Guide:Asso.Prof.ShanuAggarwal
Mentorsandcoordinators:Prof.HimanshuSanghani,Asst.Prof.Prerana Hazarika
DISSERTATIONINARCHITECTURE
ODDSEMESTER2024-25
Submittedby: MICHELLETEVATIA
210BARCH040/SAA/B.Arch./Session
SCHOOLOFARTANDARCHITECTURE
SUSHANTUNIVERSITY
ThisdissertationissubmittedbyMichelleTevatia,studentofFourthyearB.ArchSession2024-25,at SchoolofArtandArchitecture,aspartialrequirement forthe fiveyearB.Archdegreecourseat SushantUniversity,Gurugram.
Originalityoftheinformationandopinionexpressedinthedissertationare oftheauthoranddonot reflectthoseoftheguide,mentor,coordinatorofthecourse.
Nameofstudent:Michelle Tevatia
Signatureofstudent:
Rollno:210BARCH040
MentorsandCoordinators:
Prof.HimanshuSanghani
Signatureanddate:
Nameofguide:Asso.Prof.Shanu Aggarwal
Signatureof guide:
Date:
Asst.Prof.Prerana Hazarika
Signatureanddate:
Iwouldliketoexpressmydeepestgratitudetoallthosewhohavesupportedmethroughoutthe completionofthisdissertation.Thisworkwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouttheirguidance, encouragement,andinvaluableassistance.Firstandforemost,Iamprofoundlythankfultomy guideandmentor,Asso.Prof.ShanuAggarwal,fortheirinsightfulfeedback,unwavering support,andexpertise,whichhavebeeninstrumentalinshapingthisdissertation.Their encouragementandconstructivecriticismhavesignificantlycontributedtomyunderstanding ofthe subjectmatter.Iamalsodeeplygratefulto Prof.HimanshuSanghaniandAsst.Prof. PreranaHazarika,forprovidingme withtheresourcesandknowledgerequiredtocarryout myresearcheffectively.Myheartfeltappreciationgoestomyfamilyandfriends,whose patience,support,andmotivationhavebeenaconstantsourceofstrength.Theirencouragement hashelpedmestayfocusedandinspiredthroughoutthisjourney.Lastly,Iextendmygratitude toallindividualsandorganizationswhose data,resources,andcontributionshavebeenpivotal tothisstudy.Theirinsightsandinformationhaveenrichedthecontentandscopeofmywork.
Nameofstudent:MichelleTevatia
Through this study, I aim to understand the importance of earthquake-resistant infrastructure in mitigatingthe impact of seismicdisasters ontheruraland remote areas of NortheastIndia.Due to the region's susceptibility to frequent and severe earthquakes, the research focuses on identifyingtheconditionsandrequirementsfordevelopinginfrastructurecapableofwithstanding such natural calamities. It emphasizes the urgent need for resilient infrastructure systems to enhance disaster preparedness and response, while also stressing the integration of traditional knowledge with modern architectural practices. The study begins by examining the effects of natural hazards, particularly earthquakes, on Northeast India's infrastructure. It identifies key vulnerabilities and areas requiring improvement, including an assessment of infrastructure failuresobservedduringrecentearthquakesandtheirimplicationsforcommunityresilienceand emergencyresponseeffectiveness. Addressingthesechallenges is crucial asitcancontributeto thecreationofmoresustainableandsafercommunitiesinthelongterm.
Theanalysis,however,indicatesthatcurrentinfrastructureoftenlacksresilience,impactingboth immediate disaster response and long-term recovery efforts. The research evaluates the effectiveness of existing disaster management strategies and resilience measures for infrastructure,questioningtheiradequacyandtheneedforrevisionstoensureinfrastructurecan withstand future seismic events. Additionally, the study puts forward recommendations to improve design and construction practices, essential for enhancing the region's ability to withstandfutureearthquakes.While somemaydisagree,the necessityforsuchimprovementsis clear as they directly impact overall disaster resilience. Therefore, the investigation highlights thesignificanceofongoingadaptationinresponsetoevolvingchallenges.
A key aspect of the research focuses on exploring how traditional knowledge can be integrated with modern architectural solutions. While the study examines the potential for combining traditional construction methods and indigenous materials with contemporary engineering practices, it also highlights various challenges. However, by analyzing the specific needs of NortheastIndiaincomparisontoothersimilarlyvulnerableregions,theresearchoffersvaluable insights that can inform the development of disaster-resilient infrastructure relevant to similar contextsworldwide.Understandinglocalnuancesiscrucialforthesuccessofsuchinitiatives.
Keywords : Earthquake-resistant infrastructure,Northeast India,Rural infrastructure, disaster managementstrategies,resiliencemeasuresforinfrastructure.
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………
Chapter1………………………………………………………………………………
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.2 AIM
1.3 OBJECTIVES
1.4 RESEARCHQUESTIONS
1.5 SCOPE
1.6 NEEDOFASTUDY
1.7 LIMITATIONS
1.8 RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY
Chapter2………………………………………………………………………………
CASESTUDIES
Chapter3……………………………………………………………………………… LITERATUREREVIEW
Chapter4………………………………………………………………………………
DATACOLLECTION
4.1POLICIESANDRULES
4.2HISTORYANDZONINGOFSEISMICOCCURRENCESINTHENORTHEAST REGION
4.3:SEISMICVULNERABILITIESANDINFRASTRUCTURECHALLENGES
Chapter5………………………………………………………………………………
DATAANALYSIS
Chapter6………………………………………………………………………………
CONCLUSION
6.1EARTHQUAKERESILIENT INFRASTRUCTUREFORRURALANDREMOTE AREASOFNORTHEASTINDIA
6.2SEISMICVULNERABILITYINNORTHEASTINDIA
6.3CURRENTSTATEOFINFRASTRUCTUREANDCHALLENGES
6.4INSIGHTSFROMCASESTUDIES
6.5SEISMICHAZARDASSESSMENTANDBUILDINGCODES
Dissertation | EARTHQUAKE RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR RURAL AND REMOTE AREAS OF NORTHEAST INDIA | 2024
6.6POLICYANDCOMMUNITYENGAGEMENT
6.7RECOMMENDATIONSFORIMPROVINGRESILIENCE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dissertation
Northeast India, known for its rugged landscape and geological activity, is highly prone to earthquakes due to its location at the meeting point of several major tectonic plates. The Himalayas,a significant mountainrange formingthe region's northernboundary,are a result of continuousplateconvergence,generatingseismicenergy.
The historical record is filled with instances of destructive earthquakes hitting Northeast India. The Great Assam Earthquake of 1950 was one of the most powerful earthquakes ever documented in the region, causing extensive destruction and loss of life. Recentevents like the Sikkim earthquake of 2011 and the Assam earthquake of 2016 have underscored the region's susceptibilitytoseismichazards.
The seismic threat to Northeast India is compounded by its unique geological characteristics, including a complex mix of rock formations, fault zones, and tectonic plates, each contributing to the seismic hazard. The Brahmaputra River Valley, a major geological feature of the region, isknowntobeseismicallyactive,withseveralactivefaultsidentifiedinthearea.
The potential consequences of a major earthquake in Northeast India are serious due to the region's dense populationand inadequate infrastructure,makingit particularlyvulnerabletothe effectsofseismicevents.Alargeearthquakecouldcausewidespreaddamagetobuildings,roads, bridges, and other critical infrastructure, resulting in loss of life, displacement of populations, anddisruptionofessentialservices.
In addition to the direct physical damage caused by earthquakes, the region's vulnerability to seismic hazards is worsened by its susceptibility to secondary hazards like landslides, liquefaction, and tsunamis, which can amplify the impact of earthquakes, leading to further destructionandlossoflife.
