Mentoring in Sports Coaching: a Review of Literature

ISSN: 1740-8989 (Print) 1742-5786 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cpes20

Mentoring in sports coaching: a review of the literature

Robyn

L. Jones

, Richard Harris & Andrew Miles

To cite this article: Robyn L. Jones , Richard Harris & Andrew Miles (2009) Mentoring in sports coaching: a review of the literature, Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 14:3, 267-284, DOI: 10.1080/17408980801976569

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980801976569

Published online: 19 Jun 2009.

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PhysicalEducationandSportPedagogy Vol.14,No.3,July2009,pp.267–284

Mentoringinsportscoaching:areviewoftheliterature

RobynL.Jones ,RichardHarrisandAndrewMiles

CardiffSchoolofSport,UniversityofWalesInstitute,Cardiff,UK

Background:Despitecriticismofitspositiveclaimsbeinglargelyunfoundedand ill-clarified,theconceptofmentoringhascomeintocommonusewithinsportscoaching.

Purpose:Inanattempttoaddresstheseconcerns,thepurposeofthispaperistotakebetter accountoftheresearchedevidenceonmentoringingeneralbeforeprovidingsome guidelinesofgoodpracticethatcouldrealisticallybeappliedtosportscoaching.

Literaturereview:Intermsofthepaper’scontent,adiscussionsurroundingdefinitionsand conceptualisationsisinitiallyembarkedupon.Thisisfollowedbyareviewofmentoring literaturefromotheracademicandprofessionalfields,namelynursing,educationand business,wherethepracticehasbeenmorewidelyresearched,establishedandused. Current‘models’ofmentoringinsportscoachingarethenexamined.

Summaryandconclusions:Afinalsection,drawingfromalltheliteraturereviewed,offers tentativesuggestionsastothepossiblefutureshapeofeffectivementoringinsports coaching.

Keywords: mentoring;coaching;literaturereview

Introduction

Inrecentyearsthetermmentoringhascomeintocommonusewithinsportscoaching. Specifically,ithasbeenassociatedwithenlightened,goodpracticeinrelationtodeveloping coaches’knowledgeandexpertise(Bloometal.1998).Inotherfields,however,theconcept hascomeundersomecriticisminrespectofitspositiveclaimsbeinglargelyunfounded. Forexample,Colley(2003,1)recentlyconcludedthat‘existingresearchevidencescarcely justifies[mentoring’s]useonsuchamassivescale,[while]themovementhasnotyet developedasoundtheoreticalbasetounderpinpolicyorpractice’.Infurtherdeveloping thiscritique,Colleyconsidersmostmodelsofmentoringtohavebeenbasedonafairly crudeandsimplisticconceptofempowerment.Here,thementorisseenasthepowerful memberofthedyad,thankstohisorhergreaterageorexperience,‘andthementeeas relativelypowerless,awaitingempowermentbythebenignactionsofthementor’ (Colley2003,139–40).ForColley,suchaconceptualisationisproblematicasitreifies powerasacommoditypossessedandpassedonbyindividuals.Furthermore,theuseof quantitativemethodstoresearchmentoringactivityhasresultedinhighlysimplified analysisandsubsequentcategorycreation(Colley2003).Thismakesitimpossibletounderstandhowmentorrelationshipsactuallydevelop,inadditiontoproviding‘alimitedviewof what tends tohappenasopposedtotherichpossibilitiesofwhat can happen’(Colley2003,3). Despiteitsobviouspotentialandthewillingnessofmanytobuyintoitsaccompanyingrhetoric then,clarityinrelationtotheconceptofmentoringandwhatitactuallylookslikeinpractice continuestobelimited.

Correspondingauthor.Email:rljones@uwic.ac.uk

ISSN1740-8989print/ISSN1742-5786online

# 2009AssociationforPhysicalEducation

DOI:10.1080/17408980801976569

http://www.informaworld.com

268 R.L.Jones etal.

Inresponse,thepurposeofthispaperistotakebetteraccountoftheresearchedevidence onmentoringfromavarietyoffieldsbeforeprovidingsomeguidelinesofgoodpracticethat couldrealisticallybeappliedtosportscoaching.Intermsofitscontent,followingadiscussionsurroundingdefinitionsandconceptualisations,literaturefromotheracademicand professionalfieldswithregardtomentoringisreviewed.Theseincludenursing,education andbusiness,wherethepracticehasbeenwidelyresearched,establishedandused.Current ‘models’ofmentoringinsportscoachingarethenexaminedbeforeafinalsection,drawing fromalltheliteraturereviewed,offerstentativesuggestionsastothefutureshapeof effectivementoringinsportscoaching.

Definitionsandconceptualisation

Althoughmanyinvariousfieldsagreeonitsvalue,mentoringincoaching,asinotherareas, seemstolackaclearconceptualdefinition(Bloometal.1998).Suchambiguityhasnot alwaysbeenhelpedbytheapparentwillingnessofsometoconcludethatmentoring meansdifferentthingswithdifferentpeopleatdifferentlevels,andleavingitatthat (Galvin2004).Consequently,areviewofthementoringliteratureinbusinessandindustry byGibson(2004,261)foundno‘consistentdefinitionofmentoringordescriptionofmentoringrolesorfunctions’.Indeed,accordingtoParsloeandWray(2000),therearealmostas manydefinitionsofmentoringasthereareindividualcoaches,mentorsortutors.Here,they citetheexistenceof‘corporatementors’whoactasadvisorsatvariousstagesinsomeone’s career,‘qualificationmentors’whoarerequiredbyprofessionalassociationstoguidea candidatethroughaprogrammeofstudy,and‘communitymentors’whoactasfriends orexpertadviserstoindividualsinawiderangeofsituationsincludingpotentiallydistressfulones(ParsloeandWray2000).Thisambiguityisexacerbatedbythebeliefofsomethat mentoringcanbedescribedintermsofthepersonortheprocess(Hagerty1986).

Despitethislackofclarity,mentoringseemstobegainingacceptanceasameansof developinghigh-qualitypractitionersinavarietyoffields,includingcoaching.Intrying toascertaingreateruniversalrecognitionofthetermwithinthesevaryingcontexts, Allemanetal.(1984)refertomentoringasa‘relationshipinwhichapersonofgreater rank,experienceorexpertiseteaches,guidesanddevelopsanoviceinaprofession’ (327).Similarly,Merriam(1983)definedamentorasasupporter,counselandguidetoa prote ´ ge ´ ,whileforFletcher(2000),mentoringissynonymouswithguidingandsupporting atraineethroughdifficultchanges.Otherdefinitionsclaimtheactivityasbeing‘off-line’ help‘byonepersontoanotherinmakingsignificanttransitionsinknowledge,workor thinking’(ClutterbuckandMegginson1999,8),andastheprocesswherebyamoreexperiencedindividualwillinglysharestheirknowledgewithsomeonelessexperiencedina relationshipofmutualtrust(Clutterbuck1991).Similarly,Levinsonetal.(1978)describe amentoras‘amixtureofparentandpeer,[whose]primaryfunctionistobeatransitional figureinanindividual’sdevelopment’(Clutterbuck1991,2).

