REGULAR SOLDIERS, IRREGULAR WAR
REGULAR SOLDIERS, IRREGULAR WAR Violence and Restraint in the Second Intifada Devorah S. Manekin
CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS ITHACA AND LONDON
Copyright © 2020 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. Visit our website at cornellpress .cornell.edu. First published 2020 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Manekin, Devorah S., author. Title: Regular Soldiers, Irregular War : Violence and Restraint in the Second Intifada / Devorah S. Manekin. Description: Ithaca, New York : Cornell University Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019044594 (print) | LCCN 2019044595 (ebook) | ISBN 9781501750434 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781501750458 (pdf) | ISBN 9781501750441 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Israel. Tseva haganah le-Yiśra’el. | Al-Aqsa Intifada, 2000— Atrocities. | Palestinian Arabs—Violence against—West Bank. | Palestinian Arabs—Violence against—Gaza Strip. | Soldiers—Israel—Social conditions. | Soldiers—Israel—Moral conditions. | Soldiers—Israel—Attitudes. | Military ethics—Israel. | Military offenses—Israel. | Command of troops—Psychological aspects. Classification: LCC DS119.765 .M36 2020 (print) | LCC DS119.765 (ebook) | DDC 956.9405/5—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019044594 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019044595
Contents
List of Illustrations Acknowledgments List of Abbreviations Note on Translations and Pseudonyms Introduction: The Production and Restraint of Military Violence 1. Participation in Counterinsurgency
vi vii ix x
1 14
2. Narrating Conflict and Violence:
Ex-Combatant Accounts as Data
32
3. IDF Counterinsurgency in the Second Intifada
46
4. The Production of Strategic Violence
73
5. The Dynamics of Entrepreneurial Violence
110
6. The Production and Control of Opportunistic Violence
136
7. Beyond Israel: Counterinsurgent Violence and Restraint
in Comparative Perspective Conclusion: Violence and Restraint in Counterinsurgency Appendix: Characteristics of the Sample Notes References Index
171 189 203 205 229 247
Illustrations
3.1. Map of the Oslo II Interim Agreement 52 3.2. Percent days of comprehensive closure per quarter, October 2000–December 2005 66 5.1. The emergence and persistence of entrepreneurial violence 119 6.1. Reported levels of opportunistic violence in unit 139 6.2. Moderating effects of hierarchy strength 149
vi
Acknowle dgments
I began the research for this book in 2008 and have incurred many debts in the years since. First and foremost, I am grateful to the participants in this study for sharing their experiences and memories with me. Over the years I have learned that combat veterans often refrain from telling their stories to outsiders, and I thank the many people I interviewed for opening a window to a world that too often remains sealed. I am also indebted to several organizations and individuals who provided me with access to important data or otherwise assisted my research for this project: Maayan Geva at B’tselem, Lior Yavneh at Yesh Din, Yehuda Shaul at Breaking the Silence, Merav Romirowsky, and Robert Brym at the University of Toronto. I owe a debt of gratitude to the mentors who made this book possible. Ed Keller was a consistent source of wisdom, encouragement, and support. Jim Ron was a generous and engaged mentor from the beginning of the project and provided important theoretical insight as well as encouragement during difficult times in the field. Libby Wood’s scholarship deeply influenced my own, and I feel fortunate to have had her as a mentor. Her steady encouragement over the years, together with her always thoughtful and valuable feedback, has improved my work at every step of the way. At UCLA, I also thank Michael Chwe, Jim Gelvin, and Dan Posner, who provided sage advice at early stages of the project. Outside UCLA, the late Lee Ann Fujii was a cherished mentor and friend since I was in graduate school, and provided generous feedback on various parts of the manuscript in her signature combination of analytic clarity and enthusiastic encouragement. I have worked on this manuscript at two institutions since leaving UCLA, and at each I was fortunate to benefit from the friendship and feedback of mentors and colleagues. I owe thanks to my colleagues at the Martin Buber Society of Fellows in the Humanities and Social Sciences at the Hebrew University, and particularly to David Shulman and Yael Baron, for providing a stimulating and supportive environment for pursuing my research. I thank my former colleagues at Arizona State University for the sense of community and encouragement that made my work possible. At the Hebrew University of Jerusalem I am indebted to each and every one of my current colleagues for providing such a generous and warm environment in which to complete the manuscript. The book has benefited greatly from feedback I received at the Project on Middle East Political Science (POMEPS) Junior Book Development Workshop vii
