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Test Bank for Criminology 2024

Release 1st Edition by Adler, Laufer, Mueller

ISBN: 9781264829767

Correct answers located at the end of the chapter.

TRUE/FALSE - Write 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if the statement is false.

1) The principal crime problems of today are totally globalized.

⊚ true

⊚ false

2) Conflict theorists view society as a stable entity in which laws are created for the general good.

⊚ true

⊚ false

3) In saying that criminologists have to study the process of lawbreaking, Edwin H. Sutherland meant that they should particularly determine whether someone has violated the criminal law.

⊚ true

⊚ false

4) Most criminological research supports the belief that escalating punishments is an effective way to deal with the crime problem.

⊚ true

⊚ false

5) Criminology is a discipline composed of the accumulated knowledge of many other disciplines.

⊚ true

⊚ false

MULTIPLE CHOICE - Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

6) Which of the following individuals initially coined the term "criminology" in 1885?

A) Cesare Lombroso

B) Raffaele Garofalo

C) Enrico Ferri

D) Paul Topinard

7) All early societies imposed punishment for acts that were detrimental to their existence, such as

A) homicide.

B) treason.

C) theft.

D) vandalism.

8) The consensus model of law assumes that

A) the members of a society by and large agree on what is right and wrong.

B) the appropriate object of criminological investigation is the conflict within society.

C) the criminal justice system is a means of controlling the classes that have no power.

D) the criminal law expresses the values of the ruling class in a society.

9) The conflict model of law assumes that

A) certain acts are deemed so threatening to the society's survival that they are designated crimes.

B) the criminal law expresses the values of the ruling class in a society.

C) members of a society by and large agree on what is right.

D) society is a stable entity in which laws are created for the general good.

10) A common characteristic of the criminal justice systems in the United States is that

A) they are based on constitutional principles.

B) they are unrelated to the heritage of the common law.

C) they are based on the assumption that crime is a universal event calling for a federal response.

D) they are based on the assumption that crime is unrelated to opportunity.

11) At the turn of the twentieth century, criminal behavior was attributed to

A) opportunity.

B) feeblemindedness.

C) economic hardship.

D) social conditions.

12) Who generated the most widely accepted definition of criminology?

A) Cesare Beccaria

B) Edwin H. Sutherland

C) Cesare Lombroso

D) Raffaele Garofalo

13) Criminologists distinguish between which two conflicting perspectives on the origin of criminal law?

A) political and scientific

B) sociological and psychological

C) criminological and criminal justice

D) conflict and consensus

14) Identify a thinker associated with the classical school thought of criminology.

A) Cesare Lombroso

B) Cesare Beccaria

C) Enrico Ferri

D) Raffaele Garofal

15) Which of the following statements is true of criminology?

A) It is an empirical science based on measures.

B) It has been a subject of interest since the twentieth century.

C) It has its roots in modern day America.

D) It focuses mostly on the phenomenon of drug trafficking

16) Identify an accurate statement regarding money laundering and dirty money.

A) The globalization of industry has proved to be a deterrent to the free flow of illegitimate financial transactions.

B) It is possible to spend illegally obtained money in the free markets undetected.

C) Most expenditures by terrorists are for goods and services obtained from other criminal enterprises.

D) Money laundering is an activity aimed at making untaxed dirty money appear legitimate

17) In a typical money laundering cycle, integration involves

A) loaning the dirty money to a company.

B) transferring the money into the bank account of a legitimate business.

C) wiring the dirty money to an offshore bank.

D) purchasing luxury assets and high-value investments.

18) Which of the following is true of The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)?

A) ISIL is listed by the United Nations as strategically and systematically using sexual violence as a tactic.

B) ISIL leads in sourcing and selling uranium and other hazardous radioactive materials to terrorist nations.

C) The global spread of ISIL and the attacks carried out by it have increased dramatically.

D) ISIL activity is currently active in North America, Russia, and Eurasia.

19) Identify an accurate statement about the field of study named criminology.

A) Thinkers and philosophers have historically focused on empirical data to produce theories on crime.

B) Researchers began to systematically gather and evaluate data on crime scientifically in the nineteenth century.

C) It was in the eighteenth century that the first serious scientific investigations into criminal behavior were conducted.