Althoughtheseareonlyafewdefinitionsofmentoringamongstmany,anundeniable commonemphasisappearstobeplacedupontheguidancefunction(Cassidy,Jones,and Potrac2004).Similarly,ParsloeandWray(2000)concludedthatdespitethedefinitional variety,allincludeverbslikesupport,guideandfacilitate.Thisdovetailswiththebelief thatrealdevelopmentintermsofprofessionalexpertisecannotcomefromcloningor unproblematicallyfollowingasetofgivenrulesbutthroughreflectiononinteraction, researchedknowledgeandpractice(Fletcher2000).Similarly,importance,althoughnot

exclusivity,isplaceduponlistening,questioningandenabling,asdistinctfromtelling, directingandrestricting(ParsloeandWray2000).SuchbeliefsalsounderpinRoberts’ (2000,162)viewofmentoringas‘aformalisedprocesswherebyamoreknowledgeable andexperiencedpersonactuatesasupportiveroleofoverseeingandencouragingreflection andlearningwithinalessexperiencedandknowledgeableperson,soastofacilitatethat person’scareerandpersonaldevelopment’.Takingthisstanceasastartingpointthen, mentoringcanbeseenasdoingsomething with asopposed to atrainee;itisaninvestment inthetotalpersonalgrowthoftheindividual.Itisalso,bynature,heavilycontextualised, andthereforetakesScho¨n’s(1987)calltoworkinthe‘swampofpractice’furtherthanthe previoussuggestionsofholisticpedagogicalstrategies(Cassidy,Jones,andPotrac2004).

Mentoringinnursing

Onefieldwherementoringhasbeeneagerlyembracedoverthepast10yearsasameansof professionaldevelopmentisnursing.Thecatalystherewasthe‘FitnessforPractice’(FFP) curriculum,aninitiativesetupbytheUKCentralCouncilCommissionforNursingand MidwiferyEducation,aimedatmeasuringstudents’competencetopracticeeffectively.It wasdeemedthatstudentsneededtobesupportedinbothclinicalpracticeandeducation tofacilitatetheirlearning(Hughes2004).Althoughtheconceptofmentorshipinnurse educationwasnotnew,theintroductionoftheFFPcurriculumprovidedanopportunity toaddressformallythepersonaltutorrole,re-definingitasamentoringone.Thebasic aimwastostrengthenstudents’theoreticalknowledge,whilstensuringthattheywerefit forpracticeandpurposeattheprogramme’stermination(Hughes2004).

Suchanadoptionhowever,hasnotbeenwithoutitsproblems.Forexample,despiteits widespreaduseintheprofession,StewartandKrueger(1996)considermentoringin nursingtobe‘largelyundefined,borrowedfromotherdisciplines,viewedasstatic,and/or confusedwithrelatedterms’(311).Similarly,othershavehighlightedtheconfusionsurroundingboththeconceptitselfandtheroleofthementorintheprocess(AndrewsandWallis 1999).Consequently,anumberofdifferentmentoringmodelshavebeendevelopedin variousclinicalinstitutionsrangingfromthetraditionalone-on-onedidacticrelationshipto peer,teamandevenE-mentoring;themodelsusedbeingmadeinaccordancewithresources, priorities,andobjectivescongruentwithinagivennursingsetting(ByrneandKeefe2002).

Despitethiscloudinessandinconsistency,researchonstudentperceptionsofthe mentoringprocessindicatesthatthosewhoexperienceit(inwhateverform)consistently ratethemselvesasmoreeffectiveandsupportivethanthosewhohaven’t.Similarly,students appeartoalsoratetheirmentorspositively,irrespectiveofwhethersuchmentorsholda teachingandassessingqualification(AndrewsandChilton2000).Suchprogrammeshave additionallybeenreportedtoalleviatethestressassociatedwithtransitiontopracticefor newgraduatenurses,whilstcontributingtotheirprofessionalgrowthandlearning(ChenowethandLo2001;TheobaldandMitchell2002).Clearlythen,somebenefitsareperceived tooccurfromamentoringprogramme,particularlyfromthosewhoaresubjecttoone. Acceptingthatsuchmodelsmaynotbegeneralizableintheliteralsense,inorderto developadeeperunderstandingofmentoring,weneedtoexplorewhattheactivityin thiscontextactuallylookslike.Itappearsthat,fromtheworkofBusenandEngebretson (1999),thesupervisionprovidedbynursestonovicepractitionersisbothfrequentand extensive.Additionally,manyadvancedpracticenursestogetherwithclinicians,researchers, and/oreducatorsmodelexpertisefornovicesinagivenspecialityarea(Busenand

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Engebretson1999).Here,thetermpreceptingiscommonlyusedtodescribetherelationship betweenastudentandanexperiencedclinician.Thepreceptor‘facilitatesthestudent’sclinicallearning,actsasarolemodel,promotesrolesocialization,encouragesindependence,and promotesself-confidence’(BusenandEngebretson1999,2).Thistypeofmodelechoesthat ofanapprenticeshiporcompetency-basedwhichseemstomarktheinitialstagesofinducting novicesintoanorganisationorprofession.Ontheotherhand,withinnursing,mentors,as opposedtopreceptors,‘aremostoftenself-selected,havenosetboundariesoftermination, andmaybeanyindividualwhoservesasapersonalsupporttoanother’sprofessional development’(BusenandEngebretson1999,2).Mentorsthusappeartohavealess definedrolethanpreceptors,althoughoncloseinspection,theassigneddutiesofbothroles clearlyoverlap.Again,itappearsthatconfusionregardingwhatitmeanstobeamentoris evident.Addingafurthertwist,BusenandEngebretson(1999)claimthatmentorscanbe youngerinagethanprote ´ ge ´ salthoughconsiderablymoreexperiencedinagivenarea.Consequently,‘unlikethewiseoldsageofabygoneera,today’smentorsmaywearmanyfaces, whileindividualsmayhavemorethanonementor’(BusenandEngebretson1999,3).

Inseekingtoclarifytheconceptualambiguity,Yoder(1990)definedmentoringin nursingashavingthreecriticalattributes:(1)astructuralrole,(2)anorganisationalrole, and(3)acareerdevelopmentrelationship.StewartandKrueger(1996)expandedon thesetoincludethecharacteristicsof:(1)ateaching-learningprocess;(2)areciprocity ormutuality;(3)acareerdevelopmentrelationship;(4)aknowledgeorcompetencedifferencebetweennoviceandexpert;(5)atimedurationofseveralyears;and(6)aresonating phenomenonresultinginthosewhohavebeenmentored,mentoringothers.Busenand Engebretson(1999)gofurtherincallingforapositivesynergyorchemistrytoexist betweenindividualsinamentoringrelationshipinadditiontothecriticalattributes outlined.Forthem,asaresultofthischemistrythementoringrelationshipisoftencharacterisedbypersonal,intense,andemotionallychargedexperiences,asthementorhasastake inthefutureoftheprote ´ ge ´ (BusenandEngebretson1999).

