PLASTICIZED_the commodification of plastic waste KATHERINE MARCYAN M.ARCH THESIS 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS THESIS STATEMENT page 5-6
LEXICON Page 9-10
A NEW NETWORK
Page 12-30 The life cycle of plastic Plastic extraction The IINC Northeast Pacific Gyre Outpost The Inundation of Pacific Islands
TELLING A WORLD
Page 31-45 Plastic Manufactoring Pacific Trash Vortex Kamilo & Kanuku Beach Cleanup
TECHNOLOGIES
Page 46-61 The Ocean Clean Up Project Plastic Station Off Shore Oil Platform Plastic 2Oil Machine Polynesian Outrigger Canoes
POLITICS OF THE PACIFIC
Page 62-71 Colonialism of the Pacific United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea
References Page
THESIS STATEMENT
Plasticized: the Commodification of Plastic Waste Coined by Timothy Morton as “entities of such vast temporal and spatial dimensions that they defeat traditional ideas about what a thing is in the first place�, hyperobjects have existed long before the anthropocene and will continue to exist long after. None the less humans have managed to have a profound impact on the creation of some hyperobjects including climate change and plastic waste. This thesis positions itself where the two hyperobjects collide by promoting the collection of plastic waste, transformation of it into petroleum, and redistribution of the petroleum to worldwide markets for economic gains. With this new source of revenue island states under the threat of inundation can reappropriate existing technologies such as floating construction methods, wind, solar, and wave energy as well as finance research to further development for new technologies to build a floating nation. The thesis theorizes that by leveraging rather than seeking to contain the hyperobjects of the Pacific, a new aquatic urbanism will emerge. The project concerns itself with the geopolitics of waste within the realm of the Pacific by proposing the creation of a committee of the United Nations (the inundated island Nation coalition) to internationally represent these island states while manifesting itself in the form of a trading outpost and plastic refinery sited within the Northeast Pacific Gyre and projecting expansion into other regions of the world.
An Empire of Plastic
Of a 42 gallon barrel of crude oil, half is used in the production petroleum products while the by-products, hydrocarbons, are converted into plastic. Current worldwide plastic production is estimated at 300 million tons a year. It has been reported that plastics accounts for 80% of the $ 3 trillion annual revenue of the international chemical industry. This thesis projects into a fictitious, yet all too plausible future where the extraction of fossil fuels and thus the production of plastics is a mere memory. For a time, the recycling of plastic is at an all-time high transforming what was once waste into a prized commodity.
Setting the Stage Every hour humans discard an estimated 2.5 million plastic containers into the world’s oceans where given time, the majority is sucked into the vortex that is the Northeast Pacific Gyre, amassing into an amorphous “island” of waste known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Researchers believe the area of this patch to be twice the size of Texas and at a depth of 300 meters. The Gyre lies in international waters far beyond the territorial jurisdiction of any one nation. Humans created it yet humans refuse to lay claim over it. It is undesirable waste yet what if this waste suddenly became a valuable resource? Simultaneously 2,000 NM south of the gyre island nations such as Kiribati and Tuvalu brace themselves for the inevitable inundation of their homeland as rising sea levels threaten to sink the atolls. Some experts predict complete submersion by the end of the century. Armed with little to no economic capital the inhabitants will be the first climate change refugees of this century.
The Narrative
The year is 2020, the location, 38N-145W or the center of the Northeast Pacific Gyre. After the success of the Ocean Cleanup Project many mega corporations such as Royal Dutch Shell and British Petroleum, and Exxon Mobil decide to abandon the massive offshore oil rigs in favor of the smaller, less expensive plastic collection stations. The Pacific has now become a plastic waste field as these stations spring up tens of nautical miles apart harvesting the now precious plastic and storing it until it can be shipped to the back to shore for refinement. The stations require very little maintenance and as a result workers only visit the site once every 45 days to empty the station’s holding cistern. Meanwhile IINC has managed to seize an abandon oil platform and relocate it to the Northeast Pacific Gyre. This newly renovated plastic refinery serves as a trading post and colony for the many plastic extraction workers (or scavengers as the oil companies call them). The IINC pays the workers based on commission, refines the plastic into petroleum, and then ships it out on freights to the very nations that discarded the plastic in the first place. With the profits split between the IIC nations the funds have supported research into aquatic infrastructure that will withstand the inundation of the islands while giving these nations financial independence not seen since before the 19th century.