The threat of earthquakes in Northeast India is further complicated by the region's unique geographical isolation and limited resources. The mountainous terrain and lack of adequate transportation infrastructure make it challenging to provide assistance to affected areas in the aftermath of a disaster. This isolation can also hinder efforts to mitigate the risks posed by earthquakes, as it can be difficult to implement effective disaster preparedness and response measures.
To evaluate the effects of earthquake on the current infrastructure and analyse strategies on improvisingthe currentphysicalinfrastructureofruralandremoteareasofthenortheastIndia.
o Assessing the impact of earthquakes on the physical infrastructure in rural and remote areasofthenortheastIndia.
o Analysing and suggesting strategies for improvement of the current physical infrastructure.
o Identifying the best suited construction techniques and architectural practices for earthquakeresiliencetominimisetheimpactofearthquakeonthephysicalinfrastructure.
o Whataretheimportanceofearthquakeresilientinfrastructure?
o Whatweretheimpactsofearthquakeonthecurrentphysicalinfrastructure?
o How are the current earthquake management strategies are effective on the current physicalinfrastructureinminimisingtheimpactofearthquakes?
TheresearchwillevaluateNortheastIndia'scurrentinfrastructure'sseismicperformancewithan emphasisondeterminingitsadvantages,disadvantages,andregionsinneedofdevelopment.The research will examine the elements that affect the resilience of physical infrastructure, such as buildingmaterials,designmethodologies,andlocalexpertise.Theresearchwillofferimportant insights to guide the development of strategies for improving the seismic resilience of infrastructure in the region, thereby reducing vulnerability and minimizing potential damage from future earthquakes. This will be accomplished by examining past seismic events and performingathoroughassessmentofthecurrentinfrastructure.
Northeast India's rural andremote areas require a thorough study intothe earthquake resilience of their infrastructure. This study will provide important insights about the current state of infrastructure in these regions and identify areas in need of improvements. The findings of the study can help impacting the policy-making process, lead the upcoming infrastructure projects, andimprovedisasterpreparationsandresponseinitiatives.
Thestudymayfacechallengesduetothelimiteddataavailableonruralandremoteareasofthe Northeast India, the difficulty of choosing suitable research methods and the possibility of regional differences in geological conditions, cultural practices, and socio-economic factors. Nevertheless, even after these constraints, the study will provide important understanding into theearthquakeresilienceofinfrastructureintheruralandremoteareasofNortheastIndia.
The study of historical earthquakes is a useful tool for understanding infrastructure's vulnerabilities andresilienceintheface ofseismicdisasters. Thischapterexamines threemajor earthquakes in India:the 2001 Bhuj Earthquake (Gujarat), the1950 AssamEarthquake,andthe 2016 Manipur Earthquake. These events were chosen for their geographical and cultural importance, their disastrous impacts on physical infrastructure, and the lessons they may teach us about designing earthquake-resistant structures for rural and isolated places, notably in NortheastIndia.
The 2001 Bhuj earthquake, with its widespread damage and following reconstruction efforts, demonstrates the need of structural resilience and governmental intervention. The 1950 Assam Earthquake,oneofthemostviolentknownseismicoccurrences,shedslightontheconsequences of earthquakes in areas with inadequate infrastructure and how traditional methods of construction were used to manage. The 2016 Manipur earthquake, which struck an area with identical terrain and socioeconomic conditions to most of Northeast India, provides an updated frameworkforexaminingthesufficiencyofpresentinfrastructureanddisasterpreparednessgaps.
The criteria for choosing these case studies are based on several important factors to guarantee theirsignificanceandrelevancetothefocusofthedissertation.Thisinvolves:
o Assessing the scale and repercussions of earthquakes, with an emphasis on highmagnitudeeventsthathaveconsiderableimpactsonlife,property,andinfrastructure.
o Geographic similarity is another crucial element, concentrating on areas that share characteristics with the rural and remote landscapes of Northeast India, including topographicalfeaturesandseismicrisks.
o The socio-economic conditions of the regions affected are taken into account, as they reflecttheeconomicanddemographicsituationsfoundinruralNortheastIndia.
o Highlighting vulnerabilities in infrastructure, especially regarding the difficulties encounteredbytraditionalbuildings,contemporarystructures,andessentialserviceslike healthcareandtransportationsystems.
o These case studies shed light on policy and response frameworks, evaluating the efficiency of government regulations, disaster management strategies, and resilience initiativesemployedafterdisasters.
Collectively, these criteria facilitate a thorough analysis that supports the dissertation’s aim ofenhancingearthquakeresilienceincomparablesettings.
The Bhuj earthquake, which had a magnitude of 7.7, occurred on January26, 2001, in Gujarat, India's Kutch area. More than 1.2 million homes were damaged or completely destroyed in around8,000villagesand490citiesasaresultofthiscatastrophe.Importantinfrastructure,such as12,000schools,2,000medicalinstitutions,andalargenumberofgovernmentbuildings,roads, and utility networks, were destroyed by the earthquake that struck close to Bhuj. Whole neighbourhoodswerelevelledinsomeplaces,suchasthetownofAnjar,andpeopleexperienced severehardshipsincludingfoodandwatershortagesasaresult ofthebreakdownof distribution and storage networks. The complete collapse of the Bhuj Civil Hospital, Kutch's main medical facility,demonstratedthenecessityofmorerobustinfrastructureinhigh-seismicareas.
Fig.1IntensityEstimationfor2001BhujEarthquake.
Withananticipatedexpenditureof$1.77billion,thegovernmentstartedtheGujaratEarthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Policy to handle the enormous damage. An "owner-driven" strategywasgivenprioritythroughoutthereconstructionphase,enablingpeopletoactivelytake partinreconstructingtheirhouses.By2003,morethanhalfofthequalifyingresidenceshadbeen completely rebuilt using earthquake-resistant methods, and more than 94% had been restored. ForimportantstructureslikethenewBhujhospital,baseisolationtechniqueswereusedbecause they increase structural resilience by enabling a building to move independently from ground motion. Wider road networks and other design changes made in metropolitan areas made emergencyaccess easier,and alandreadjustment policywasputintoplace tomaximisetheuse ofbothpublicandprivateproperty.
Followingthis,GujaratpassedtheGujaratStateDisasterManagementActof2003,creatingthe country's first state-level disaster management structure. The National Disaster Management statute of 2005, which established the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), was modelled after this statute. Additionally, the government enacted new building standards that promoted upgrading existing structures and required earthquake-resistant designs for new construction in seismic zones. Significant financial support was provided by international institutions including the World Bank and Asian Development Bank to help restore Gujarat's economy and infrastructure. Through financial help packages for small and medium-sized enterprises,therehabilitationinitiativealsopromotedtherestorationoflocalindustries,reviving thelocaleconomyandstrengtheningcommunities'resistancetofutureseismicoccurrences.
These initiatives and regulations greatly increased Gujarat's ability to withstand natural catastrophes and helped spark a national movement in India for more earthquake-resistant constructionmethods.India'sstrategytodisasterriskreductionnowheavilyreliesonthepolicies andlegislationputinplacefollowingtheBhujearthquake.
The 1950 Assam Earthquake, which measured a magnitude of 8.6, is recognized as one of the most significant earthquakes ever recorded,inflictingmassive damage across Assam andTibet. This enormous quake struck eastern Himalayas, causing significant destruction to both infrastructure and the environment. In Assam, the earthquake resulted in considerable soil liquefaction, causing severe harm throughout both rural and urban communities. Roads and railroads were distorted, and major fissures appeared on bridges, disrupting transportation and significantlyaffectingconnectivity.Thedevastationextendedintovitalindustrialareas,withoil facilities,especiallyinUpperAssam,andseveralteaplantations,suchasthoseinDibrugarhand Lakhimpur, suffering extensive harm. Prominent regions like Rohmoria experienced considerable erosion and permanent land loss, as large portions along the Brahmaputra River were swept away, displacing numerous individuals who became homeless and lost access to crucial services. The quake also triggered widespread landslides across Assam and Tibet, obstructing rivers and forming temporary dams. These blockages eventually caused disastrous floodingdownstream, worsening the destruction in Assam’s tea-producing areas and damaging manyvillages.Thiscombineddisasterrenderedagriculturallandunfitforuse,resultinginlonglasting economic difficulties for farmers and impacting the agricultural output of the region for manyyearsaftertheincident.