However,(unsurprisingly!)thepictureisagaincloudedbyBusenandEngebretson’s (1999)claimthatunstructuredorunfacilitatedmentoringalsooccurs.Thisiswhenthe noviceandtheexpertareinadvertentlydrawntogether,usuallythe‘resultofsome mutualinterestorattractionandaunique,reciprocal,trustingrelationshipdevelopsover anunspecifiedperiodoftime’(BusenandEngebretson1999,3).Itisaclaimsomewhat atoddswithearlierdefinitionsincorporatingastructuredroleforboth.Nevertheless, whatappearstobeimportanthereisthedegreeofmutualrespect,trust,andopencommunicationpresent,whichareconsideredasalmostuniversallyessentialforsuccessfulmentor–prote ´ ge ´ relationships.

Infurtheringtheircritiqueonmentoringinnursing,BusenandEngebretson(1999) recognisethat,inadditiontopresentingmentoringinapositivelight,manyformsofnegativeortoxicmentoringrelationshipsexist.Theyusethreemetaphorstohighlightsuch arrangements;namely‘thesculptor’,‘the“show-biz”mom’,andthe‘master–slaveapprentice’.Allthreesharethecommonfaultofstaticasymmetry(BusenandEngebretson1999). Thesculptorapproachhasitsoriginsinoldermodelsofchildrearingwheretheparentwas responsibleformouldingthechild.Itisaviewwhich‘doesnotcredittheprote ´ ge ´ asa growingentitywithafreewilloracknowledgethemutualityfoundinapositivementoring relationship’(BusenandEngebretson1999,4).Similarly,theshow-bizmomalsotakesits exemplarfromparenting.Itpositionsthemotherasthesuperior,withthechildinadependent,helplessandsubmissiverole.Themother,likethesculptor,‘shapesandmouldsthe

childwiththeintenttocreateanextensionofherself’(BusenandEngebretson1999,5). Consequently,theself-confidenceoftheprote ´ ge ´ iserodedwhilethefearofseparating fromthementorunderminesindependence.Finally,themaster–slavemetaphorisillustrativeofthemostabusiveoftoxicrelationships.Here,thesuperior,inapositionofunchallengedpower,totallycontrolstheexperienceoftheprote ´ ge ´ (BusenandEngebretson1999). Suchrelationshipsarecharacterisedbymentorsgivingtoomuchhelp,adviceanddirection, whilstnotallowingtheprote ´ ge ´ stostrugglethroughproblemsandevenexperiencefailure. Thedevelopmentofproblem-solvingskills,thatareconsideredessentialtoresolvedifficult futuresituations,isthereforeinhibited(BusenandEngebretson1999).

Alternatively,BusenandEngebretson(1999)assertthatgoodmentorsneedtoguideprote ´ ge ´ sasopposedtoforcingthemtoperformbeyondtheirlevelofexpertisewhichcould wellprecipitateprofessionalfailure.Similarly,theybelievethatnotallprote ´ ge ´ s,norall theircharacteristics,shouldbementoredorencouraged.Thisseemstoplacementoring asaservicethatshouldnotbeavailabletoall,buttohaveanevaluatoryfunctioninrelation todecidingwhomtomentor.Finally,theyconsiderthatmentorsshouldindividualise techniquesdesignedtopromotethedevelopmentoftheprote ´ ge ´ .Consequently,mechanised teachingmethodologiesandclinicalpreceptingarenotconsideredmentoring(Busenand Engebretson1999).

Mentoringineducation

Educationalinstitutionshavelongrecognisedtheneedformentoringnoviceteachers.For example,thepracticeofexperiencedteachersmentoringnovicesduringinternshipswhilst collaboratingwithuniversitiestoscaffoldneophytes’developingcompetenciesiswidespread.Thisthree-waypartnershipbetweenpre-serviceteacher,mentoranduniversity valuesboththepracticalandthetheoreticalasessentialelementsofteachingsuccess, andoffersopportunitiesforallvoicestobepartofthepre-serviceteacher’sgrowth. Mentorsthusappeartohaveacriticalroleintheprofessionaldevelopmentofbothpreserviceteachersandschools(Zeek,Foote,andWalker2001).

AccordingtoFletcher(2000),thementor’sremitwithinaneducationcontextissubstantialandshouldextendinto:(1)exploringthepersonaldimensionsandrelatedanxietiesof thenoviceinbeginninganewpost;(2)assistingwithintegratingthenewteacherintothe schoolorinstitution;(3)providingguidanceinrelationtowherehelpfulteachingresources canbegleaned;(4)assistingwiththepreparationanddeliveryoflessons;andfinally(5) guidingthenoviceteacher’spracticeandindicatingalternativeappropriatestrategies withinasupportiveframework.Althoughsuchalistcouldwellappearonamentor’s givenjobdescription,‘forafullerappreciationofthedepthofengagementneededtobe successfulamorecriticalstanceneedstobetaken’(Cassidy,Jones,andPotrac2004, 188).Forexample,somehavearguedthatamentorshouldactivelyempathisewiththeneophyteteacherasthelatterexperiencesthevariousstagesofprofessionaldevelopment, namely‘earlyidealism’,‘personalsurvival’,‘hittingtheplateau’,andfinally‘moving on’(FurlongandMaynard1995).Heorsheshouldalsosystematicallychallengethe menteeasprogressionismadethroughthesestageswiththeintentionofforcingthemto constantlyevaluatetheirwholeunderstandingoftheteachingroleandtheirperformance withinit(Fletcher2000).Inthisrespect,thementoringrolediffersfromthatofco-operating teacher.Thebenefitsofmentoringschemesforallinvolvedarecommonintheeducational literature.Forexample,Brzoska(1987)foundthatmentorteachersexperienceasenseof

272 R.L.Jones etal.

renewalandrejuvenationintheirteachingasaresultoftheirinteractionswithmentees, whileGanser(1992)foundthat‘mentorsexpressedbothpersonalandprofessionalsatisfactionformakingasignificantcontributiontotheprofession’(WrightandSmith2000,204). Similarly,althoughsomecontinuetodescribementoringasthebuildingofanequal relationshipcharacterisedbythesharingofexpertiseandmoralsupport(Awayaetal. 2003),thepredominantportrayalofmentoringintheeducationliteratureisanasymmetrical one.Consequently,despitethelikelihoodthatbothmentorandprote ´ ge ´ couldandperhaps shouldbenefitfromtherelationship,itisobviousonclosescrutinythatthisisnotdonein equalmeasureorfromthesamevantagepoint(Zeek,Foote,andWalker2001;Gilesand Wilson2004).

Echoingtheconcernsoutlinedearlier,althoughmentoringhasbeenlargelypresentedina positivelightwithineducationthereisalsoevidencetothecontrary,withamentor’sinfluenceonaprote ´ ge ´ beingpotentiallyveryconservative(BeckandKosnik2002)orsometimesevenhurtful(Maguire2001;Youngetal.2005).Consequently,mentoringappears tohaveasmuchtodowiththepersonmentoringasithaswiththeroleoccupied.A noteofcautionisalsowarrantedwithregardstothelogisticsofdevelopingmentoringprogrammes.Hence,itwasfoundthatmentoringislesslikelytobesuccessfulwhenteachers aregiventhetaskofmentoringinadditiontoalloftheirotherprofessionalduties.This oftenleadsto‘mentorsandmenteesscramblingtofindtimetonurturethisrelationship’ (WrightandSmith2000,204).Tomaximiseefficiencyithasbeenrecommendedthat mentorsshouldbefinanciallycompensatedfortheaddedresponsibilityinordertoavoid resentmentand,importantly,that‘thematchshouldallowforthosewhoteachinthe samegradelevelsandsubjectareas.[Finally,]careshouldalsobegiventoagedifferences, withnottoonarrowortoowideagap’betweenmentorandmentee(WrightandSmith 2000,204–5).