D) Researchers did not collect and employ factual information to study criminality until the twentieth century.

20) According to the funnel of deviance presented by Jack D. Douglas and Frances C. Waksler, which of the following is most inclusive?

A) feelings of dislike, repugnance

B) judgment that something violates values or rules

C) feeling that something is vaguely wrong, strange, peculiar

D) judgment that something violates moral values or moral rules

21) Conflict theorists claim that the basic feature of human existence is a struggle for_________.

A) power

B) consensus

C) wealth

D) peace

22) According to the funnel of deviance presented by Jack D. Douglas and Frances C. Waksler, which of the following is least inclusive?

A) feeling that something violates values

B) judgment that something violates morally legitimate misdemeanor laws

C) feeling that something violates moral values or moral rules

D) judgment that something is absolutely evil

23) The deadliest criminality on the oceans is_________.

A) piracy

B) pollution

C) smuggling of illicit drugs

D) illegal fishing

24) Identify a true statement about criminal justice.

A) It focuses on scientific studies of crime and criminal behaviors.

B) Criminal justice has its roots in European scholarship.

C) Criminal justice is a recent American innovation.

D) It focuses on the psyche of people who make careers in crime.

25) In the context of the seven indisputable facts about crime and offenders, which of the following is true?

A) Criminal offending does not occur within social networks.

B) People who commit crimes specialize in specific offense patterns.

C) Criminal offending rates peak in early adulthood.

D) Crime is not concentrated by times of day, weeks, and months.

26) In the context of the seven indisputable theories of crime, identify a true statement.

A) Crime occurs year-round, irrespective of the season.

B) Most individuals who commit crime tend to be clustered within dense criminal networks.

C) Most individuals specialize in specific offense patterns, such as bank burglaries.

D) Crime occurs everywhere, irrespective of the affluence of neighborhoods.

ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided or on a separate sheet of paper.

27) Explain the seven forms of transnational criminality that are in the wheel of terrorism, and explain their relationship to terrorism.

28) Explain the similarities and differences between deviance and crime, and provide examples.

29) Contrast the consensus model and conflict model of law and crime.

30) Discuss Edwin H. Sutherland's definition of criminology and why criminology can be described as a multidiscipline.

Answer Key

Test name: Chapter 01

FALSE

TRUE 6) B 7) B 8) A 9) B 10) A 11) B 12) B 13) D 14) B 15) A 16) D 17) D 18) A 19) B 20) C 21) A 22) D 23) B 24) C 25) C 26) B

27) Essay

28) Essay 29) Essay

30) Essay

Chapter 1 The Changing Boundaries of Criminology

Chapter Summary

911 is the number Americans call when they need police protection from a criminal attack or similar emergency. In a very real sense, then, 911 starts the process of criminal justice and its inquiry about perpetrators and victims, causes and motivations, and offenses and defenses In 2001, 911 took on yet another meaning, not only to the worldwide public, in general, but to criminologists, in particular. It was the worst criminally caused catastrophe in American history. This leads to a discussion of terrorism. Terrorism is discussed in relation to seven forms of transnational crimes. The reach of criminology is further discussed in terms of the economy, the environment, and globalization. Next, there is a discussion of the conceptualization and definition of criminology. Edwin H. Sutherland’s definition of criminology is used to frame the remainder of the explanation, including the making of laws, the breaking of laws, and society’s reaction to the breaking of laws. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of research findings that inform national policy making.

Chapter Objectives

Following a thorough reading of Chapter 1, students should be able to accomplish the objectives given below.

1. Discuss the relationship between terrorism and the seven forms of transnational criminality.

2. Explain the reach of criminology as a reflection of the greater process of globalization.

3. Discuss the evolution of the field of criminology

4. Explain why criminology can be described as multidiscipline.

5. Explain the difference between deviance and crime.

6. Compare and contrast the consensus model and the conflict model.

7. Discuss the sociopolitical aspects of lawmaking, policy, and research.

Key Terms

• Conflict model

• Consensus model

• Crime

• Criminal justice system

• Criminologists

• Criminology

• Deviance

• Social norms

Chapter Outline

I. The Changing Boundaries of Criminology

A. Terrorism

While there is no universally agreed-upon definition of the term “terrorism,” Title 22 of the U.S. Code, Section 2656f(d), defines it as “premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.”