viii
Acknowle dgments
at Princeton University in 2015. I thank all the workshop participants, and especially Boaz Atzili, Marc Lynch, and Mark Tessler, who read the entire manuscript and offered insightful and constructive comments. I am indebted to many scholars who commented on various parts of the manuscript over the years and provided helpful insight and feedback, including Charli Carpenter, Jeff Checkel, Dara Cohen, Alexander de Juan, Amit Gal, Daphna Golan, Liat Hasenfratz, Yagil Levy, Sarah Parkinson, Anastasia Shesterinina, Jessica Stanton, Scott Straus, Risa Toha, Rebecca Weil, and Dvora Yanow. I thank Yoni Abramson, Natasha Behl, Noam Gidron, Lior Herman, Milli Lake, Odelia Oshri, and Yael Zeira for their wisdom, friendship, and encouragement as I revised this book for publication. The research for this project was made possible by the financial support of the Social Science Research Council International Dissertation Research Fellowship, National Science Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant, and University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship. I gratefully acknowledge their support. Parts of chapter 4 of this book were previously published in “The Limits of Socialization and the Underproduction of Military Violence: Evidence from the IDF,” Journal of Peace Research 54, no. 5 (November 2017): 606–19. Parts of chapter 6 w ere previously published in “Violence against Civilians in the Second Intifada: The Moderating Effect of Armed Group Structure on Opportunistic Violence,” Comparative Political Studies 46, no. 10 (2013): 1273–1300. At Cornell University Press, I thank Roger Haydon for his advice, guidance, and patience, and am also very grateful for the thoughtful and constructive comments of two anonymous reviewers. I thank Gail Chalew for her careful copyediting and Susan Specter and Mary Ribesky for overseeing the production process. I am deeply thankful for the love and support of my f amily that made my work possible. My parents Charles and Rachel encouraged me at e very step of the way, reading parts of the manuscript in its various iterations, and providing crucial advice and editing help exactly when I needed it. My siblings, Mikhael, Elisheva, and Avigail, have become a daily source of support, humor, and camaraderie rother especially has endured many questhat helps keep me grounded. My b tions and conversations over the years about this project, and I am very grateful to him for sharing his insight. I also thank my siblings-in-law for their friendship and my parents-in-law Marcel and Tamar for their constant support. I am so very grateful to my c hildren, Noam, Roni, and Keren, for giving me a reason to smile e very single day, for pretending to believe that I would one day finish the book, for their patience and their love. Above all, I thank Elon for your unwavering faith in me, your readiness to take on any adventure, and for the serenity that you bring into my life. I could not have written this without you.
Abbreviations
ACRI BTS DCO EV GSS HCJ IDF IED JNA MAG NCO NGO OPT OV PA SDG SV
Association for Civil Rights in Israel Breaking the Silence District Coordination Offices entrepreneurial violence General Security Serv ices (Shin Bet) High Court of Justice Israel Defense Forces improvised explosive device Yugoslav P eople’s Army Military Advocate General noncommissioned officer nongovernmental organization Occupied Palestinian Territories opportunistic violence Palestinian Authority Serbian Volunteer Guard strategic violence
ix
Note on Translations and Pseudonyms
I conducted all of the interviews and surveys with Israeli participants in Hebrew and have used many Hebrew sources. All translations are my own. I identify all study participants by pseudonyms to protect their identity. I have named individuals only when relying on publicly available sources that previously published their names.