Withinthefieldofeducationanumberofmentoringmodelshavebeendevised.Thethree mostprominentaretheApprenticeshipModel,theCompetencyModelandtheReflective PractitionerModel(Geen2002).Theapprenticeshipmodel‘assumesthattheoptimumway tolearntoistoemulatesomeonewithexperience... thementor’sroleistoprovideamodel forimitation’(Geen2002,10);amodelwhichclearlyechoesthatofpreceptinginnursing. McIntyre(1994)notesthatmodellingonthepartofmentorsisessentialastheycandemonstratetonewcomerswaysinwhichpupilscansuccessfullylearn.However,toimprove clarityheresomehavearguedthatimportantactivitiessuchasobservationbythe menteerequiremoredetailedexpositionanddiscussion(FurlongandMaynard1995). Furthercriticismoftheapprenticeshipmodel‘pre-supposesthattheteacherisaninfallible expertsuggestingthatstudentsshouldbecomeclonesofthementor’(Geen2002,10–11). Consequently,itmakeslittleprovisionforcreativethought.

Thecompetencymodel,whichinactualitydiffersverylittlefromtheapprenticeship,is baseduponanassumptionthatteachinginvolvestheacquisitionofaspecificsetofcompetencies(Geen2002).Thismodelseesthementor’sroleasactingasacoachor‘systematic’trainerwhoobservesprote ´ ge ´ sbeforeprovidingregularfeedbackontheirprogresswith referencetopre-determinedknowledge,understandingandskills(Geen2002).Criticsof thismodelarguethatteachingcannoteasilybebrokendownintosuchasetseriesof tasksorgivenproficiencies(Geen2002).Finally,thereflectivepractitionermodelis foundedonself-analysisandreflection;practicesthatencourageprofessionalstoquestion theirownactionsandreasonsfordoingthings.Reflectionappearsparticularlyrelevantin pedagogicalactivitieswherepracticeiscomplex,appliedandcontextualised,andinwhich

learning,therefore,requiresadegreeofintrospection(Lyle2002).Itisconsidereda valuablewayinwhichindividualscananalyseandevaluateexperience,enablingthem tosubsequentlylearnfromit(BurnsandBulman2001).Inpractice,however,thingsare notsostraightforward,asstudentsmore-than-oftenwantmentorstoofferopinionson theirteachingratherthantoputquestionsthatencourageself-reflectiononit(Tann 1994).Consequently,DreverandCope(1999)foundthatthereflectivepracticeapproach wasfarlessfavouredbystudentsthanothermodels.

Mentoringinbusiness

Thefocusofmentoringprogrammesseemstodifferbetweenbusinessandacademicsettings.Forexample,inacademiamentoringappearstoconcentrateonthedevelopmentof theperson,whilstinbusinessthefocusisonorganisationaloutcomes.Nevertheless,mentoringandthesupposedbenefitsderivedfromsuchrelationshipswithinbusinesscreates highexpectationsinallparties,withsomeviewingmentoringasanentitlement (Feldman1999).Consequently,inthebusinessenvironment,mentoringschemesarerecognisedasahighlyeffectivewaytoquicklyrampupanemployee’sperformance.Similarto otherareas,however,debatecurrentlysurroundsadefinitionofmentoringinthebusiness literature.Here,anumberofmentoringmodelshaveevolvedthatdifferfromtheclassic dyadicone-on-oneorface-to-facementoringrelationshipsorthecommonlyassumed seniormentorinchargeoftheyounger,morejuniormentee(KlasenandClutterbuck 2002).Forexample,reversementoringreferstoarelationshipbetweenamentoranda menteeinwhichthementorisonalowerhierarchicallevelthanthementee.Intoday’s fast-pacedageofinformaticsandtelecommunication,mentorsmayactuallybeyounger inagethantheprote ´ ge ´ butconsiderablymoreexperiencedinagivenarea(Busenand Engebretson1999).Thistypeofrelationshipcouldalsooccurwhenamorejunior personpossessesinsightsandexperiencethatwillbehelpfultoamoreseniorindividual (KlasenandClutterbuck2002).Althoughintheorysucharrangementssoundfine,when workplacepoliticsandpowerarefactoredintotheequation,thestructureanditsworkings areinevitablynotsostraightforward.

Additionally,peermentoringhasbeenusedeffectivelyinmanyAmericanandBritish organisations(KlasenandClutterbuck2002).Thispracticeinvolvesnewemployees beingmatchedwithapeermentoroveraperiodofafewmonths.Thementorthen becomesthementee’sfirstpointofcontact,helpingthemlearnthe‘ropes’.Kram(1985) confirmedtheimportanceofsuchrelationshipsforpsychosocialandcareerdevelopment acrossallstagesofanindividual’scareer,establishingthat‘suchrelationshipsprovide higherqualityexchanges,greaterreciprocityandgreatercontinuityovertime’(Klasen andClutterbuck2002,121).Thesefindingshavebeenreinforcedbyothermorerecent studies(forexample,EbyandLockwood2005).

Inanexaminationoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofmentoringprogrammesinthe businessliterature,themostcommonlyreportedbenefitsincludedprote ´ ge ´ learning,career planning,andpsychosocialsupport(EbyandLockwood2005).Consequently,echoingthe perceptionofmenteesfromotherareas,evidenceexiststhatindividualswithinbusiness believetheyprosperanddevelopquickerwhentheyaresubjecttoaformalmentoringprogramme(GodshalkandSosik2003).Areasongivenforthisperceptionisthecomplexityof theworkingcontext.Livinginsuchanenvironmentwheretherearefewrules,noright answersandnopredictableoutcomes,somesuggestthatmentoringcanplayadistinctive

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roleinhelpingpeopleto‘tolerate’thisambiguitythroughthesupportoffered,thushelping themtoremaineffective(GarveyandAlred2001).However,arangeofproblemswasalso identifiedspanningfrommentor–prote ´ ge ´ mismatches,toschedulingdifficulties,togeographicdistance.Uniquedifficultieshavealsobeenhighlightedincludingmentorneglect (byprote ´ ge ´ s),unmetexpectations(byprote ´ ge ´ s),structuralseparationfromthementor (byprote ´ ge ´ s),andfeelingsofpersonalinadequacy(bymentors).Inresponse,suggestions forprogrammeimprovementincludeprovidingclearercommunicationofprogramme objectives,bettermatching,targetedparticipationintheprogramme,andbettermonitoring (EbyandLockwood2005).Inafurtherexaminationofhowthementoringexchangeis perceivedandhowsuchperceptionsinfluencefeelingsabouttherelationship,Youngand Perrewe ´ (2000)hypothesisedthatwhenrelevantcareerandsocialsupportbehaviours meettheexpectationsofapartner,higherlevelsofrelationshipeffectivenessandtrust arerealised.Thekeyherethenliesinmeetingthementee’sexpectationsintermsof supportivebehaviourbythementor(YoungandPerrewe ´ 2000).