The authors propose an alternative definition for terrorism: “The use or threat of violence directed at people or governments in response to past action and/or to bring about a change of policy that is consistent with the terrorists’ objectives.” This definition incorporates many forms of criminal conduct of interest to criminologists.

There is a second and equally important reason for criminologists to study terrorism: It is at the center of many forms of criminality that feed or are fed by terrorism. This can best be demonstrated by a wheel, the hub of which is terrorism. The seven spokes of the wheel are the seven forms of transnational criminality that are directly relevant to terrorism, either because they support it or because they are a consequence or by-product of it.

B. Illicit Drug Trafficking

Terrorists need money for their operations. The drug trade provides easy access to large funds. While the “war on drugs” had received widespread attention in the media and on the part of government officials and criminologists, the “war against terrorism” has virtually replaced the prior emphasis.

C. Strong Words on Dirty Money

The globalizing era has produced an explosion in the volume of illegitimate commercial and financial transactions. North American and European banking and investment institutions have been flooded with laundered and ill-gotten gains. Amounting to trillions of dollars, most of these sums are generated through secretive arrangements between cooperating but distant private-sector entities Lagging legal codes have proven inadequate to deal with the situation.

D. Money Laundering

“Dirty” (illegally obtained) money cannot be spent freely. While there is evidence that terrorist weapons have been obtained by direct exchange for drugs, or for dirty money, most expenditures by terrorists are for goods or services obtained in the free market, which demands clean cash. Hence, much of the dirty money must be laundered in a vast criminal enterprise called “money laundering.” Usually this is done by depositing such funds in numbered but unnamed (secret) accounts in banks of a number of countries where that is still possible. From there the funds are rapidly transferred elsewhere, and yet again, until it becomes impossible to trace them to the criminal activity that created them.

E. Infiltration of Legal Business

Dirty money, once laundered, can be used freely (for example, to buy or establish a legitimate business). Of course, it is often the case that laundered funds, rather than directly financing terrorist enterprises, will be invested in businesses controlled by organized crime, such as trash hauling, construction, seafood, or investment banking.

F. Computer Crime

Cyberspace is there for everyone to use or to abuse. And the abuses are increasingly being discovered and, indeed, legislated as crime. Above all, there is the abuse of cyberspace for money laundering, ultimately to support terrorist groups. Beyond that, there is the potential of cyber attacks on the national security and technology infrastructure of the United States. The security community generally expects terrorists to launch major strikes through networks in the intermediate, if not immediate future.

G. Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant

The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), also known as ISIS and Daesh, has reclaimed the title of deadliest terrorist group in 2021. Overall, ISIL carried out 29 percent of all deaths from terrorism globally in 2021. ISIL’s origins trace back to a local militant outfit in Iraq in the early 2000s, its most immediate predecessor being the Islamic State in Iraq (ISI).

Changes since 2017

In 2021, ISIL and its affiliates were responsible for 2,100 deaths, marking a slight decline from the previous year where 2,066 people died at the hands of the group. This downward trend is seen on a larger scale if one looks at the past few years following the peak of ISIL activity in 2016. The decrease in ISIL activity over the past few years has mainly been driven by the success of local forces and a US-led international coalition, which have militarily defeated the group in Syria and Iraq. Despite the dramatic decline in ISIL activity, the number of ISIL affiliates outside of Iraq and Syria continue to rise, as does the number of non-affiliate groups that have pledged allegiance to the group.

Tactics Favored by ISIL

ISIL is also known for kidnapping and beheading a number of hostages, including several international journalists, and posting videos of these crimes on social media.

H. Illicit Arms Trafficking

The wars of the past have provided terrorists of the past and the present with surplus and remnant arms and munitions to fight for their causes. The market in small arms is vast and mostly clandestine. What is new, however, is the market for weapons of mass destruction: nuclear, biological, and chemical.