Following the disaster, Assam experienced significant restoration activities aimed at reestablishing vital utilities and communication networks. The government gave road and rail repair top priority, rebuilding important highways like those in Tinsukia and Dibrugarh to reestablishtransitconnections.However,duetobudgetaryconstraintsandlogisticaldifficultiesin theisolated,mountainousregion,restoringhomesandinfrastructurewasextremelydifficult.To provideshelterfordisplacedpersons,semi-permanentbuildingsandtemporaryhouseswerebuilt utilising materials that could be found locally. Because of their availability and durability, bamboo and lumber were chosen as building materials, and areas that were susceptible to floodingwereeitherabandonedorgivenraisedfoundations.Inorderforimportantinfrastructure,
likehospitals,toresistpossibleseismicshocks,reinforcedconcretewasusedmoreofteninnew constructionthroughout thelong-termrecovery.
The Assam government implemented measures to lessen the effects of future earthquakes in reactionto the tragedy.Stricter buildingconstructionrulesthatrequireddeeper foundationsand more structural stability to withstand soil liquefaction were among the measures. Additionally, guidelines promoted the use of reinforced structures and bamboo, which were better suited to Assam's seismic risk. In order to manage floods, which became a persistent problem as a result ofpost-earthquakechangesinrivercoursesandsedimentbuildupintheBrahmaputraRiver,the government also concentrated on fortifying embankments and drainage systems. Prioritising earthquake resilience research and planning resulted in a more organised approach in both municipalandnationalpolicies.
The government broadened its disaster management plans in response to the 1950 Assam earthquake, focussing on readiness in high-risk areas and implementing systematic seismic risk assessments and awareness programs. Authorities have been able to map out Assam's seismic dangers and create risk reduction strategies thanks to cooperative study with geological institutions. These experiences also influenced national disaster management reforms and the creation of regulatory agencies such as the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), whichisresponsibleforcreatingthoroughdisastermanagementplansforIndia'shigh-seismicity regions.
As a result of these initiatives, Assam started to develop a framework for resilience that encompassed both proactive disaster preparedness measures and reconstruction. These efforts have now developed into the contemporary disaster management policies that are in place in Indiatoday.
The2016Manipurearthquake,whichhadamagnitudeof6.7,hadamajoreffectonanumberof buildings and infrastructure in Imphal East, Imphal West, Senapati, and Tamenglong, among other districts. Around 2,100 homes in these areas sustained damage. Large-scale structural damage was experienced by public structures, including government buildings, schools, and privateresidences,particularlythosewithflimsyconstruction.Duetothelossoftheirhomesand the ensuing safety issues in damaged structures, thousands of inhabitants were temporarily relocatedfromsomeoftheworst-affecteddistricts,includingTamenglongandImphalWest.The "ImaKeithels"(women'smarketplaces),twoofImphal'smostfamousmarkets,wereparticularly badly damaged, requiring enquiries into the materials and techniques utilised in their construction."
Fig.3 Isoseismal Map Of the 2016 Manipur Earthquake.The zone of Intensities IV, V, VI, and VIIisshownonthemap.
Aftertheearthquake,theManipurstateadministrationrequestedmorefinancialassistancefrom the federal government and immediately provided relief cash. Assessing and retrofitting structures was a major component of the reconstruction plan. Experts from IIT Guwahati, for example,thoroughlyexaminedtheImaKeithelstoascertainthe bestcourse of actionforrepair, concentratingoneitherretrofittingor totalreconstruction basedonthestructural stabilityofthe building. In order to establish resilient shelter models, the government also worked with humanitarian organisations like Sphere India and SEEDS and set up temporary shelters for displacedfamilies.Furthermore,tarpaulinsheetsandsolarlamps—twonecessitiesformakeshift shelters—weredispersedtoguaranteethesecurityandwelfareofthedisplacedpeopleduringthe restorationphase.
Dissertation |
The Manipur government and local authorities started reviewing and revising building codes aftertheearthquaketobetteraccountforthearea'sseismicsusceptibility.Strongerbuildingcodes werepromoted,particularlyinareasvulnerabletoearthquakes,withafocusonusingseismically resilient materials and construction methods in subsequent projects. Along with creating emergency response plans, the government also worked with local communities to raise awareness of earthquake-resilient practices in an effort to improve disaster preparedness. The event brought attention to the necessity of tighter building codes and routine structural evaluationsofpublic buildingsinordertolessentheeffects offutureearthquakes.Thisresulted inarenewedemphasisondisasterresilienceatthestateandlocallevels.
The analysis looks at the damage caused by each earthquake to physical infrastructure, with a special focus on housing, public buildings, and critical services. It also evaluates the efficiency ofrepairandreconstructionmethods,includingthematerialsandtechniquesutilized.Itassesses government policies,regulations, and disaster response mechanisms, pointing outstrengths and weaknesses,andalsoabsorbslessonsoncommunityparticipationandadaptivestrategies.These findings play a direct role in achieving the dissertation's goal of creating earthquake-resistant infrastructure for the rural and remote regions of Northeast India. By combining ancestral wisdomwithcontemporaryengineering,utilizingaffordableandlocallyavailablematerials,and enhancing regulatory frameworks, the case studies offer a strong basis for designing durable infrastructuresystems.Moreover,byimplementingcommunity-centeredapproaches,thereisan improvement in disaster readiness and recovery work, allowing for sustainable and tailored solutionstoreducefutureseismiceffects.
o To build affordable, earthquake-resistant structures, combine traditional methods (such as bamboo and wood) with contemporary engineering, utilizing flexible joints and lightweightmaterials.
o To guarantee regulation, implement seismic codes relevant to a given area and provide training to builders and local authorities. Encourage retrofitting in high-risk areas with incentives.
o Involve communities in planning, reconstruction, and awareness campaigns to provide workableandlong-lastingsolutions.
o Create healthcare facilities that can withstand earthquakes, upgrade transportation systems,andguaranteequickerreactiontimesinisolatedlocations.
o Adopt flexible layouts for simple reconstruction and retrofittingvulnerable structures withlocallyproducedmaterials.
The research of the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, 1950 Assam earthquake, and 2016 Manipur earthquake reveals substantial obstacles and prospects for developing earthquake-resistant infrastructure in rural and remote locations. These case studies' findings highlight the critical importance of integrating traditional knowledge with modern engineering practices, implementing cost-effective and context-specific construction techniques, and strengthening
policy frameworks to address the unique vulnerabilities of rural and remote regions.
o An important lesson from the 2001 Bhuj earthquake is the need of seismic zoning and the implementation of earthquake-resistant construction rules. The use of reinforced masonry, retrofitting technology, and community-driven rebuilding projects proved beneficial throughout the rehabilitation operations. Furthermore, it emphasized the importance of early catastrophe response systems and large-scale governmental measuresforlong-termresilience.
o The 1950 Assam Earthquake, one of India's most significant earthquakes, exposed the disastrous impact on infrastructure in places with poor preparedness and response measures.Oneimportantlearningwastheusefulnessofancientconstructionapproaches, suchasthe usage offlexible woodenandbamboostructures,whichdemonstratedmore durability than modern unreinforced masonry. The program, however, emphasized the needofraisingawarenessandinvestingindisasterpreparednessinruralplaces.
o The 2016 Manipur earthquake revealed the present gaps in disaster planning and infrastructure resilience in Northeast India. Modern structures that did not follow to seismic rules experienced significant damage, underlining the urgent need for greater building code compliance.Furthermore, the tragedy demonstrated the need of having a strong healthcare infrastructure and accessible emergency services inremote regions in ordertoreducecasualtiesandhelpinrecoveryefforts.