AccordingtoPrestholdt(1990),threeessentialcorerequirementsmustexistforasignificantmentoringrelationship:Attraction,Action,andAffect.Thesecorerequirements,in varyingproportions,areintegratedthroughoutthefourtraditionalphasesofthementoring relationship(Kram1983).Intheinitiationphase,therelationshipbetweenthementorand prote ´ ge ´ isestablished.Thecareerandpsychosocialfunctionsprovidedbythatrelationship expandtotheirmaximumbenefit,bothforthementorandtheprote ´ ge ´ ,duringthecultivationphase.Duringtheseparationphase,theestablishednatureofthisrelationshipissubstantiallychangedbothphysicallyandpsychologicallyintermsofincreasingdistance betweentheparties.Finally,therelationshipbetweenthementorandprote ´ ge ´ mayevolve intoanewformorendentirelyduringthere-definingphase.Thereisclearinterplay betweenthesementoringstagesandthecareerstagesdescribedbyDalton,Thompson andPrice(1977)ofapprentice,colleague,mentor,andsponsorwhichportraythementoring relationshipasadynamic,evolvingone.Theyalsocorrespondwiththedevelopmental phasesdescribedbyFletcher(2000)intheeducationliterature.Whatneedstoberemembered,however,isthatthesestagesdon’talwaysarriveinalogicalcleansequenceandthat mismatchesinanyorallofthemcancertainlylimitorevendoomthevalueofthementoringrelationship.

Aswithworkinotherareas,mostoftheliteraturepresentstheconsequencesofmentoringinbusinessinapositivelight.ForYoder(1990),however,suchalensisdeceptively ‘rosecoloured’withafinelineexistingbetweenmentorandtormentor.Withinthis context,Scandura(1998)writesthattherearetoxicmentors,toxicprote ´ ge ´ s,andtoxic environments.Anyoneofthesethreeelementscanadverselyaffectthebalancewithin thementoringrelationship.Forexample,therelationshipshouldbeconsidereddysfunctionalifitfrustratesthemajorneedsofeithertheprote ´ ge ´ orthementor,orifoneor bothpartnersengageinspecificconcretebehaviourstosabotagetheworkprojects,or thecareersuccessoftheother(Scandura1998).

Manybusinessorganisationshaveestablishedformalmentoringprogrammes(Darwin 2000).Suchprogrammesareseenasthemostexpeditiousandimmediatelybeneficial approachtoaclearneed:toprovidevaluablecareerenhancementtomorethanjusta selectfew(Zey1984).However,whilemanyorganisationshaveimplementedavariety offormalprogrammes,itappearsthatfewhavealignedthemeitherwiththeirlong-term objectivesorthestrategicpositioningoftheirorganisation(FridayandFriday2002).Alternatively,accordingtoRaginsandCotton(1999),severalkeypointsshouldbeconsidered

wheninstitutingaformalmentoringsystem:forexample,decisionsneedtobetakenin relationastowhowillbementored,onamatchingmethod,thevoluntaryparticipation ofthementorsneedstobeensured,therulesneedtobeminimised,whilethementor’spersonalfreedomwithintherelationshipshouldbemaximised.Althoughthesearegiven points,whatshouldbeavoidedisthetemptationtomechanisethisprocess,thusremoving thehumanelementfromit.

Morerecenttimeshavewitnessedaparadigmshiftfromthetraditionaldyadmodelof mentoringtoatriadmodel:organisation,mentor,andprote ´ ge ´ (Koberg,Boss,and Goodman1998).Thetraditionaldyadmodellimitstheprote ´ ge ´ ’sexposuretoasingleperspectiveandinformationsource.Also,theremaybeasignificantshortageofseniormentors inanorganisation,limitingthenumberofdyadsthatcanbedeveloped(Pololi2002).Consequently,ithasbeenarguedthatothersourcestofeedtoprote ´ ge ´ ’sdevelopmentthencould wellbebeneficial.Finallyinthiscontext,establishinganecessaryclimatewhereamentoringrelationshipcanflourishasintendedwouldalsoappeartobeimportant.Asmentoring, beingarelationshipideallyfoundedontrustandrespectcannotbesubjecttomandate,it mustbenurturedwithintheorganisationalculture(Feldman1999).Althoughsuchstatementsappearfineintheabstract,whatunderminesthem,andhenceourknowledgeofsuccessfulmentoringisthattherehavebeenvirtuallynoempiricalassessmentsofmentor/ prote ´ ge ´ relationshipsovertime.Thisisbecausethetendencyhasbeentolookat mentor/prote ´ ge ´ relationshipsassinglepoints,ratherthanlongitudinally(Feldman1999). Thisisaneglectthatneedstobeaddressed.Qualitativedataofalongitudinalnature lookingatspecificoutcomeandperformancemeasuresforallaspectsofmentoring shouldthereforebecollected.

Mentoringinsportscoaching:thecurrentsituation

Muchoftheresearchcarriedoutoncoaches’knowledgehasidentifiedcoachingexperience andtheobservationofothercoachesasprimarysources(forexample,Jones,Armour,and Potrac2004).DespitePitneyandEhlers’(2004)conclusionthatapaucityofresearch existsinvestigatingandelucidatingthementoringprocessesinsport,iftheactivitycanbe describedaslearningfrommoreseniorothers,thenmuchmentoringdoesappeartobe takingplaceinthesportingcontext(Cushion2006).Indeed,mostsportspeopleandmany coacheswouldfreelyadmitthattheyhavesoughttheadviceofanexperiencedplayeror coachatsomepointintheircareer(Jones,Armour,andPotrac2003,2004).Indeed,ashas beenstated,itisoftenconsideredahighlyeffectivewayfornewcoachestolearntheir role(Bloometal.1998).This‘apprenticeshipofobservation’(Lortie1975;Sage1989; Schempp1989;SchemppandGraber1992)leavesitsmark.Itdoessoasitisthrough suchexperiencesthatcollectiveunderstandingsbegintodevelop,andthesharedmeanings aboutanoccupationalculturestartstotakeshape.Notsurprisingly,muchofwhatanew coachlearnsthenisthroughongoinginteractionsinthepracticalcoachingcontext,aswell asthroughavarietyofinformalsourcessuchasobservingandtalkingwithsignificant othersandpeers(Cushion,Armour,andJones2003;GilbertandTrudel2001).