I. Trafficking in Persons

Smuggling would-be illegal migrants from less-desirable homelands to more promising lands of opportunity has become a huge criminal enterprise involving millions of human beings, billions in funds paid to smugglers, and the loss of a great number of innocent lives. Many of the countries of destination fear that the growth of immigrant communities will encourage terrorist havens, like the refugee camps of Palestine. Even greater is the fear that terrorist organizations deliberately infiltrate their members into immigrant populations. To their dismay, for example, Italian law enforcement authorities have learned that among the waves of illegal immigrants washing ashore in Sicily are increasing numbers of persons linked to terrorist organizations. There are also masses of illegal aliens who have moved from Iran, Iraq, and Turkey across the Aegean Sea into Northern Africa, where they become vulnerable recruits for terrorist activities.

J. Destruction of Cultural Property

Lenin’s terrorists became infamous for their efforts to destroy the evidence of a culture past: Christian churches were destroyed. Terrorists, especially those with millennial goals or of religious or political extremism, seek to destroy past cultures and impose their own vision of culture.

K. The Reach of Criminology

Not all crimes by themselves but rather a mixture of other crimes, they all have in common the fact that they transcend national boundaries and affect several nations and therefore are hard for just one nation to deal with. Criminologists continue to focus on fraud, mismanagement, failed regulation, and failures of self-regulation as explanations for the kinds of market failures that have brought down some of the most powerful financial institutions, from the investment bank Lehman Brothers to the insurance giant, AIG. There is no limit to the reach of criminological inquiry, because every human activity is capable of deviance that produces significant harm, thus requiring criminological scrutiny.

Adler: Criminology 2024 Release

II. What Is Criminology?

Chapter 1: The Changing Boundaries of Criminology

In 1885, the Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo coined the term “criminology” (in Italian, criminologia). The French anthropologist Paul Topinard used it for the first time in French (criminologie) in 1887. The definition provided in 1934 by Edwin H. Sutherland, one of the founding scholars of American criminology, is widely accepted:

Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. It includes within its scope the process of making laws, of breaking laws, and of reacting toward the breaking of laws . . . The objective of criminology is the development of a body of general and verified principles and of other types of knowledge regarding this process of law, crime, and treatment or prevention

Sutherland mandates that criminologists, like all other scientists, collect information for study and analysis in accordance with the research methods of modern science. Clearly, criminology is a discipline composed of the accumulated knowledge of many other disciplines.

III. The Making of Laws

A. Deviance

Criminologists use the term deviance to describe behavior that violates social norms, including laws The difference between crime and other forms of deviance is subject to constant change and may vary from one state or country to another and from one time to another.

B. The Concept of Crime

A crime is any human conduct that violates a criminal law and is subject to punishment. The earliest codes, including the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 B.C.) and the Roman Law of the Twelve Tables (451–450 B.C.) do not list homicide or ordinary theft as crimes. But all early societies imposed punishment for acts detrimental to their own existence: acts of treason.

The question arises: Who in a society decides and when and under what circumstances which acts that are already considered deviant in that society should be elevated to the level of gross deviance or crime, subject to punishment?

C. The Consensus and Conflict Views of Law and Crime

In the traditional interpretation of the historical development of legal systems, in general, and of criminal justice in particular, lawmaking is an accommodation of interests in a society, whether that society is composed of equals (as in a democracy) or of rulers and ruled (as in absolute monarchies), so as to produce a system of law and enforcement to which everybody

basically subscribes. This is the consensus model. According to this view, certain acts are deemed so threatening to the society’s survival that they are designated crimes.

The model assumes that members of a society by and large agree on what is right and wrong and that codification of social values becomes law, with a mechanism of control that settles disputes that arise when some individuals stray too far from what is considered acceptable behavior. Laws function to reconcile and harmonize most of the interests that most of the people accept, with the least amount of sacrifice.

Some criminologists view the making of laws in a society from a different theoretical perspective. In their interpretation, known as the conflict model, the criminal law expresses the values of the ruling class in a society, and the criminal justice system is a means of controlling the classes that have no power.

D. Fairy Tales and Crime

The Wolf-Outlaw

Fairy tales embody ancient folk wisdom and law. Before there were written legal codes, law was transmitted orally from generation to generation. The Red Riding Hood fairy tale reflects a time when the punishment for the most serious crimes was to be treated like a wolf. Like the four-legged variety, the offender was banished from human society and condemned to the forest, there to live or die among the four-legged wolves, shunned or hunted like one of them.