Dissertation | EARTHQUAKE RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR RURAL AND REMOTE AREAS OF NORTHEAST INDIA |
Northeast India is especially susceptible to seismic hazards because of its closeness to the Himalayanseismic region,whichfrequently producesearthquakeswith catastrophiceffects. To save lives, it is crucial to construct earthquake-resistant infrastructure in rural and isolated locations. This is especially important because these places confront particular difficulties such substandard building materials, a lack of technical expertise, and lax enforcement of building rules.
SeismicVulnerabilityinNortheastIndia:
The seismic susceptibility of rural buildings, which are frequently built without following earthquake-resistant procedures, is a major problem in Northeast India. Despite their cultural significance, traditional building techniques and materials frequently fall short of seismic requirements(NDMA,2020).Localmaterialslikemud,wood,andunreinforcedmasonry,which provide minimalresistanceto seismic stresses,are used tobuildalarge number of rural homes. Inpreviousearthquakes,suchthe1950AssamEarthquake,thishascausedagreatdealofdamage (NDMA,2020).
ConfinedMasonry(CM)TechnologyforRuralHousing:
Inrurallocations,confinedmasonry(CM)technologyhasbeensuggestedasaneconomicaland useful way to build structures that can withstand earthquakes. CM is a hybrid construction technique that offers better seismic performance than traditional masonry by integrating loadbearingmasonrywallswithverticalandhorizontalreinforcedconcretecomponents(tie-columns andtie-beams)(NIDM,NDMA,2020).Accordingtoresearch,CMconstructionworksespecially effectively in rural areas where there may be a shortage of qualified labour and engineering knowledge. In addition to being structurally sound, CM structures are simple to construct with locally accessible materials, which makes them a desirable choice for rural housing (NIDM, NDMA,2020).
In India, CM construction has been promoted through a number of programs. For instance, to raise awareness of CMconstruction and its advantages, the BuildingMaterials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) and the National Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering (NICEE) have arrangedtraining sessions and seminars. Engineers, architects, and masons have become more conscious as a result of these workshops (NDMA, 2020). Furthermore, CM construction's dependability has been further established by its shown performance in previous earthquakeevents,suchasthe2010Chileanearthquakeandthe1908MessinaearthquakeinItaly (NDMA,2020).
One major obstacle to the adoption of earthquake-resistant construction techniques in rural communities is the lack of awareness and technical expertise. Programs that increase capacity are essential for closing this gap. To teach local communities, government representatives, and construction workers about earthquake risk reduction techniques, groups such as the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) have been actively engaged in holding training sessions, workshops, and awareness campaigns (NIDM, 2020). The significance of appropriate building design and the application of seismic safety regulations are emphasised in these programs.
Dissertation
A crucial part of these initiatives is teaching engineers and construction workers earthquakeresistant designconceptsinadditionto holding workshops. Short courses onthe seismic design ofreinforcedmasonryandCMstructureshavebeenprovidedbytheIITsandotherschools.The goal of these educational programs is to develop a pool of qualified experts whocanspearhead activitiestoincreaseruralcommunities'earthquakeresilience(NIDM,2020).
Retrofitting is a practical way to increase seismic safety for existing structures in rural and isolated locations. Byretrofitting, structures that are atrisk canbe strengthened to meet current seismic safety regulations without having to be completely rebuilt. Guidelines for retrofitting various building types, including low-rise unreinforced masonry structures that are frequently found in rural areas, have been released by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA). To increase stability during seismic occurrences, retrofitting techniques include strengthening the foundation, adding steel bracing, and reinforcing walls with steel or concrete (NDMA,2020).
Integrating community-based disaster risk reduction techniques is one of the most promising ways toincrease earthquakeresiliencein NortheastIndia.Inordertoguaranteethe longevityof earthquake-resistant infrastructure, local expertise and community participation are essential. Local building codes and disaster management committees at the village level are examples of community-driven programs that can promote the adoption of safer building methods and enhance knowledge of earthquake risks. Studies have demonstrated that communities that actively participate in disaster risk management get much better preparedness and response results(NDMA,2020).
NortheastIndiaislocatedinanareathatisextremelypronetoearthquakes.Thegoalsofpolicies for earthquake-robust infrastructure are to guarantee resilient infrastructure development, raise construction standards, and strengthen disaster response systems, particularly in rural and isolated locations. Guidelines are provided by India's National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA),whichemphasisescapacity building,communityawareness,andearthquake-resistant architecture. States in Northeast India are urged to follow these recommendations and create policiestailoredtotheirownrequirements.
Northeast India has made significant progress in recent years to improve earthquake resistance, with each state customising laws to suit its own requirements. Working together with agencies suchastheJapanInternationalCooperationAgency(JICA)hasbeencrucialsinceJICA'straining programsallowregionalStateDisasterManagementAuthority(SDMA)personneltolearnabout Japanese practices. In particular, by encouraging pre-disaster investments and recognising the particular requirements of each state, this knowledgetransfer has improved disaster preventive, riskassessment,andmitigationcapacitiesthroughoutthestates.
India's National Building Code (NBC) offers thorough instructions for building design, construction, and upkeep that guarantee structures can resist seismic pressures. However, there are obstacles to NBC standards implementation in rural and isolated areas of Northeast India, suchasinsufficientfunding,alackofqualifiedpersonnel,andlowawareness.Stategovernments in the area are aggressively encouraging NBC compliance through training initiatives, public awarenesscampaigns,andtechnicalassistanceinordertosolvetheseproblems.However,these regions' distinctive circumstances pose significant obstacles, especially when it comes to modifyingurban-centricrulestomeetlocalrequirements.
TheNBChasspecialseismicdesignguidelinesforruralandisolatedNortheastIndiasincelowrisebuildingspredominatethere.State-specificconstructionrules,whichareessentialforsafety, couldnotalwaysbeuptodatewiththemostrecentseismicrequirementsorbeproperlyenforced in remote locations, placing these communities at risk. Given the high catastrophe risk in the area, it might be aggravating that state administrations are upgrading codes progressively to incorporateseismicstandards,buttheprocessissometimessluggishandenforcementirregular.
When the Disaster Management Act is applied locally, it frequently faces difficulties with cooperation between authorities, limited ability, and a lack of resources. In response, state disaster management agencies (SDMAs) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) strive to improve local disaster management capacities by means of awareness and training initiatives. Building resilience in the face of future calamities still requires thorough disastermanagementplanning,notwithstandingcurrentefforts.
StategovernmentsinNortheastIndiaarecreatingspecialiseddisastermanagementplansthatare adapted to the particular circumstances of each district,realisingthat a one-size-fits-all strategy would not be adequate to address the particular difficulties of the rural and isolated regions. Although NDMA offers crucial assistance in the form of financial resources and professional advice,localgovernments'resourceconstraintsfrequentlymakeimplementationdifficult.States
are making investments in infrastructure development, equipment, and training to overcome theseconstraintsandincreasetheefficacyof SDMAs.
In order to create resilient communities in Northeast India, international organisations such as theInternationalCentreforIntegratedMountainDevelopment(ICIMOD)andtheUnitedNations OfficeforDisasterRiskReduction(UNDRR)workalongsidelocalauthorities.However,alack of local resources and experience may make it difficult to implement these organisations' suggestions. In order toovercomethis and create a more resilient future for these communities, state governments and SDMAs are still concentrating on building infrastructure that is appropriatefortheregion'srequirementsandincreasinglocalskills.