TheimportanceofexperiencewasreiteratedbyGouldetal.(1990)andmorerecentlyby Jones,ArmourandPotrac(2004),whofoundthattheknowledgedrawnfrominformaleducationwasthemostimportantfactorinthedevelopmentofcoaches.Inherentintheprocess oflearninghowtocoachthenappearstobeanelementofsocialisationwithinasubculture (Jones,Armour,andPotrac2003,2004),withapersonalsetofcoachingviewsemerging

276 R.L.Jones etal.

fromobservationsof,andinteractionwith,existingcoachesof‘howthingsshouldbedone’ (Lyle1999).Acquiringthisvaluablehands-onexperiencegivescoachesinsightsaboutthe ‘dos’and‘don’ts’oftheirprofession.Similarly,noviceshavebeenfoundtoemulateestablishedcoaches’behavioursmostsuitabletothemandtosubsequentlyintegrateinformation relevanttocrystallisingtheirownphilosophiesanduniquecoachingstyles(Bloometal. 1998).Suchformativeexperiencescarryfarintoacoach’scareerandprovideacontinuing influenceoverperspectives,beliefsandbehavioursbothpositiveandnegative(Cassidy, Jones,andPotrac2004;Cushion,Armour,andJones2003).

WorkbyBloometal.(1998)highlightedhowexpertcoachesconsideredthemselvesto havebeenmentored,albeitinformally,notonlythroughtechnical,tacticalandphysical skillsbutalsoinwaysrelatedtophilosophy,valuesandgenerallyhowtodealwith people.Aninterestingconclusionhere,however,wasthatsuchcoachesonlyrealised manyyearslaterhowmuchthismentoringexperiencehadinfluencedtheirlivesboth insideandoutsideofsport(Bloometal.1998;Walton1992).Suchafindingtiesinwith workbyCushion(2001),whocriticisedthecurrentunstructuredanduncriticalnatureof suchcoach‘mentoring’.Itwasconcludedthatsuchaconfigurationwasmuchmore likelytoonlyreproducetheexistingcoachingcultureandpractice;arepetitiveonedimensionalcircleasopposedtoaprogressive,developmentalthree-dimensionalspiral (Cushion,Armour,andJones2003).

Despitethisscepticism,thepotentialbenefitsofaconsidered,organisedmentoringprogrammecontinuetobeargued.ThiswasmostrecentlydonesobyCushionandcolleagues (Cushion2006;Cushion,Armour,andJones2003)wholocateditwithinasocio-educational theoreticalframework.Here,notionssuchasreflection(Scho¨n1987),azoneofproximal development(Vytgotsky1978)andcommunitiesoflearning(LaveandWenger1991)were insightfullydiscussedaspossiblethinkingtoolsaroundwhichtostructureamentoring programme.Whatwasalsoemphasised,takingaccountoftheoftenproblematicpower dynamicinherentinanasymmetricalrelationship,wastherequirementformentorsto possesstheappropriatemixofsocial,culturalandsymboliccapitalto‘carryoff’therole (Cushion,Armour,andJones2003).Althoughitsomewhatbuildsontheearliercasemade byBloometal.(1998)andNash(2003)suchaconceptualisationmarksasignificantstep forwardasitgivesthenotionofmentoringamuchsharperformandshape;inessencesomethingofaroadmaptofollow;a‘jobdescription’ofsorts,groundedinsubstantivetheory. Theneedforsomeformofformalisedmentoringstructurehasalreadybeensomewhat addressedinanumberofcountriessuchasAustraliaandCanada(Nash2003).Similarly, theGermancoacheducationsystemhasfacilitatedopportunitiesforparticipantandelite coachesofferingbothformalandinformalmentoring(Kozel1997;Campbell1993).The desiretoformaliseandarticulatethecontentofsportscoachmentoringthenisundeniablygatheringmomentum(forexample,Cushion2006).ThishasbeenrecentlywitnessedbySportsCoachUK’scall,asthebodyresponsibleforcoacheducationinthe UK,foranin-depthexaminationofwhatcoachesunderstandbythetermmentoring andhowsuchaprogrammecouldbedeveloped.Indeed,thiswouldappeartobethe nextstep;togenerateempiricalevidenceregardingthecurrentnatureofmentoringin sportscoachinginordertoinformmoremeaningfulcoacheducationprogrammes. Indevelopingsuchguidestopractice,investigationsshouldtakeaccountofthedilemmasandnuancesofmentoringrelationshipssothatsuperficial,one-dimensionalaccounts areavoided.Todoso,insightfulqualitativeobservationsperhapscomplementedby reflective,in-depthinterviewsneedtobeengagedwithtouncoverthemicro-realityof

themanyaspectsofsuchrelationshipsthatrevealthequestions,concerns,reactionsand copingstrategiesofallinvolved.Oncesuchalevelofunderstandinginrelationto‘what goeson’hasbeenestablished,betterinformedrecommendationsandconceptsabout mentoringcanbedeveloped.

Atentativemodelofgoodpractice

Sowhatlessonscanbedrawnfromtheliteratureaswetrytoconstructguidelinesofgood practiceinrelationtomentoringforcoaches?Undoubtedly,thereisstillalotofconfusion overwhatmentoringisandwhatitaimstoachieve(Roberts2000).Manyofthequalificationsdevelopedbyanumberoforganisationshavetakenveryspecificandnarrowapplicationsoftheconcept.MonaghanandLunt(1992)alsowarnagainstaprescriptive approach,holdingthatamentorrelationshipcanbeviewedinmanyways,andthatmentoringisacomplex,socialandpsychologicalactivity.Infact,Roberts(2000)arguesthatwe needtoensuretheguidelinesarenothardandfastasthiswouldservelittleifanypurpose. Echoingsuchasentiment,Caruso(1990)notesthat‘manystudiesdonotevenattemptto positanyspecificdefinitionsofthenatureoftheactionofmentoring;rathertheyrefertothe helpfunctionscontainedwithintherelationship,i.e.,guiding,caring,nurturing,counselling andadvising’(Roberts2000,149).AccordingtoKlasenandClutterbuck(2002,118),this istheonlywaytoapproachaconceptualisationoftheactivityas‘eachandeverymentor–menteepairingisunique’.Additionally,theybelievethatover-formalisingthementoring relationshiphindertheformationofrapport,‘affectingthedegreeoftrustandopenness [withinit].This,inturn,hasaneffectonthequalityoftherelationship,andthusthe degreeoflearninganddevelopmentthatislikelytooccur’(KlasenandClutterbuck 2002,118).

Althoughsuchanabstractapproachhasitsadvantages,understandingthedimensions ofmentoringrelationshipsisstillnecessary inthedesignofformalmentoringschemes (KlasenandClutterbuck2002;Scanduraetal.1996).Whatevermentoringmodelis developed,shapedbyuniquepersonal,prof essionalandothersituationalmotives (Scanduraetal.1996),mostdefinitionsoutlinetherelationshipbetweenmentorand prote ´ ge ´ asoneof‘intense’caring.Becauseofthechemistryofthementoringrelationship, suchexperiencesarealmostwithoutexceptionpersonalandemotionallycharged(Busen andEngebretson1999).Thispointistobetakenseriously,as,althoughtherightchemistrywithinamentoringrelationshipcan’tbemandated,itcancertainlybeworkedonand developed.Thiswouldappeartobeofconsider ableimportancewithinsportscoaching,as itisoftenacontextcharacterisedbyfearanddistrust.