Catalogs of Crime and Punishment

Fairy tales are rich in criminological lore. Every category of crime and the punishments that were in vogue in the early Middle Ages appear in the Grimms’ tales. Death by fire was the punishment of choice for witchcraft, as in “Hansel and Gretel,” where the witch is incinerated in her own stove.

Psychological Treatises

The author of a research report titled “The Criminal Element in German Folk Tales,” published in 1910, used a criminological psychology approach to analyze the Grimms’ tales and those collected by others. This report uncovered “every conceivable criminal motivation, from base greed to the grossest form of psychopathology.”

IV. The Breaking of Laws

Sutherland, in saying that criminologists have to study the process of lawbreaking, had much more in mind than determining whether someone has violated the criminal law. He was referring to the process of breaking laws. That process encompasses a series of events, perhaps starting at

birth or even earlier, that result in the commission of crime by some individuals and not by others. There is no agreement as to why some people are prone to commit crime and others are not. Researchers have approached the question from different perspectives. Some have examined delinquents (juvenile offenders) and criminals from a biological perspective in order to determine whether some human beings are constitutionally more prone to yield to opportunities to commit criminal acts. Others have explored the role played by moral development and personality.

Most contemporary criminologists look to factors such as economic and social conditions, which can produce strain among social groups and lead to lawbreaking Others point to subcultures committed to violent or illegal activities Yet another argument is that the motivation to commit crime is simply part of human nature. So some criminologists examine the ability of social groups and institutions to make their rules effective Scholars have also researched the question of why people who are inclined to break laws engage in particular acts at particular times. They have demonstrated that opportunity plays a large role in the decision to commit a crime.

V. Society’s Reaction to the Breaking of Laws

The study of reactions to lawbreaking demonstrates that society has always tried to control or prevent norm-breaking. Criminologists have done much of the research on society’s reaction to the breaking of laws, and the results have influenced policy making and legislation aimed at crime control. The research has also revealed that society’s reaction to lawbreaking has often been irrational, arbitrary, emotional, politically motivated, and counterproductive. Researchers often discover inhumane and arbitrary practices and provide the database and the ideas for a humane, an effective, and an efficient criminal justice system.

A. Criminology and the Criminal Justice System

Scientists who study the criminal justice system are frequently referred to as “criminal justice specialists.” This term suggests a separation between criminology and criminal justice. The two fields are also distinguished by a difference in focus. Criminology generally focuses on scientific studies of crime and criminality, whereas criminal justice focuses on scientific studies of decision-making processes, operations, and justice-related concerns such as the efficiency of police, courts, and corrections systems; the just treatment of offenders; the needs of victims; and the effects of changes in sentencing philosophy.

The United States has well over 50 criminal justice systems those of the 50 states and of the federal government, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, and the military. Crimes that have an interstate or international aspect are under the jurisdiction of federal authorities, and such offenses are prosecuted under the federal criminal code.

B. The Global Approach to the Breaking of Laws

Crime, like life itself, has become globalized, and responses to lawbreaking have inevitably extended beyond local and national borders. Also, there are the truly international crimes those that are proscribed by international law such as crimes against the peace and security of mankind, genocide, and war crimes. But even many apparently purely local crimes, whether local drug crime or handgun violence, now have international dimensions.

Developing the cross-national dialogue and collaboration necessary to build a robust field remains a challenge. This challenge will gain significance as the effects of globalization reveal just how connected people are to the economic and social development of emerging and transitional countries. It will be affected as well by global threats not typically considered by criminologists, such as climate change.

VI. Research Informs Policy

The perception that the crime problem is increasing or decreasing rests on a fear of crime that is fueled by media portrayals. Sensational reports often sell newspapers and TV programs. Politicians, in turn, seek security in office by catering to public perceptions of crime rather than to its reality. They therefore propose and enact measures that respond to popular demands and that often are more symbolic than result-oriented. At the moment, this means ever harsher and more punitive measures for dealing with the crime problem.

Few criminologists believe that enough research exists at present to justify such an approach. In fact, some criminological research demonstrates the futility of escalating punishments and often points to measures of quite a different nature as more promising, more humane, and more costbeneficial. Criminologists have served on virtually every federal and state commission dealing with problems of crime or criminal justice, but just as the Pentagon cannot declare war, criminologists cannot dictate national or state crime-control policies. They can, however, provide pertinent research findings that inform national policy making.