Assamis activein strengtheningthe stability of earthquakes and focusesonmodernization of importantinfrastructure toresist the earthquake.The stateapproachis mainly for majorpublic buildings such as schools, hospitals, andstate agencies, and guaranteesthatmajorservicescontinue to workin thecase ofearthquakes.In addition tomodernization,thegovernmentactivelycomplieswithstrictconstructioncodethroughoutthe state. In a particularly high -risk field, regular controlsandinstigyprograms have been introducedtopromotecomplianceinthesecode.ThisisparticularlyimportantgiventhatAssam isvulnerabletoseismicactivityduetoitslocationinthenortheast,closetothetectonicallyactive Himalayanbelt.Inadditiontostrengtheningstructures,thestatehasintroducedpublicawareness programs to improveresidents' preparedness,especially in rural and floodproneareaswhereearthquake hazardsare oftenexacerbatedby other naturalhazards.These programs help increase public knowledgeaboutearthquake preparedness, evacuation procedures, and the importance of building earthquake-resistant homes. Throughthese initiatives,Assam aims tobuildresilientcommunitiesthat can effectively respond toearthquakethreats whilemaintainingcriticalinfrastructure. Emphasis is placedonimproving earthquakeresilience inrural areas by integrating locally available materials andseismic resistantdesigns into construction practices. This approach is not only cost-effective but also culturally appropriate, as it incorporateslocaltraditionalconstructionmethods whilemeetingmodernseismicsafetystandards.Thegovernmenthasinvestedheavilyintraining localbuildersandmasonstoensurenewconstructionmeetstheseseismicpractices.
This is particularly important in Meghalaya, where rural settlements arescatteredacross hillyterrain,makingthestatemorepronetolandslidesandearthquakes.Inadditiontostructural efforts, the state has alsoconducted a state-wideearthquake preparednessdrill.Theseexercises,along with public awareness campaigns, areaimed at promotinga culture ofpreparednessamong the population. By educatingitsurban and ruralresidents, the state ofMeghalaya aims to reduce the risks associated withearthquake phenomenaandpreparecommunities to respond effectively. Thestate'scomprehensive approachtobuildingresilienceisstrengthenedbyongoingeffortstoupdateandenforcebuilding codes that specificallyaddresstheregion'suniquegeographicand cultural needsforearthquakeresilience,deeply rooted incommunityparticipationandtheintegrationof traditionalconstructionmethodswithmodernsafetystandards.
Recognizing theregion'svulnerability to seismic activity,especially afterthe 2016 earthquake that causedmassive destruction, the city ofManipur focused on locallyavailable, lowcostearthquake-resistantmaterials.Thegovernmentisencouraginglocalcommunityleadersand
builders toattendworkshops thatemphasizethe importance of usingthesematerials in construction.Theseworkshopsplayanimportantroleinspreadingknowledgeaboutearthquakeresistant building practices, which is crucial inareaswhere traditionalbuildingmethodsdonot alwaystakeseismic forces into account. In addition tothese educational initiatives,Manipur frequentlyholdscommunity-levelearthquakeexercises,confirmingthatthepopulationisready for earthquakeevents.Theseexercisesaim toimprovetheabilityof communitiesto act quickly during theearthquakeandreduce theloss oflife linked to the possibility of injury.Byengagingcommunities in disaster preparedness, Manipurisnot onlypreparing local residentstowithstandtheimpactofearthquakes,butalsohelpingthembouncebackandrecover from them.
Mizoram's earthquake risk isdue to its proximity to theIndo-Myanmarseismic zone,so affordable earthquake-resistant designhasbeen a priorityfor rural housing. Recognizing the needto addressbothbuildingvulnerabilitiesandtheeconomicconstraintsofresidents,thestate governmentintroducedpolicies that focus on low-costearthquake-resistantsolutions. The governmentisalsoimplementingprogramsto upgrade important buildingssuch as schools, hospitals, and governmentofficesto the latest seismic standards. Thesemodernizationefforts areessential to ensure the continuity ofessential servicesin the event ofa disaster. Additionally,the state ofMizoram has launched several awareness campaigns aimed atinformingitscitizensaboutearthquakesafetyandpreparedness.Theseeffortsareparticularly important in rural areas, where access to formal education anddisaster preventiontraining may belimited.Mizoramistakingimportantstepstowardbuildingamoreearthquake-resilientsociety byfocusingonaffordable,scalablesolutionsandemphasizingpubliceducation.
Nagalandis taking anapproachto earthquake resiliencethat combinestraditional Naga constructionmethodswith modern seismic standards. Thiscombinationof old and newhelps preserveculturalheritagewhileensuringbuildingsareearthquake-resistant.Thestateisrunning anumberofworkshopstoteachlocalbuildershowtoincorporateearthquake-resistancefeatures into their construction methods usinglocalmaterials. Thishas beenparticularly effective in Nagaland, where traditional architecture is stillcommonin many areas. In parallel withthese efforts, Nagaland has also conducted earthquake drillsacross the stateto prepare communities fora possibleearthquake. These drillsaim to teachthe public how to reactin theeventof an earthquakeand what steps to take tostay safe.By combining modern building codes with traditionalmethods,Nagaland is fostering a sense of ownership and pride in earthquakeresistance, helpinglocal communities adopt saferbuildingpractices whilemaintainingtheirculturalidentity.
ArunachalPradesh has instituted strictbuilding codes that requireearthquake resistance forall newbuildings and is strengthening infrastructure in high-risk areas.The stateis paying special attention topublic facilities such as schools,hospitalsand governmentbuildings to ensuretheycan withstand earthquakes.In addition toenforcingnew building codes, the state governmentisalsoprioritizingtherenovationofolderbuildings,especiallyinearthquakezones. Thisincludesprovidingfinancialincentivesandtechnicalsupporttoencouragecompliancewith seismicsafetystandards.ArunachalPradeshalsoconductseducationalprogramsaimedatraising awareness about seismic risks and the importance of preparedness. Ensuringthat remote communitiesareincludedintheseeffortsposesamajorchallenge,giventhestate'sruggedterrain and limited access to urban centers.However, Arunachal Pradesh is takingsignificantstepsto mitigatethe impact of future earthquakes by promoting earthquake resilience through infrastructure developmentandpubliceducation.
Tripura,like its neighboringstates, is taking acommunity-based approach to earthquake resilience.The state government has supportedefforts to upgrade critical infrastructure,includingpublic buildings, and has encouraged the use of earthquake-resistant materials in rural construction.Tripura has also invested in training programs andregularworkshopstoeducate localgovernmentsand the generalpublic onearthquake preparedness.These initiatives areessentialin a region where many communitieslivein areas that are highly vulnerable to seismic events.TheState’sapproach to earthquake resilience emphasizestheimportanceoflocalknowledgeandparticipation,ensuringthatcommunitiesare actively involved in building their own earthquake resilience.By focusing oncommunitysolutions and localparticipation,Tripura is building a more informed and prepared populationthat can meetthe challenges posed by seismicactivity.Due tothese diversebut interconnected factors,allstates ineastern India are making significantprogressinimprovingearthquakeresilience.
Each state, facing unique challenges, has taken a proactive approach to integratingearthquakesafety into infrastructure development and community preparedness efforts.Bycombiningmodern construction techniques with local knowledge, these states are pavingthewaytoamoresustainablefuturebyreducingvulnerabilitytoearthquakehazardsand protectingculturalandhistoricalheritage.
Fig.1SeismicZoningOfIndia
AccordingtotheFig.1NortheastIndiacomesunderseismiczone5whichmakesallthestatesin NortheastIndiapronetoearthquakeonhigher scale.