Afurthercentraldynamicofanyrealisticmentoringprogrammeisitshierarchicalnature (Bowmanetal.1999).Consequently,thepoliticsthatarepartofanyprocesswherea systemofpowerismanifestneedstobetakenintoconsiderationwhendevelopingsuch aprogramme(Johnson-BaileyandCervero2004).Thisalsooutlinesthementor’sfunction asbeingsomeonewhocanidentifycriticalproblemsandsolutionsand,therefore,socialises prote ´ ge ´ sintoasystembyevokingexcellenceandbybeingacritic(WeaverandChelladurai 1999).Mentoringthusbecomesaninstrumentofsocialisationwhereinmentors‘control thegatesofsocialreproduction’(MargolisandRomero2001,82).Similarly,fromthe prote ´ ge ´ s’standpoint,amentorrelationshipthat‘facilitatesthestudent’sunderstanding ofprofessionalperspectivesisanimportantelementoftheiranticipatoryprofessionalsocialization’(PitneyandEhlers2004,348).Whatshouldberememberedherehoweveris

278 R.L.Jones etal.

thatsocialisationshouldnotonlyreferto‘howthingsaredone’butalsotoencouragean opennessofmindinrelationtoexploring‘howtheycanbedonebetter’.

Inlinewithcontextualconsiderations,weagreewithYoungetal.’s(2005)beliefthat threefundamentaltypesofmentoringrelationshipsareevident;responsive,interactive anddirective.Theresponsivementorlooksalmostexclusivelytohisorherprote ´ ge ´ for ‘guidanceanddirection.Theprote ´ ge ´ setstheactionagendathroughquestionposing ... presentingproblemsandconcerns ... sometimesevenunintentionally’(Youngetal. 2005,175).Mead,CampbellandMilan(1999)identifythismethodasautonomousand linkthistypeofmentoringstyletoprote ´ ge ´ swhoareexperienced.Theobjecthereisto createconditionswithinwhichmenteescanexercisefullcontrolovertheircoaching usingreflection,empathyandpeer-to-peerquestioninginordertocreateanswerstoproblems.However,ifusedunskilfullyatanearlystageinthementoringprocessitcould resultinchaosandconfusionratherthanpurposefulactivityandlearning(Mead,Campbell, andMilan1999).

Interactivementorswillseekaroughrelationalparitywiththeirprote ´ ge ´ s(Awayaetal. 2003),andischaracterisedbyopenconversationonissuesofmutualconcernwiththe mentoractingasafriend,colleagueandtrustedadvisor.Mead,CampbellandMilan (1999)recognisethissortofassociationasco-operativeandseeitasmostappropriate forthemoreexperiencedpractitioner,andasthementoringrelationshipbecomesestablished.Suchassociationsgenerallyexistonlywhenthementorandprote ´ ge ´ recognise eachotheraspeers(Youngetal.2005).However,WeaverandChelladurai(1999)argue thatthissortofrelationshipwillonlyreallydevelopintheseparationphase,atapoint wheretheprote ´ ge ´ hasgainedtheknowledgeandsupportofthementorandseeksindependenceandautonomy(WeaverandChelladurai1999).Thismentoringmodelisoftenheld upasanideal,however,ifusedexclusively‘itcanbecomeacollusivemeansofavoiding eitherpartytakingresponsibilityorowningtheirownpower’(Mead,Campbell,andMilan 1999,284).

Directivementorstakechargeandhaveasetagendatoworkto.Theyalsohaveaclear expectationforprote ´ ge ´ performance,and‘willseek,throughavarietyofmeans,toguide theprote ´ ge ´ andtoencouragecorrectiveaction’(Youngetal.2005,176).Thistypeof mentoringmodeisreferredtoashierarchicalbyMead,Campbell,andMilan(1999),and theysuggestthatitismostappropriateearlyoninarelationship,especiallyifthe prote ´ ge ´ isanovice.However,mentorswhoprovidetoomuchhelp,advice,direction, andguidanceareguiltyofoverkillandcouldeasilyleadtotheprote ´ ge ´ becoming passiveanddependentonthementororleadtoaruptureoftheworkingalliance(Mead, Campbell,andMilan1999;BusenandEngebretson1999).

Similarly,theCoachingAssociationofCanadahasidentifiedthreetypesofmentoring models:supervisory(formal),informalandfacilitated(Marshall2001).Allthreetypesof mentoringrelationshipsfallalongacontinuum,fromthosethatareveryshorttermand informal,tohighlystructured,longtermpartnerships(Marshall2001).Supervisory mentoringisusuallyconsideredtobeafunctionofasupervisor’sduties(Gibson2004). Thisformofmentoringpredominantlyreliesontheabilityofthesupervisortocommunicateknowledgeaboutthejob.Thecombinedsupervisory/mentorshiprolemayhavesome advantagesforprote ´ ge ´ sintermsof‘increasingcommunicationandfrequencyofcontact’ (Gibson2004,262–3).However,thistransferofknowledgemaynotalwaysbeguaranteed (Marshall2001).Also,formalmentorsmaybelesslikelytoreceiveintrinsicrewardsand, therefore,maybelessinternallymotivatedtobeinthementoringrelationship.Such

mentors,therefore,maybelesspersonallyinvestedintheirprote ´ ge ´ s’developmentthan informalmentors(Ragins,Cotton,andMiller2000).

Incontrast,informalmentoringisbasedonthenaturalpairingoftwoindividuals,characteristicallybasedonsomeformofmutualchemistryandtrust,andtypicallyinitiatedbythe prote ´ ge ´ (Marshall2001;BusenandEngebretson1999).Ithasbeenarguedthatapositive synergymustexistbetweenindividualswithinamentoringrelationshipforittobesuccessful(BusenandEngebretson1999).Surprisingly,ithasbeenfoundthatprote ´ ge ´ sinvolvedin informalmentorshipsreportedgreatercareer-relatedsupport(e.g.protection,challenging assignmentsanddirectformsofsponsorship)thandidprote ´ ge ´ sinmoreformalmentoring relationships(Gibson2004).However,‘thispopularstyleofmentoringisalsolimitedinits effectivenessbecausethementormaynotbeawareoftherole’(Marshall2001,5).

Attemptstoreplicateandbuildonthebenefitsofinformalmentoringbyusingformal, structuredmentoringprogrammeshaveledtothedevelopmentoffacilitatedmentoring, asystemendorsedbytheCAC.Thismodelistypicallybasedaroundamorestructured design,incorporating:

. Astrategicallyplannedmentoringprogrammedesign;

. Facilitatedmatchingofmentorsandprote ´ ge ´ s;

. Developmentaltrainingforbothmentorsandprote ´ ge ´ s;

. A‘No-fault’terminationclause;

. Aformalisedcareerdevelopmentplanandtrackingsystem;and

. Aco-ordinator,whoseprimaryroleistoimplementtheprogramme,tomatchthe pairsandthenmonitorprogress,counselandevaluate.(Marshall2001,5)

Regardlessofthetypeofmentoringrelationshipdeveloped,however,itisgenerally agreedthatmentorsneedtoencourageinquisitiveness,‘individualisethelearningexperienceandprovidelearningrelatedadvice’toprote ´ ge ´ s(PitneyandEhlers2004,347).In practice,effectivementorswillmoveappropriatelybetweenthethreestylesofmentoring outlinedaboveinresponsetotheprote ´ ge ´ intheirchargebydevelopingtheirownunique style,playingtotheirstrengthsandmodulatingtheirapproachaccordingtothecircumstancesandtheneedsofmentees(Mead,Campbell,andMilan1999).

