 394
Tetracrepid, 215—see Rhabdocrepid
Tetractinellida, 211 f., 218, 231
Tetramitus, 111, 119; T. rostratus, gametes of, 116 n.
Texas fever, 120 f.
Textularia, 59; in chalk, 70, 242
Textulariaceae, 59
Thalassianthidae, 383
Thalassicolla, 77, 83; T. nucleata, regeneration, 79 n.
Thalassophysa, 77; reproduction, 86 n.
Thamnograptus, 281
Thamnostylus, 270
Thaumactis, 382
Thaumantias, 278
Thaumantiidae, 278
Thaumatocrinus, 588, 589, 594
Thaumatomastix, 110
Theca, of Flagellata, 112 f.; of Dinobryon, 112; (branched) of Rhipidodendron, 112; (stalked) of Diplomita, 112; of Salpingoeca, 122; of Acineta, 159, 160; of Corals, 370
—see also Shell, Skeleton, Test
Thecamoebae, 51 n.
Thecidae, 346
Thecocarpus (Plumulariidae, 279), 276
Thecocystis, 596, 596
Thecoidea, 580, 596
Thélohan, on Sporozoa, 94
Thenea wyvillei, 212
Theoconus, 79, 80
Thermotaxy, 22
Thigmotaxy, 20