LEXICON
PLASTIC
(N) Syllabification: plas·tic Pronunciation: /’plastik / A synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers such as polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc., that can be molded into shape while soft and then set into a rigid or slightly elastic form. -Oxford Dictionary
GYRE
(N) Syllabification: gyre Pronunciation: /’jī(e)r / A spiral; a vortex Geography_ A circular pattern of currents in an ocean basin -Oxford Dictionary
PHOTODEGRADE
(V) Syllabification: pho·to·de·grade Pronunciation: /fōdōde grād / Of a substance or object) be decomposed by the action of light, especially sunlight -Oxford Dictionary
Coalition
(N) Syllabification: co·a·li·tion Pronunciation: / kōeliSH(e)n/ An alliance for combined action, especially a temporary alliance of political parties forming a government or of states: -Oxford Dictionary
WASTE
(N) Syllabification: waste Pronunciation: /wāst / An act or instance of using or expending something carelessly, extravagantly, or to no purpose: Material that is not wanted; The gradual loss or diminution of something: the unusable remains or byproducts of something -Oxford Dictionary
INUNDATION
(N) Syllabification: in·un·da·tion Pronunciation: /inen’dāSH(e)n/ Flooding -Oxford Dictionary
COMMODIFICATION
(V) Syllabification: com·mod·i·fi·ca·tion Pronunciation: / ke,mädefekāSH(e)n/ The action or process of treating something as a mere commodity: -Oxford Dictionary
HYPEROBJECT
(N) Syllabification: hy·per·ob·ject Pronunciation: / hīper äbjekt/ “Entities of such vast temporal and spatial dimensions that they defeat traditional ideas about what a thing is in the first place.” -Timothy Morton
A NEW NETWORK
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Plastic photodegrades into tiny pieces of micro-plastic
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PALAU MALAYSIA SINGAPORE
INDONESIA
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KIRIBATI
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
EQUATOR
JARVIS ISLAND
KIRIBATI
KIRIBATI
TUVALU TOKELAU
SOLOMON ISLANDS
COOK ISLANDS WALLIS + FUTUNA SAMOA ISLANDS AMERICAN SAMOA
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FIJI
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TONGA
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THE LIFE CYCLE OF PLASTIC EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONES SHIPPING LANES CURRENT PLASTIC NETWORK
CURRENTS PROPOSED PLASTIC NETWORK PROPOSED OUTPOST LOCATION
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The Life Cycle of Plastic Plastic is a byproduct of petroleum extraction. After it is refined into plastic and transformed into a product (mainly single use containers) it makes its way to the consumer whom inevitably disposes of it. whether it is recycled or placed in the trash the vast majority of plastic in the United States ends up in a landfill where it is washed downstream into the water ways and makes its way into the ocean. Once in the ocean the currents carry the plastic across hundreds of thousands of miles to distant shores or to the center of the gyres. This process takes years to decades depending on where the objects enter the ocean. For example Japanese items from the tsunami of 2011 reached US shores as early as 2013 riding the strong Kuroshio Current while other items will remain in the gyre or sink the bottom of the ocean where researchers believe up to 70% of the ocean’s plastic waste resides. 80% of this waste is land base where naval vessels only account for 20% of ocean pollution. Once in the water plastic photo degrades breaking down into microplastics while releasing toxins into the ocean and absorbing others. Many sea creatures are affected by the presences of plastic, causing physical damage such as sea turtles getting caught in ghost nets (tangled plastic nets) and fish and albatross eating plastic , or environmental as invasive species attach to the plastic and ride it across the ocean to foreign ecosystems. Because fish have been contaminated by plastic it is virtually impossible for humans to eat fish from seas and even fresh water lakes without digesting plastic themselves. The proposed plastic network integrates itself within this already vast life cycle of plastic. The goal is to collect the plastic in the Pacific, chemically transform it into petroleum, and then redistribute it into the world market.