x
Introduction
THE PRODUCTION AND RESTRAINT OF MILITARY VIOL ENCE Everyone tells you . . . “You did what you had to do.” And I just hate that comment, “You did what you had to do.” Because I didn’t have to do any of it. . . . That’s the hardest t hing to deal with . . . . I d idn’t have to do shit. Sergeant Brendan O’Byrne, Korengal, Dir. Sebastian Junger (2014)
On March 23, 2009, Israel Defense Forces (IDF) military prosecutors charged an infantry officer and his deputy with hitting and shaking Palestinian civilians in the course of questioning during an operation in the West Bank village of Qadum. A soldier who witnessed the events had alerted military investigators, and the case was eventually brought to trial. While similar cases had gone unnoticed in the past, this one received widespread publicity. The reason for the media attention was that the officer’s battalion and brigade commanders, both respected military figures, testified on his behalf, arguing that the use of physical force could be a legitimate exercise of military discretion. In a highly unusual move, then- Chief of Central Command Gadi Shamni, one of the IDF’s most senior generals, was summoned to testify. Shamni stated emphatically that beating was not a legitimate military action. The brigade commander was reprimanded for suggesting otherwise, and some months later, the accused officer was convicted of aggravated assault and conduct unbecoming an officer.1 The trial made headlines in Israel, and former combatants I interviewed often commented on it. One former infantryman wryly recalled how he and his fellow soldiers used to joke that, in the army, you could shoot but you c ouldn’t hit: “If you take out your gun and shoot someone b ecause he threatened you, that’s fine. H e’ll die and that’s g reat. But hit him with a r ifle butt? That’s strictly forbidden.” This seeming paradox, in which soldiers treat more deadly violence as more legitimate, is not unique to Israeli soldiers. Five years earlier, in Samarra, Iraq, a team of U.S. army investigators began investigating allegations that a number of American soldiers had forced two Iraqis caught outside a fter curfew to jump from 1
2 Introduction
a bridge into the Tigris River.2 One of the men survived, and a second body was found several weeks l ater, though investigators w ere unable to conclusively prove that it was the man who had been forced into the water. It later surfaced that the soldiers’ brigade commander, a decorated officer, had instructed his men not to disclose the incident. As a result of this cover-up the officer was reprimanded, and his military career came to an abrupt end. In a newspaper interview he commented on the irony of the situation: “You know what’s strange? Two Iraqis out after curfew, in a town like Samarra? They could have killed t hose guys, and they would have gotten medals” (qtd. in Filkins 2008, 165). Although the contexts of these cases differ, the parallels between them are striking. Both took place in the course of irregular warfare, in which soldiers faced insurgents in civilian areas, rather than e nemy soldiers on a conventional battlefield. In both cases, soldiers participated in violence against civilians, despite being aware, as subsequent attempts to cover up the incidents show, that the vio lence was problematic at the very least. In both cases, not all the soldiers participated. In the first instance, one of the soldiers who witnessed the events reported them, ultimately leading to an investigation and trial; in the second, one soldier present refused to push the men into the river and was allowed by his commander to stay b ehind. The reactions to the events are also remarkably similar. In both cases, the sol ere fully aware that not all violence is created equal and that, while somediers w times violence is legitimate and even praiseworthy, at other times it is a punishable offense. The judgment that soldiers made about when violence is appropriate is surprising, however. It cannot be explained by their perception of threat, because in both cases, they w ere not in active combat situations and the victims were unarmed. Nor can the severity of the violence explain the distinction. In both cases, soldiers understood their actions, which had been nonlethal in intent, as somehow less legitimate than lethal force would have been. The incidents, and the soldiers’ counterintuitive reactions to them, raise several questions: What explains differences in soldier participation in violence during irregular war? Why do soldiers sometimes inflict violence eagerly, but at other times evade or resist using force? Why are some forms of violence readily adopted, while o thers are deemed excessive or inappropriate? More generally, through what processes do soldiers come to accept violence as legitimate, and what are the limits of these processes? How do ordinary men become professional wielders of force, and when does this transformation falter or fail? These are the questions this book seeks to answer. A growing literature in political science has sought to understand why vio lence against civilians varies across conflicts and within them, examining the incentives and constraints that produce patterns of violence and restraint in
Introduction
3