Fundamentaltothefoundationofanysuccessfulmentoringrelationshipismutualtrust (BrinsonandKottler1993;Bowmanetal.1999;Thomas2001;Johnson-Baileyand Cervero2004).Thetrustlevelmustbesuchthatbothmentorandprote ´ ge ´ cansharetheir professionalandpersonalshortcomingsaswellastheirsuccesses.Hence,theself-esteem andconfidenceofeachinthearrangementmustbesufficienttosharenotonlythoseexperiencesthatweresuccessfulbutalsothosethatfailed(BusenandEngebretson1999).

Inbuildingonsuchsentiments,theUKgovernment’sDepartmentforEducationand Science(DfES)haveputtogether‘tenprinciples,basedonevidencefromresearchandconsultations,thatarerecommendedtoinformmentoringandcoachingprogrammesinschools andtohelpincreasetheimpactofcontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentonstudentlearning’ (DfESDraftNationalFrameworkforMentoringandCoaching2005,2).Theseprinciples, seemtoaddressmostofthegoodpracticerequirementshighlightedinmentoringresearch fromavarietyoffields.Theyincludeviewingmentoringas:

. Alearningconversation:structuredprofessionaldialogue,rootedinevidencefrom theprofessionallearner’spractice.

280 R.L.Jones etal.

. Athoughtfulrelationship:developingtrust,attendingrespectfullyandwithsensitivity tothepowerfulemotionsinvolvedindeepprofessionallearning.

. Alearningagreement:establishingconfidenceabouttheboundariesoftherelationshipbyagreeingandupholdinggroundrulesthataddressimbalancesinpowerand accountability.

. Combiningsupportfromfellowprofessionallearnersandspecialists:collaborating withcolleaguestosustaincommitmenttolearning;seekingoutspecialistexpertise toextendskillsandknowledgeandtomodelgoodpractice.

. Growingself-direction:anevolvingprocessinwhichthelearnertakesincreasing responsibilityfortheirprofessionaldevelopmentasskills,knowledgeandselfawarenessincreases.

. Settingchallengingandpersonalgoals:identifyinggoalsthatbuildonwhatlearners knowandcandoalready,butcouldnotyetachievealone,whilstattendingboth institutionalandindividualpriorities.

. Understandingwhydifferentapproacheswork:developingunderstandingofthe theorythatunderpinsnewpracticesoitcanbeinterpretedandadaptedfordifferent contexts.

. Experimentingandobserving:creatingalearningenvironmentthatsupportsrisktakingandinnovationandencouragesprofessionallearnerstoseekoutdirectevidence frompractice.

. Usingresourceseffectively:makingandusingtimeandotherresourcescreativelyto protectandsustainlearning,actionandreflectiononaday-to-daybasis.(DfES2005,2)

Withregardtotheselectionandtrainingofmentors,thestructureofthementoringprogrammeemployedneedstobeconsidered(seeLayton2005).Theseincludeanopeninvitationtocoachesthatwouldnormallyrequireapplicantstocompleteaquestionnaire outliningtheirskills,expertiseandtheiraimsinbecomingamentor.Oncescreenedit couldthenbepossibletoestablishadatabasetohelpmatchtheskillsofthementorwith thegoalsofthementee.Othermethodsofselectioncouldincludetheuseofrecommendationsfromkeyindividualswithinthesportorthosewithpreviousmentoringand/or otherrelated(Layton2005).

Althoughcrucialtothesuccessoftheventure,matchingmentorstomenteesisnotan exactscience.Nevertheless,toreducetheincidenceofmismatches,factorswhichneed tobetakenintoconsiderationincludegender,ageandculturalissuesaswellasparticipants’ personalities(Layton2005;EbyandLockwood2005).

Prote ´ ge ´ s,therefore,needtobepairedwithmentorswithwhomtheysharesimilar, althoughnottoosimilar,worldviews.Indoingso,potentialproblemsdueto‘varying culturalcommunicationpatterns,interpersonalstylesandcultural-racial-ethnicheritages thataboundincross-culturalmentoringrelationships’canbemoreeasilyaddressed (Johnson-BaileyandCervero2004,13–14).

Indrawingthisreviewtoaclose,itcanbeconcludedthatmentoring,bothgenerallyand specificallywithinsportscoaching,remainsanill-definedactivity.Thepurposeofthis reviewwastoclearsomeoftheambiguitysurroundingconceptualisationsofmentoring andproposesomeguidelinesofgoodpracticewithinwhichtoframetheactivity.Finally then,fromtheworkexamined,itcanbeconcludedthataneffectivementoringprogramme willgenerally,althoughnotexclusively,consistofanumberofelements.Theseinclude considerationof:

. Formalisingthementoringrelationship(Roberts2000)althoughbeingawareofthe dangersofover-formalisation(KlasenandClutterbuck2002).Nevertheless,an agreementshouldbeestablishedbetweenthementorandmenteeinrelationtothe groundrulesof,andexpectationsfor,therelationship(WrightandSmith2000).

. Focusingandidentifyingtheneedsofthepersonbeingmentoredatthebeginningof therelationship.Thisalsoinvolvessettinggoalsforthementoringexperienceandto periodicallycheckthatthesegoalsarebeingmet(EbyandLockwood2005).

. Providingachallengeforboththementorandcoachisaprerequisite,as,forany relationshiptobesuccessful,bothpartiesmustbenefit(Johnson-Baileyand Cervero2004).Fromthementee’sperspective,thiscouldincludetheinsightfulintroductionoftheorybythementortofacilitatetheformer’scognitiveandinnovative development(Cushion2006).

. Flexibilityinthedegreeofformalityinvolvedinthementoringprogrammewill accommodatethefullrangeofpossiblementoringrelationshipsandavoidthepossibilityofover-mechanisingtheprocess(BusenandEngebretson1999).

. Trainingprovisionformentors.

. Supportisvitalforthementorbothprofessionallyandfinancially.Inthiscontext, mentorsshouldhavetheopportunitytosharetheirexperiencesinregularfeedbacksessionsandhavethespaceandtimetodotheirjobproperly(WrightandSmith2000).

. Appreciatingthatmentoringisafluidanddynamicprocess,requiringpatienceasto evolvethroughseveralstages.

. Takingcarewiththeassignmentorself-selectionofmentors(Johnson-Baileyand Cervero2004;Layton2005).

. Similarly,adegreeofmutualtrustbetweenmentorandmenteeappearsnecessaryfor asuccessfulmentoringrelationship(BusenandEngebretson1999).

. Thementoringprocessshouldbeafacilitative,nurturingonenotallowingmentorsto dominateproducingclonedcopiesofthemselves(Cushion,Armour,andJones2003; Layton2005).

Acknowledgement

ThisworkwassupportedbyagrantfromSportsCoachUK.

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