Northeast India is among the most seismically active in the nation due to its propensity for frequent seismic activity. Northeastern earthquakes have had a long-lasting effect on the area, changing its topography and the lifestyle of its people. According to IS 1893 (2002), NER is locatedin the nation's seismic zone V, whichisregarded as one ofthe world's most seismically active zones (Longbir & Arjun, 2017). Its geological structure and tectonics are quite complicated.TheIndian,Eurasian,andBurmeseplatesareamongtheseveraltectonicplatesthat mergeatNER.TheMainCentralThrust(MCT),whichextendsalongthesouthernborderofthe Himalayasandistheprimaryfaultlineinthisregion,isthecauseofmanyearthquakes.
ArunachalPradesh, Assam,Manipur, Meghalaya,Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim,andTripura are amongthenortheasternIndianstates thatareclosesttotheeasternHimalayanregion,wherethe Indian plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian plate, making them more susceptible to earthquakes.Massivestrainiscreatedbythecollisionandsubductionoftheseplates,andseismic eventsperiodicallyrelievethisstrain.
Fig.2 Historical earthquake events that triggered in North Eastern Region since 1900 (USGS, 2023)
Since1897,NERIndiahasseenaround20bigearthquakeswithmagnitudesbetween8.0and7.0 andtwo tremendous earthquakes with magnitudes more than 8.0 (Kayal et al. 2006).One of the biggest earthquakes ever recorded in Indian history was the Shillong earthquake in 1897. It resulted in extensive devastation, including landslides, building damage, and fatalities (Ambraseys&Bilham,2003).
The northeastern area has had a number of large earthquakes in recent years. Both the 2011 Sikkim earthquake and the 1950 Assam-Tibet earthquake (Jain, 1994) had magnitudes greater
than 6.9, caused significant infrastructure damage, and claimed lives (Dutta et al., 2015).In addition to these earthquakes, the NER of India has seen extensive damage from a number of powerful occurrences (Nandy, 2001). These incidents serve as a reminder of the area's susceptibilitytoearthquakes.
ThemonthofMay hasthehighestnumberofevents followedbyNovemberandtheDecember; however,theleasttriggerofeventshasoccurredinthemonthofJanuary,followedbyMarchand February.
After examining the monthlytriggers,it was foundthat May hadthemost,with 55 earthquakes in the NER region overall. November and December had 52 and 51 triggers, respectively. The fewestearthquakesoccurredinJanuary,whentherewere13triggersintotal.
Fig.4MagnitudeRangeWiseDistributionof EarthquakeDuringtheYear2023
In2023,therewere450reportedearthquakesintheNERarea.Assamsawthemostearthquakes ofanyNERstate,with68totaltriggers.Manipur,Meghalaya,andArunachalPradeshwerenext with 49, 45, and 35 triggers, respectively. In the same time frame, the remaining states— Nagaland,Mizoram,Sikkim,andTripura—saw10,7,3,and1trigger,respectively.Furthermore, therewere232seismictriggersinthenearbyNERregions.
Fig.5.EarthquakeStatisticsinNERIndiaandtheAdjoiningAreaDuringtheYear2023
Northeast India's rural communities are especially vulnerable because they frequently use antiquated building methods, such unreinforced masonry, and locally accessible materials that aren'tstrongenoughtowithstandseismicforces.Furthermore,theseregionsfrequentlystruggle withalackofresources,technicalknow-how,andaccesstocontemporaryconstructionmethods. Large-scale mitigation measures are challenging to undertake because of the region's isolation, which exacerbates this lack of infrastructure resilience. Therefore, during seismic events, rural communitiescontinuetobeatriskofseriousstructuraldamage(ICIMOD,2018;NDMA,2020).
Oneofthemostearthquake-proneareasofIndiaisnortheasternIndia,whichislocatedinSeismic Zone V. Its complicated tectonic setting makes it even more vulnerable to seismic events. The Main Central Thrust (MCT) along the southern Himalayas is a major fault line that frequently causesseismicactivityinthearea,whichissituatedatthemeetingpointoftheIndian,Eurasian, and Burmese plates (Kayal et al., 2006). The region faces serious hazards, as evidenced by the destructiveeffectsof previous seismicoccurrencesincludingthe1950 Assam-TibetEarthquake and the 1897 Shillong Earthquake (Ambraseys & Bilham, 2003). Other strong earthquakes in recent years, including the 2011 Sikkim earthquake, have killed people and severely damaged infrastructure(Duttaetal.,2015).Therehavealsobeenseveralmoderate-magnitudeearthquakes inthearea,withthefrequencyoftheseoccurrencesrisinginparticularmonths,particularlyMay, November,andDecember(USGS,2023).
Due to antiquated building methods and materials, Northeast India's infrastructure is extremely vulnerableto seismic hazards, particularlyin rural andremote locations. Unreinforcedmasonry andotherlocallyavailablematerials,whicharenotstrongenoughtowithstandseismic stresses, areusedinalargeportionofruralhousing(ICIMOD,2018).Theseregionsaremorevulnerable toearthquakesduetoanumberofissues,suchasalackoftechnicalknow-how,alackoffunding, and limited access to contemporary building techniques. Large-scale mitigation activities are made more difficult by the region's rocky topography and restricted access to metropolitan centres(NDMA,2020).Ruralpopulationsarethereforestillatahighriskofsufferingstructural damage during seismic occurrences, which emphasises the urgency of taking immediate action toincrease earthquakeresistance.
Toimproveearthquakeresilience,nationalandregionalauthoritieshaveimplementedanumber ofpoliciesandguidelinesinresponsetothesedifficulties.Themainframeworkfordisasterrisk management is provided by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), which highlights the significance of readiness for disasters and infrastructure that can withstand earthquakes(NDMA,2021).Inordertomakesurethatbuildingscansurviveseismicforces,the National Building Code (NBC), which specifies seismic design standards for construction, is essential.However, issues like low knowledge, a lack of funding, and a lack of qualified specialists havemade it difficult toapplythesestandardsinruralareas(Kumaretal.,2022).To tackle these issues, state administrations in Northeast India have modified their strategies, emphasisingraising publicawareness,strengtheninginfrastructure resilience,andincorporating indigenousknowledgeintoconstructionmethods.However,resourceconstraintshavefrequently hinderedtheseefforts'efficacy,especiallyinruralandisolatedlocations.
The use of Confined Masonry (CM) construction, which blends masonry walls with reinforced concrete beams and columns, is one ofthe primarymethods forenhancing seismicresilience in thearea.Thisapproachgreatlyincreasesthebuilding'sresistancetoseismicactivitywhileusing locally accessible materials, making it both economical and culturally acceptable (ICIMOD, 2018). For rural locations, where conventional building methods sometimes fall short of contemporaryearthquake-resistantregulations,CMconstructionpresentsapossible alternative. Another practical strategy for enhancing earthquake resilience is upgrading existing buildings, especially low-rise ones that are typical in rural areas. To enhance the seismic performance of older structures, the NDMA has established retrofit standards that include adding steel bracing, reinforcing walls with concrete, and strengthening foundations (NDMA, 2020). This approach
lowersthedangersassociatedwithseismiceventsandprovidesalessexpensiveoptionthantotal reconstruction.
Increasing local capacity through education and training is a crucial component of enhancing earthquake resilience in addition to these technical fixes. Training professionals, builders, and local populations in earthquake-resistant construction techniques has been the main focus of initiatives by groups like the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM). According to NDMA (2020) and ICIMOD (2018), these programs are designed to give participants the information and skills they need to design and build safer buildings, adapt existing structures, and integrate seismic-resistant technology into routine construction operations. These programs enable communitiestotake proactivemeasurestolowertheriskofdamageduringseismic occurrences byfosteringtheusageofearthquake-resistanttechniquesanddevelopinglocalexpertise.
AnothercrucialelementofearthquakeresilienceinNortheastIndiaiscommunity-baseddisaster risk reduction, or DRR. DRR places a strong emphasis on including local communities in risk management and disaster preparedness, making sure that plans are appropriate for the local contextandculture.Byteachingcommunitiesaboutearthquakehazards,safetyprecautions,and thevalueofresilientconstruction,localdisastermanagementcommitteescanplayacriticalrole in disaster preparedness (UNDARR, 2023). Involving communities in the development and execution of DRR projects promotes a sense of accountability and ownership for earthquake resilience,guaranteeingthelong-termviabilityoftheseendeavours.