conflict.3 This literature generally focuses on variation among armed groups, rather than on patterns of participation within t hese groups, and therefore does not directly address the questions I pose here. Individual participation in vio lence has been explored primarily by social psychologists, who have long sought to uncover the individual and social factors that drive ordinary people to overcome normative boundaries and commit violent acts against others.4 Yet though many of the factors they study are present in the military as well, the military context is also unique in important ways. Unlike the civilians on whom much of this research has focused, soldiers are not transgressing societal norms by acting violently, but rather are carrying out the role society intended for them. By definition, the military controls aggression, legitimating it insofar as it is conducted on behalf of the state. Rather than simply unleashing unrestrained violence, then, the military engages soldiers from the very beginning in creating distinctions between appropriate and inappropriate violent behavior. This organizational context, I argue, powerfully shapes patterns of individual participation in violence. This book draws on a detailed case study of the IDF’s repression of the Palestinian insurgency of 2000–5, known as the Second Intifada, to explain the production and restraint of violence in the modern Western military. The Second Intifada, known also as the Al-Aqsa Intifada after the site where violence first broke out, was one of the bloodier episodes of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, killing more than 3,300 Palestinians and over 1,300 Israelis in five years.5 Casualty statistics only partially reflect, however, the extent of suffering endured by parties to the conflict. In the course of repression of the insurgency, Palestinian civilians experienced a steep increase in Israeli military regimentation and control, leading to the loss of freedom of movement, widespread destruction of property, an ongoing threat of detention and arrest, and physical and verbal harassment at sites of friction with the Israeli military. Israeli civilians suffered a major blow to their sense of personal security, with cafes, buses, and shopping malls becoming sites of deadly terror attacks. The Second Intifada was ultimately repressed by Israel’s security forces. The bulk of this effort was carried out by IDF ground troops, who in t hose years w ere deployed almost exclusively in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT) of the West Bank and Gaza to quell the insurgency.6 As is often the case in counterinsurgency and occupation, the Second Intifada brought Israeli soldiers into close contact with Palestinian civilians—at checkpoints, roadblocks, streets, and homes—with much greater frequency and intensity than in the previous decade. This contact created countless opportunities for combatants to inflict harm on individuals and their property. Nevertheless, participation in violence varied across individual combatants and their units.
4 Introduction
Sometimes, variation existed in the behavior of the very same combatants, who w ere eager to commit violence under some circumstances but averse to using force in others. A tank commander I interviewed reported participating enthusiastically in firing in crowded urban areas during Operation Defensive Shield, the IDF’s reoccupation of the West Bank’s major cities in 2002. Yet when ordered several months later to enforce the closure of the city of Nablus, he found it increasingly difficult to carry out his o rders and ultimately defied them. A former Special Forces soldier recalled that members of his unit participated wholeheartedly in the destruction of property during cordon and search missions but would never take any such property for themselves. And an infantry soldier described many incidents of civilian harassment and mistreatment, but also several episodes in which he and his peers evaded their missions altogether, preferring to sneak away out of sight. As in the cases described e arlier, variation in participation h ere cannot be explained by the severity of the violence, as demonstrated in the tank commander’s account of e ager participation in potentially lethal force but defiance of much less damaging orders to restrict movement. Nor are they linked to a linear process of brutalization, as evidenced by the commando soldier’s ability to clearly distinguish between various forms of harm to property or the infantry soldier’s occasional dodging of missions. What, then, explains these patterns? To gain insight into these questions, I turn to the micro-level, analyzing the behavior of individual soldiers and small combat units.
The Argument: Social Control and the Production and Restraint of Military Viol ence To understand the dynamics of soldier participation in violence, the orga nizational context is crucial. Soldiers differ from mere thugs in that their vio lence is, at least in principle, controlled and directed at organizational goals. They differ from rebels, who may also be organized, in that the state authorizes and legitimates their behavior. Soldier participation, then, is actively produced and legitimated by the military organization in accordance with its strategic objectives. T hese objectives vary from military to military and from conflict to conflict, reflecting differing ideologies, incentives, cultures, and constraints. They may call for expansive violence or for restraint, for indiscriminate or selective targeting, for comprehensive operations or for limited ones. But regardless of which policies are chosen at the top, combat soldiers must be induced to carry them out.