Plastic to oil reďŹ nery equipment
Small vessel docking
Deep sea SPAR oil rig reappropriated for plastic reďŹ nery use
Worker and visitor lodging
The Inundated Island Nations Coalition Northeast Pacific Gyre Outpost
The Inundated Island Nations Coalition Northeast Pacific Gyre Outpost
Islet of Tarawa Island, Kiribati 2015
Islet of Tarawa Island, Kiribati, 2045
Islet of Tarawa Island, Kiribati 2075
Islet of Tarawa Island, Kiribati, 2100
Building Framing + Base Aggregation
BALCONY OPTIONS
Public/Private OPTIONS
Fully private PLATFORM OPTIONS
Footprint of house
Exposed side pop-out
Enclosed side pop out
Private with open public walkways
Exposed roof balcony
Private with enclosed public walkway
Exterior sidewalks
Patio
Private upper levels public lower level
Yard
FLOATATION OPTIONS
Rain water collection storage cells
Plastic bottles
Barge platform
The Inundation of Kiribati
TELLING A WORLD
Plastic bottle manufacturing plant, Omni Plastics_ Suzhou, Ch Shell Petrochemicals
A PLASTIC WORLD “Plastics account for 53% of the material used in packaging... in the United States a third of garbage landfill annually is packaging- 83 million tons, equivalent to 6.9 million semitrucks. It is the largest category of solid waste, according to the EPA. “ -Plastic Oceans, pg 130
“Of a forty-two-gallon barrel of crude oil, 42% will be used to make petroluem products... the rest, lighter fractions are cracked into individual hydrocarbon compounds... Oil refineries process oil. Chemical plants make things like plastics and pesticides from petroleum by-products.” -Plastic Oceans, pg 34
“The international chemical industry is worth a reported $3 trillion annually, and the plastic part reportedly accounts for up to 80%.” -Plastic Oceans, pg 246
“Current estimates put world wide plastics production at 300 million tons a year, fifteen million tons more than the annual world consumption of meat... .” -Plastic Oceans, pg 41
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SOUTH EAST AUSTRALIA CURRENT
PACIFIC OCEAN_CURRENTS AND GYRES GYRES COLD CURRENTS WARM CURRENTS AREAS WITH INTENSE PLASTIC DEBRIS
ANTARCTIC CIRCUMPOLAR CURRENT
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The Great Pacific Trash Vortex Every hour humans discard an estimated 2.5 million plastic containers into the world’s oceans where given time, the majority is sucked into the vortex that is the Northeast Pacific Gyre, amassing into an amorphous “island” of waste known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Discovered in 1997 by Captain Charles Moore on a return voyage from a sailing competition, the vortex has inspired the creation of many research and non-profit organizations worldwide such as Algalita Research Institution (founded by Morre), Project Kaisei and Ocean Recovery Alliance (both founded by Douglas Woodring) , and The 5 Gyres Project (founded by Marcus Eriksen). These organizations working in tandum with renowned NOAA and Scripps Research Institution estimate the area of this patch to be twice the size of Texas and at a depth of 300 meters. Plastic is not biodegradable and only photodegrades, breaking down into smaller micro-plastics but on a chemical level, always remaining plastic. The Gyre lies in international waters far beyond the territorial jurisdiction of any one nation.
Captain Charles Moore with Gyre Sample_Northeast Pacific Gyre Matt Cramer, AMRF, 2002
NORTHEAST PACIFIC GYRE
“This is what we found in the middle of the Northeast Pacific Gyre. Microplastic bits weighing on average six times more than plankton in our samples. A total of 27,484 of plastic flakes, chunks, and pellets sifted from an eighty-mile-by-three foot-wide strip of mid-ocean. [we] have calculated 2.7 pounds ofplastic particles per square mile in the 62,458 square-mile study area- the size of Wisconsin- where we pulled our samples , an average of 334,271 per square kilometer. This works out to 84.3 tons of tiny little plastic bits in this tropical Gyre. “ -Plastic Oceans, pg 116
“Plastic is like an invasive species. Once established, it doesn’t go away. the oceans, to a point, can assimilate pollutants, even oil. But oil that’s been catalyzed and converted into a synthetic form, plastic, doesn’t dissipate. It accumulates. Its presence on earth grows by 300 million tons each year.” -Plastic Ocean, pg 118
Plastic Pollution in Manila Bay_ Manila, Ph Joshua Mark Dalupang, EPA
A scavenger in a dugout canoe paddles through a sea of garbage along a Manila waterway_ Manila, Ph JAY DIRECTO/AFP/Getty Images, 2005
Kamilo Beach Sunrise_Hawaii, USA Suzanne Fraser, B.E.A.C.H.