NortheastIndiamaylearnalotfrom theexperiencesofother earthquake-proneareas,including Gujarat. Large-scale reconstruction efforts aimed at constructing earthquake-resistant infrastructure andupgradingexistingstructureswerecarriedoutbythestateofGujaratafterthe 2001 earthquake. The region's seismic resilience was successfully increased by this strategy, whichincludedsubstantialgovernmentsupport,capacity building,andcommunityinvolvement (WHO,2023;ADB,2023).SimilartacticscanbemodifiedfortheNortheastIndiancontextwhile accounting for the region's particular difficulties, including its remote location and varied socioculturalenvironment.
InternationalorganisationsliketheWorldBankandtheUnitedNationsOfficeforDisasterRisk Reduction (UNDRR) play a critical role in assisting state and local governments in enhancing earthquakeresilience.In ordertoimproveinfrastructure development anddisasterpreparedness in areas that are at risk, these organisations offer financial resources, technical assistance, and advice (UNDARR, 2023). However, cooperation between local, state, and federal officials as wellastheactiveparticipationofcommunitiesarenecessaryfortheeffectiveimplementationof earthquake resilience measures in Northeast India. Northeast India can create more robust infrastructure that can endure seismic shocks by fusing traditional wisdom with cutting-edge engineeringtechnologies.
Northeast India, known for its distinct geological location and variety of cultures, is among the mostseismicallyactiveareasglobally.ThecomingtogetheroftheIndian,Eurasian,andBurmese tectonicplateshasledtoaterrainthatisverysusceptibletoregularandintenseearthquakes.This vulnerability is worsened by the region's isolated and rural areas, which often do not have the strength to endure earthquakes. In spite of the lasting effects of earthquakes, it is crucial to address the deficiencies in disaster preparedness, construction methods, and policy adherence. This research delves into these obstacles extensively, with the goal of offering practical advice for constructing earthquake-resistant infrastructure that combines traditional wisdom, contemporaryengineering,andcommunityinvolvementtoprotectthefutureof this delicateyet importantarea.
After closely analysing the earthquake risks in rural and remote regions of Northeast India, the studywillbeemphasizingtheurgentrequirementforresilientinfrastructure.Thearea'sphysical characteristics, economic hardships, and past encounters with earthquakes create a special situation that requires a combined strategy for disaster readiness, strong building methods, and involvement of the community. The results highlight the important influence of earthquakes on the area and offer guidance for dealing with these weaknesses by enhancing policy structures, creativebuildingmethods,andsustainabledisasterresponseplans.
The presence of the Indian, Eurasian, and Burmese tectonic plates at the same location in NortheastIndiacausesittoexperiencehighlevelsofseismicactivitycomparedtootherregions worldwide. The interaction between these plates, along with fault lines like the Himalayan Frontal Fault, Main Boundary Thrust, and Naga Thrust, has led to regular and strong seismic events. Being designated under Zone V, the most severe seismic hazard classification in India, furtherhighlightsthearea'ssusceptibility.
Pastseismicevents suchasthe1897ShillongEarthquake,the1950AssamEarthquake,andthe 2011SikkimEarthquakehavehadasignificantimpactonthearea,causingwidespreadfatalities, infrastructure destruction, and lasting socio-economic effects. These incidents showcase the area's vulnerability not just to earthquakes but also to additional risks like landslides, soil liquefaction,andshiftsinriverpaths.Therelatedimpactsofthesedangersworsenthedifficulties that rural and remote communities encounter, due to inadequate infrastructure and limited resourcesforhandlingdisasters.
After analysing the data it was observed that the results show that the current infrastructure in Northeast India is extremely susceptible to seismic effects. In rural and remote regions, traditional building techniques, though culturally important, frequently lack the necessary structural reinforcements to withstand strong earthquakes. For example, bamboo and wooden buildingsshowflexibilityandresistancetosmallearthquakes,butdonotofferenoughprotection
in large seismic events. Moreover, contemporary buildings in these areas often fail to comply with the seismic safety regulations set by the National Building Code (NBC), resulting in extensivedestructionduringearthquakes.
Primary obstacles in executing earthquake-proof designs involve lack of technical knowledge, inadequate awareness among builders and communities, and financial limitations. Implementation of new building codes is uneven, especially in isolated regions with limited monitoring systems. Moreover, the absence of quality construction materials and skilled labor alsoobstructstheadvancementofstronginfrastructure.
Studying the earthquakes that occurred in Bhuj in 2001, Assam in 1950, and Manipur in 2016 providesimportantinsightsforimprovingresiliencetoseismicrisks.Thesignificanceofseismic zoningandearthquake-resistantbuildingpracticeswasillustratedbythe2001BhujEarthquake. Effortslikecommunity-drivenreconstruction,retrofitting,andbaseisolationtechnologygreatly enhanced the region's ability to withstand disasters. Moreover, the Gujarat Earthquake ReconstructionandRehabilitationPolicydemonstratedthe successfulintegrationofcommunity involvementinpost-disasterrecoveryefforts.
The resilience of traditional bamboo and wooden structures compared to unreinforced masonry buildings was showcased by the 1950 Assam Earthquake. Nevertheless, it also emphasized the importance of having a solid foundation and structural support to reduce the risks of soil liquefaction and other related dangers. The reconstruction work in Assam used materials like bambooandtimberfoundlocally,whichwerebotheconomicallyefficientandculturallysuitable.
The 2016 Manipur Earthquake exposed deficiencies in the enforcement of seismic safety regulationsincontemporarybuildings,resultinginsubstantialstructuralharm.Theeventstressed the importance of enforcing building codes more strictly and taking proactive steps like retrofittingat-riskbuildings.Theinvolvementofthecommunityinpreparingforandrecovering from disasters hasbeenrecognizedas a crucial element in enhancingresilience and minimizing lastingvulnerabilities.
Evaluating seismic risks and construction regulations exposes weaknesses in the area's disaster preparedness structure. Despite the detailed guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction provided by the NationalBuildingCode,itsenforcement inruraland remote areasof Northeast India is still insufficient. Construction codes that are specific to a particular state frequently do not include the most recent seismic studies, and their implementation is impeded by logistical difficultiesandlimitationsinresources.
Relying on conventional construction techniques, though important for culture, poses a double difficulty. These techniques need to be updated to adhere to seismic safety regulations while preserving their cultural and aesthetic significance. Combining traditional knowledge with modernengineering can effectively address thisissue,as seen insuccessfulretrofitting projects usingbambooandwoodalongsidesteelreinforcementsandconcretebands.
The analysis emphasizes the importance of policy and community involvement in developing earthquake resilience. Different approaches have been taken by state governments in Northeast India to tackle seismic risks. For instance, Assam prioritizes improving essential infrastructure like hospitals and schools, alongside raising public knowledge about being prepared for earthquakes. Meghalaya and Mizoram focus on community-centered strategies, blending traditional building techniques with contemporary seismic guidelines to develop culturally suitablesolutions.
Manipur has put emphasis on utilizing affordable, materials that are found locally for building structuresresistanttoearthquakes,alongwithorganizingdrillsandworkshopsatthecommunity leveltoimprovereadiness.NagalandintegratestraditionalNagaarchitecturewithcontemporary safety measures, promoting a feeling of possession among indigenous communities. Arunachal PradeshandTripurahaveputresourcesintopubliceducationinitiativesandretrofittingprojects totacklethespecificdifficultiespresentedbytheirisolatedanddifficultterrain.