Introduction
5
The core argument of this book is that participation in counterinsurgent vio lence is best explained by the effectiveness of the mechanisms that induce soldiers to commit violence on behalf of the military, which I refer to as mechanisms of organizational control.7 Organizational control mechanisms are broadly defined as any process that aims to motivate and direct members to act in ways that are consistent with and advance organizational objectives.8 While some of these mechanisms are formal, such as rules, discipline, and sanctioning, I show that the most powerful control mechanisms are social and include such tools as socialization, persuasion, leadership, and the creation of a shared identity and culture.9 A former infantry officer I interviewed described the power of such control: The approach in the beginning is to take apart the soldiers and start with them from zero . . . wipe out the soldier’s personality when he’s young, just wipe it out, because some people arrived [poorly] from home and others were raised well. Some people were raised badly at home, they come with lousy ethics so what does [the army] do? They mix them all up, slap everyone around, bring them down to the ground and yalla— start from zero.10 Organizational control shapes participation in two phases, each associated with a distinct mechanism. First, in the training phase, control exercised primarily through military socialization instills in combatants a set of norms that construct organizationally useful violence as appropriate and valuable, and organization ally useless violence as illegitimate. This normalization of organiz ationally useful violence is achieved through a variety of neutralization techniques that defuse violence of any previously held negative meanings insofar as it serves military objectives and reconstruct it as valuable and desirable. Reframed in this way, vio lence that serves military needs is deemed appropriate and, in fact, is not typically understood as violence at all but as combat, security, or protection. This pro cess of normalization of organizationally sanctioned violence is important in shaping baseline participation patterns, because participation is always far greater in normative behavior than in deviant behavior, and the processes that produce each differ in important ways. In the deployment phase, however, the boundaries established in training can erode due to the strains of ongoing military activity, leading to a rise in soldier deviation from organizational preferences, whether through underproduction of sanctioned violence, overproduction of unsanctioned violence, or the development of new violent practices with uncertain organizational utility. In this phase the task of control falls primarily to small-unit commanders, who are charged with reinforcing military norms regarding the use of force. The extent to which they are successful in d oing so further shapes patterns of participation in violence.
6 Introduction
A Typology of Viol ence This discussion suggests that soldier participation in violence hinges on whether such violence serves organizational goals. But how are individual soldiers to make such a determination? Two f actors, I argue, shape w hether soldiers perceive vio lence to be organizationally useful or not: The first is who initiates the violence. Militaries are hierarchical organizations, operating according to directives communicated from generals down the chain of command to the rank and file. Or ganiz ationally sanctioned violence flows from top to bottom in such forms as doctrine, operating procedures, orders, and commands. When the upper military echelons dictate violence in this official way, it is almost by definition intended to benefit the military organization.11 The second factor is who benefits from violence. The military employs vio lence to advance particular strategic goals. Violence that is employed in the ser vice of other ends, such as for personal profit or to relieve peer pressure, can distract from and even undermine military objectives. Soldiers are generally aware of organizational objectives because of their intensive training and ongoing o rders, briefings, and missions once deployed. They are thus typically able to broadly discern whether a particular act of violence is committed to advance the goals of the military organization or for other, nonorganizational ends. The interaction of these two factors produces four analytically distinct categories of violence, summarized in table I.1, each of which is associated with dif ferent participation patterns. I define strategic violence as violence that soldiers commit in accordance with orders from their superiors and is designed to advance organizational goals.12 From a soldier’s perspective, violence is strategic when clear, explicit directives exist, backed by the military chain of command. This means that participation in an authorized tactic is defined as strategic violence, regardless of the precise content of high-level goals. I argue that baseline patterns of participation in such violence should be high, given the vast institutional means allocated to training and socialization in modern Western militaries. Such violence is likely to take
TABLE I.1. Military violence in conflict INITIATOR BENEFICIARY
LEADERSHIP
RANK AND FILE
Organization
Strategic violence
Entrepreneurial violence
Individual
Corruption / senior misconduct
Opportunistic violence
Introduction
7
forms familiar to soldiers everywhere: lethal violence, the destruction of property, and the conquest of space. Its targets, most obviously, are enemy combatants, whether of the irregular or regular variety. Opportunistic violence, in contrast, is violence that soldiers initiate to advance their own interests, impulses, or social standing. Forms associated with such vio lence can include looting for personal benefit or abuse for individual gratification or social posturing. Targets of such violence include enemy combatants (when violence exceeds or contravenes that mandated by the military organization), as well as unconnected civilians, whose abuse serves no military purpose. These two categories do not, however, exhaust the types of violence produced within the military organization. In some cases, directives from above are ambiguous or absent, and members of the rank and file fill the gap by devising violent practices of their own that, in their perception, advance military aims. Forms of violence associated with this category can include unauthorized abuse to extract potentially useful information or various punishments devised to deter insurgent activity. Targets are typically individuals whom soldiers see as contributing to the insurgency, w hether because they are suspected insurgents themselves or because they aid or support them. Building on a large literature on entrepreneurship within organizations, I term this category entrepreneurial violence. Finally, in some cases, members of the elite initiate violence to advance their own ends. This category encompasses cases of violence committed by military elites for personal enrichment (such as elite graft or theft) or enjoyment. B ecause this book focuses on ordinary soldiers rather than generals, I exclude this last category from the analysis. To emphasize, this typology makes no claims as to which type of violence is more or less harmful to its victims. Violence in any category can be expansive or limited, targeted narrowly or broadly. Rather, these distinctions reflect how combat soldiers perceive violence, thereby shedding light on patterns of participation. To be sure, because they rely on perceptions, these distinctions are not always clear-cut in practice, especially in the absence of clear, detailed orders requiring or forbidding certain behaviors. Yet the distinctions are not completely subjective, either. Because of the efforts invested in training and briefing soldiers to carry out military objectives, soldiers generally have at least a basic idea of what t hese objectives are.