Community involvement isnowseenas afundamentalaspectofsuccessfuldisasterresponse in the area. Initiatives that engage community members in the planning, reconstruction, and awareness efforts not only enhance resilience but also guarantee the long-term success of interventions. Community-led reconstruction methods, like those observed in Gujarat post the Bhuj Earthquake, can be used as a template for similar projects in Northeast India.
In order to overcome the challenges and strengthen resilience, this study suggests a comprehensive strategy that combines policy, technology, and community involvement. Some importantsuggestionsare:
o PolicyImprovements:
Increase the enforcement of building regulations and provide incentives for retrofitting in highriskzones.Encouragecooperationbetweenagenciesandsimplifyfundingmethodstoaiddisaster managementefforts.Blendtraditionalconstructionmethodswithmodernengineeringtodevelop culturally suitable and affordable solutions. Utilize local resources like bamboo and wood alongsidemoderntechniqueslikebaseisolationandfiber-reinforcedpolymers.
o CapacityBuilding:
Offer instruction to local builders, government officials, and community leaders regarding constructionpracticesthatcanwithstandseismicforces.Createeducationalinitiativestoincrease knowledge about how to prepare for and respond to earthquakes. Utilize advanced hazard assessment tools like probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) to inform urban and rural planning decisions. Promote the use of new building methods and materialsthatimprovethestrengthof structures.
o Community-FocusedMethods:
Encourage community involvement in planning and recovering from disasters. Create local disastermanagementcommitteestoorganizeresponseandreadinessefforts.
o Confined Masonry (CM) building is a promising way to increase earthquake resilience in rural locations. By combining masonry walls with reinforced concrete beams and columns, CM increases a building's resistance to seismic activity. In rural Northeast India, where indigenous resources are plentiful and technological know-how may be scarce, this method works well. In addition to giving notable increases in seismic stability,CMoffersaneconomicalandculturallyrelevantsolutionthatsupportscurrent construction methods (ICIMOD, 2018; NDMA, 2020). By lowering the chance of building collapse during earthquakes, this method can significantly improve building safetyinruralareas.
o Increasingcapacityisessentialforenhancingseismicresilience,especiallyinplaceswith a dearth of technical expertise. Training local experts and communities in earthquakeresistant designand construction is the main goal of initiatives by groupslike ICIMOD and the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM). These initiatives seek to give participants the know-how and abilities they need to plan and construct safer infrastructure,modifyexistingstructures,anduseregionalearthquake-resistantmethods. These programs enable rural communitiestotake proactivemeasures to reduce the risk ofdisastersbyenhancinglocalexpertise(NDMA,2020;ICIMOD,2018).
o Onecrucialtacticforenhancingtheinfrastructure'sresistancetoearthquakesinthearea is retrofitting existing structures. Guidelines for retrofitting a variety of building types, including low-rise structures that are frequently found in rural areas, have been created by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA). Techniques including strengtheningfoundations,addingsteelbracing,andreinforcingwallswithconcretecan improve older structures' seismic performance and lower their danger of collapsing. In places where extensive rebuilding is not practical, retrofitting offers a more affordable optiontocompletereconstructionandhelpssavelives(NDMA,2020;NIDM,2022).
o One important tactic for reducing the risk of earthquakes in rural Northeast India is community-baseddisasterriskreduction,orDRR.Thismethodplacesastrongemphasis on community involvement, local expertise, and culturally aware disaster management techniques.DRRinitiativesbecomemorecontextuallyappropriateandsustainablewhen communities are involved in disaster preparedness and earthquake-resistant building development. To improve community resilience and guarantee that disaster risk reductionstrategiesaregroundedinthedistinctsocio-culturalandenvironmentalcontext of the area, local disaster management committees can be formed (UNDARR, 2023; ICIMOD,2018).
o A cooperative strategy including several tiers of government is needed to address rural communities' earthquake resilience. To guarantee that the tools, regulations, and technicalassistancerequiredtocarryoutearthquake-resistantinfrastructureprojectsare available, local, state, and federal authorities must cooperate. For communities to be disaster-resilient, integrated approaches—which blend traditional knowledge with contemporary engineering solutions—are essential. Effective and long-lasting resilience-building initiatives are guaranteed by this cooperation between local communitiesandgovernmentorganisations(ICIMOD,2018;NIDM,2023).
o NortheastIndiacanbenefitgreatlyfromthe lessons learntfrom otherearthquake-prone areas, including Gujarat. Building earthquake-resistant infrastructure and renovating existing structures were the main goals of the state's reconstruction projects after the 2001 Gujarat earthquake. Gujarat's reconstruction program is successful because it places a strong focus on government assistance, capacity building, and community involvement. The context of Northeast India canbe tailored to these lessons, providing
a road map for improving the area's seismic resistance using comparable strategies (WHO,2023;ADB,2023).
Dissertation | EARTHQUAKE RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR RURAL AND REMOTE AREAS OF NORTHEAST INDIA | 2024
1. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2020). Guidelines for disasterriskreduction.Retrievedfromhttps://www.undrr.org
2. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). (2018). Enhancing resilience to earthquakes in the Himalayan region. Retrieved from https://www.icimod.org
3. https://nerdrr.gov.in/assets/pdf/eq/Earthquake_Catalogue_2023.pdf
4. https://www.urban-response.org/system/files/content/resource/files/main/944.pdf
5. https://www.who.int/india/news/feature-stories/detail/resilient-reconstruction-20years-after-gujarat-earthquake
6. https://www.adb.org/publications/reconstruction-and-rehabilitation-after-2001gujarat-earthquake
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Gujarat_earthquake
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950_Assam%E2%80%93Tibet_earthquake
9. https://senhri-journal.pucollege.edu.in/storage/articles/the-great-assam-earthquakeof-1950-a-historical-review-YZ2m.pdf
10.https://www.sciencegate.app/document/10.36110/sjms.2019.04.01.001
11.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Imphal_earthquake
12.https://sphereindiablog.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/14-01-2016sitrep-7-manipur-earthquake-2016.pdf
13.https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/files/PDF/Sikkim_Conclave/Session%204/2%20moD ONER%20Issues%20and%20Challenges%20in%20Working%20Towards%20a%20Disast er.pdf
14.https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/files/PDF/Reports/Compendium_of_traditional_ear thquake.pdf
15.https://nidm.gov.in/pdf/trgReports/2022/September/Report_20September2022aak.p df
16.https://nidm.gov.in/PDF/TrgReports/2023/August/Report_22-24August2023aak.pdf
17.https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/files/PDF/Guidelines/retrofitting-guidelines.pdf
18.https://www.ndma.gov.in/sites/default/files/PDF/Guidelines/Simplified_Guidelines_f or_earthquake.pdf
19.https://web.iitd.ac.in/~chariarv/files/Abstracts/Mona-Abstract.pdf
20.https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/files/PDF/Sikkim_Conclave/Session%201/Disaster_ and_CRM_in_Mountains%20_ED_NIDM.pdf
21.https://nidm.gov.in/PDF/pubs/NDMA/a.pdf
22.https://nidm.gov.in/pdf/pubs/eq%20north%20east.pdf
23.https://nidm.gov.in/pdf/trgReports/2023/January/Report_11-13January2023aak.pdf
24.https://nidm.gov.in/PDF/Modules/RuralModule_2020.pdf
25.https://nidm.gov.in/PDF/safety/earthquake/link14.pdf
26.https://nidm.gov.in/PDF/trgreports/2020/June/Report_12June2020aak.pdf
27.https://nidm.gov.in/PDF/Conference/Road%20Map%20on%20Earthquake%20Risk%2 0Management%20in%20North%20East.pdf
28.https://nidm.gov.in/pdf/trgReports/2021/June/Report_12June2021aak.pdf
Dissertation | EARTHQUAKE RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR RURAL AND REMOTE AREAS OF NORTHEAST INDIA | 2024