Control, Viol ence, and Par ticipation: Implications of the Argument I have argued that organizational control shapes participation in violence in two ways. First, centralized control mechanisms in the initial military training period
8 Introduction
inculcate a set of beliefs and values among combatants that construct violence as legitimate and appropriate to the extent that it serves military ends. The result of this training is a normative framework encompassing three categories: at one end is strategic violence, directed from above to serve organizational purposes. At the other end is opportunistic violence, emerging from below to serve individual ends. In the middle lies a more ambiguous area in which violence designed to serve organizational goals emerges from below: entrepreneurial violence. In the deployment phase, organizational control, exercised primarily by small- unit commanders, seeks to realign combatants with the military organization, reducing opportunistic violence as well as shirking from or resistance to strategic violence. The extent to which such control is successful further shapes patterns of participation in violence. Specifically, effective organizational control should produce high levels of participation in strategic and entrepreneurial vio lence and low levels of participation in opportunistic violence. In contrast, weak control should reduce rates of participation in strategic and entrepreneurial vio lence while at the same time increasing participation in opportunistic violence. Table I.2. summarizes these relationships. The empirical chapters of this book provide a wealth of evidence demonstrating how participation in each category is produced and sustained over time. The framework outlined here calls attention both to the vital role of purpose in determining participation patterns in military violence and to the ways in which participation varies across categories of violence in accordance with local mechanisms of organizational control. An important implication is that simply asking what factors cause violence to rise or decline can be misleading because not all military violence is identical. The same f actors that cause participation in opportunistic violence to increase can cause participation in strategic violence to decline and encourage the emergence of entrepreneurial violence. Accordingly, using aggregate violence data to understand patterns of violence in wartime can lead to misleading conclusions about the mechanisms that produce it. The argument also has important policy implications, drawing attention to the fact that policy prescriptions designed to minimize some forms of violence may cause other forms to increase. In particular, policies that are intended to increase
TABLE I.2. Participation in violence by purpose and level of control HIGH CONTROL
LOW CONTROL
Strategic violence
High
Low
Entrepreneurial violence
Medium/high
Medium/low
Opportunistic violence
Low
High
Introduction
9
discipline and monitoring may reduce opportunistic violence, but if elite strategies call for victimization of civilians, heightened control w ill only increase participation in (and therefore the execution of) strategic violence. More careful attention to the internal organizational dynamics of military violence can thus contribute to the development and testing of theories of violence in armed conflict and shed light on the unintended consequences of policies designed to mitigate such violence.
Why Counterinsurgency? This book is concerned with the dynamics of soldier participation in irregular warfare in the modern, bureaucratized military or, put differently, with the micro- foundations of counterinsurgency. By counterinsurgency, I mean state engagement in irregular warfare, defined as a form of internal armed conflict that involves an organized state military battling one or more insurgent groups (Kalyvas and Balcells 2010).13 I use counterinsurgency to refer to such warfare regardless of the specific doctrine by which it is waged. Notably, this usage is distinct from the U.S. counterinsurgency doctrine published in 2006, which adopted a partic ular approach to fighting insurgencies that has been termed “population- centric.”14 This strategy differs in key ways from Israeli policies in the Second Intifada, discussed in chapter 3. My analytic concern, however, lies not with the origins of strategic policies formulated by elites, but rather with how individual soldiers and their units implement them. The particular policies are thus taken as given, a backdrop to the questions motivating this book. I focus on counterinsurgency for several reasons. First, counterinsurgency warfare is the most common form of warfare practiced by modern militaries today, and its practice has taken center stage in policy debates about warfare. Yet academic research on state violence in irregular war has focused primarily on the incentives and constraints of military elites with regard to civilian targeting15 or on evaluating conflict outcomes and the effectiveness of particular tactics.16 The internal dynamics of small military units conducting counterinsurgency operations, and the ways in which t hese shape violence patterns within modern, bureaucratized militaries, remain largely opaque. In particular, we still lack an account of the full repertoire of soldier behavior, encompassing compliance and shirking, excessive violence and resistance, sometimes occurring side by side. This omission is problematic, b ecause, as is well known, counterinsurgency warfare poses substantial risks to civilian protection. Insurgents strategically seek to blend into the population, making it difficult for states to identify and target militants selectively. Yaniv, a former company commander, explained,
10 Introduction
Terrorism hides in the population. And the simple soldier, he d oesn’t understand what he is fighting against. . . . Terrorism exists but he d oesn’t see it, it’s not tangible to him. . . . And this is where the problem begins— that you’re fighting against something that you don’t see and you just hear, hear, hear about. . . . It’s like battling windmills. And that’s one of the problems—from an ethical and from a professional perspective. Moreover, insurgents often depend on civilians for information, support, and shelter, rendering them in some ways participants in or accomplices to the insurgency. Finally, unlike conventional warfare, counterinsurgency takes place “amongst the p eople” (Smith 2007), in dense urban quarters and remote rural areas. Counterinsurgent violence against civilians can thus be a product of deliberate targeting strategies designed to sever ties between insurgents and their civilian support base, the inability to distinguish between combatants and noncombatants, or simply the existence of many opportunities and incentives for violence by virtue of soldiers’ presence in civilian areas. At the same time, counterinsurgency warfare also poses many challenges to military control. Conventional warfare typically involves large, mechanized military units facing each other on the battlefield. But size and mechanization, while assets in conventional war, become liabilities in counterinsurgency, requiring militaries to adapt their capabilities and organizational formations. Consequently, counterinsurgency warfare is frequently conducted by small teams of soldiers, isolated from command headquarters and subordinate only to a junior commander, often at the squad or platoon level. Though such operations can enhance the effectiveness of counterinsurgency by mimicking the organization and mobility of guerilla networks, they make control much more challenging, because soldiers are geographically dispersed and difficult to monitor. The strategies of elites can therefore provide only a partial explanation for participation patterns on the ground. Counterinsurgency operations thus offer a useful lens through which to view the dynamics of production and control of violence.
Why Israel? A study of soldier participation in violence requires data on two phenomena that are typically hidden from the public eye: patterns of military violence and the organizational characteristics of small military units. As a result, a study that can trace the processes leading to variation within a single case is particularly valuable for theory building. The Israeli-Palestinian case is unique in some respects, such as the context of prolonged military occupation in which episodes of armed
Introduction
11
insurgency and counterinsurgency break out periodically. The IDF also remains one of the few modern militaries that recruit through mandatory conscription and generally does not provide alternative serv ice options for combat-eligible men. For these and other reasons the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has been relatively understudied by scholars of comparative conflict processes (Pearlman 2011). Instead, much of the literature on the conflict tends to be historical, policy- oriented, or polemical in nature.17 Yet the Israeli case also presents several important advantages for studying patterns of participation in violence in irregular war. First, the presence of numerous local and international human rights organizations assiduously tracking human rights violations in the Israeli-Palestinian context means that more data are available than in many other conflict zones. Combatants are not difficult to locate and access due to Israel’s compact size and its mandatory conscription laws. And though soldiers in regular service cannot be interviewed on political or military matters without the approval of the IDF, former combatants may speak freely as Israeli civilians. In addition, fieldwork is possible in some areas, and observers can collect data with greater freedom than exists in many other conflict settings. In addition to the relative availability and accessibility of data, there are substantive advantages to selecting the Israeli case. The IDF’s prolonged engagement with irregular warfare, insurgency, and population control has turned it into an authority in international security circles. Israeli military experts regularly export knowledge and experience to other countries engaged in counterinsurgency warfare. As a result, the IDF’s experience can illuminate to some extent the practices of other modern militaries engaged in counterinsurgency. Chapter 7 illustrates this possibility by briefly exploring how arguments developed based on the experience of the IDF can help shed light on the behavior of U.S. soldiers in Iraq in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Of course, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is also significant in its own right, and readers with particul ar interest in this case will hopefully find its analysis here informative. Finally, as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a particularly salient, contentious item on the international policy agenda, it is perhaps worth emphasizing what this book is not. The book draws on the experience of the regular ground forces of the IDF during the Second Intifada to investigate the production and restraint of violence in counterinsurgency. It does not provide a comprehensive account of the conflict nor a history of Israel’s occupation of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem and the political machinations that led to its entrenchment over time. For that important background, which provides context for Israeli counterinsurgency operations in the Second Intifada, the reader is referred to the many texts analyzing the birth, conduct, and consequences of the Israeli occupation.18
12 Introduction
Because my goal is to understand the behaviors and perspectives of soldiers, I do not analyze patterns of Palestinian insurgent violence in the Second Intifada. This is not to suggest that such violence was inconsequential. Two-thirds of Israelis killed in the Second Intifada were civilians, making it the most lethal conflict in terms of Israeli civilian death tolls since Israel’s establishment in 1948. Insurgent violence is mentioned throughout the text insofar as it is linked to the production and restraint of violence in counterinsurgency. However, the dynamics of Palestinian insurgency in this period have been studied elsewhere and are outside the scope of this study.19 In addition, in its focus on organizational dynamics within the military, this book diverges from two alternative explanations that are sometimes raised to explain patterns of military violence in the Israeli-Palestinian context: demographic changes in the military’s composition, especially the increasing presence of nationalist-religious soldiers in its officer corps (Levy 2008), and a general shift to the right in Israeli politics a fter the collapse of the Oslo Accords and the escalation of the Second Intifada. I do not debate t hese empirical claims h ere. Rather, I expect such trends to have an impact primarily at the strategic level by generating additional incentives and constraints on elite policymaking. Once policy has been formulated, however, the military remains a space where individuals must be tightly controlled and organized in order to function properly. The particular preferences of soldiers, their influence on one another, and the preferences and impact of politicians may present challenges to effective control but do not supplant it as an explanatory f actor. In principle at least, the army has orga nizational tools that allow it to distinguish between its practices and between broader social and political trends. W hether t hese tools are adequately employed is, ultimately, a question of effective control.
A Final Note Before turning to the analysis of violence and control in the Second Intifada, a final comment is in order. The academic analysis of violence and suffering necessarily does an injustice to the experiential dimensions of pain shared by those who have been personally touched by conflict. This injustice is perhaps compounded by the analytical approach taken in this book. To better understand the dynamics of participation in military violence, I investigate the perspectives of soldiers, the structures within which they operate, and the way these structures shape individual agency in conflict. While I also lay out the often dire consequences of these actions and the extensive damage they inflicted (most fully and explicitly in chapter 3), I do not offer a normative assessment of soldier conduct
Introduction
13
or of security policy. This perspective may frustrate readers who seek justification or condemnation rather than explanation, or whose suffering is inadequately captured by these words. As Robben and Nordstrom (1995, 5) observe, Researching and writing about violence w ill never be a simple endeavor. . . . Like power, vio lence is essentially contested: every one knows it exists, but no one agrees on what actually constitutes the phenomenon. Vested interests, personal history, ideological loyalties, propaganda, and a dearth of firsthand information ensure that many “definitions” of violence are powerful fictions and negotiated half-truths. I do not pretend that I can avoid these challenges. But though some dimensions of violence can never be reduced to written representation, it is my hope that continued attention to the empirical dynamics of political violence, and in particular to the ways in which such violence can be limited, can nevertheless make a contribution to the understanding of violent conflict and, hopefully, to its mitigation.