Kahuku & Kamila Beach Cleanup, Hawaii “On the southeast coast of Hawai’i Island, the small 1 km cove near Kamilo Point accumulates tons of the debris escaping the gyre. The natural combination of local currents, strong onshore winds in this region, and the low sandy beach appear to make it an ideal deposition site for floating debris. However, we humans must take the blame for the presence of this non-natural debris in the ocean. Aproximately 15 – 20 tons of debris wash ashore here annually. About every other month, HWF coordinates a community-based cleanup effort at the “dirtiest” section of this coastline. On average, they bag and remove about 3,600 lbs. of marine debris in a single day’s effort. By weight, about 62% (199,600 lbs.) of the total debris removed has been derelict fishing net bundles. Nets are generally pulled from the shoreline using a specialized winch/cable and hook setup connected to the HWF pickup. About once a year HWF ships about seven tons of these nets to O’ahu in a donated 40’ Matson® container for inclusion in NOAA’s Nets-to-Energy program where they are burned to create household electricity. The remaining 38% (120,500 lbs.) of the debris removed includes a wide variety of colors, shapes, sizes, and functions but almost all of which (>90%) are composed of plastics. Finds range from everyday items like shampoo bottles, combs and toothbrushes; fishing industry items like buoys, hagfish eel traps and glowsticks; mariculture leftovers like oyster spaces; children’s items like army toys; and a remarkable number of unidentifiable bits and pieces, broken fragments and resin pellets (aka “nurdles”). Some of the more interesting debris items include a full-size refrigerator with Japanese kanji, a military box with Soviet Union tags, and a select few glass floats made in Norway, Korea or Japan.”
-Restoring “Plastic Beach” Back to Kamilo Point, 2013
Plastic Debris on Kahuku Shoreline_Oahu, USA Nina Wu, 2011
Plastic Sand_Kamilo Beach, Hawii, USA Jeffery Ernst, AMRF, 2007
TECHNOLOGIES
Ocean Cleanup Station 3_ Northeast Pacific Gyre The Ocean Cleanup
The Ocean Cleanup “The Ocean Cleanup develops technologies to extract, prevent, and intercept plastic pollution. The Ocean Cleanup’s goal is to fuel the world’s fight against oceanic plastic pollution, by initiating the largest cleanup in history. Boyan Slat is The Ocean Cleanup’s founder who, while diving in Greece at age 16 became frustrated by coming across more plastic bags than fish. He then wondered: “Why can’t we clean this up?” While still in secondary school, he decided to dedicate half a year of research to understand plastic pollution and the problems associated with cleaning it up. This ultimately led to the passive cleanup concept, which he presented at a TEDx conference in 2012. To be able to show the concept he envisioned is technically feasible and financially viable, Boyan Slat paused his life as a first-year Aerospace Engineering student, to focus all his time to developing it. Together with a team of 100 people, The Ocean Cleanup commenced on an extensive feasibility study. On June 3rd 2014, The Ocean Cleanup presented the 530-page feasibility study report (authored by 70 scientists and engineers), which indicated the concept is indeed a feasible method to clean almost half the Great Pacific Garbage Patch in just 10 years. In the pilot phase, The Ocean Cleanup will now work towards a large-scale and operational pilot in 3-4 years’ time. To get the funding needed to start the pilot phase, The Ocean Cleanup raised over 2 million dollars through crowd funding. In 2012, The Ocean Cleanup Array was awarded Best Technical Design at the Delft University of Technology. Boyan Slat has been recognized as one of the 20 Most Promising Young Entrepreneurs Worldwide (Intel EYE50), and was awarded the Sustainable Entrepreneurship Award in 2014. After collecting almost half a ton of plastic from the Hawaiian shoreline, The Ocean Cleanup measured how degraded the plastic was, which turned out to be surprisingly positive. With this knowledge we continued testing, and proved ocean plastic is suitable to be turned into oil. We have also been testing whether or not the plastic can be turned into new materials through mechanical recycling, with promising results.”
-The Ocean Cleanup, 2014
segmented inner tube for flotation (Ă˜ 1.5m)
Ballast (sand)
Non-permeable skirt (3m)
Load carring cable (steel)
Catenary taut leg conďŹ guration mooring line
The Ocean Cleanup Boom system 0m
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Mesh Conveyor 16m 6,000m³
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Ballast 41m
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Mooring lines 3x (120° from each other)
Battery compartment
The Ocean Cleanup station
Workover rig Flare boom
Boat docking
Strakes
Mooring fairleads
+125’ Drilling deck +100’ Production deck +75’ Cellar deck -55’ Deck 10 Deck 9 Deck 8 Damage control bulkhead
Deck 7 Deck 6
Production riser buoyancy cans Variable ballast
Deck 5 -220’ Deck 4
Seawater fills centerwell Tanks used for trimming during tow out and instatllation
SPAR Steel Hull Offshore Oil Rig Platform
Deck 3 Deck 2 -650’ Deck 1 Open to the sea
SPAR Offshore Oil Rig Platform There are many different offshore oil platform designs used across the globe but the tried and true SPAR platform is the most reliable design for deep sea drilling withstanding open sea conditions. “Today’s oil rigs are truly gigantic structures. Some are basically floating cities, employing and housing hundreds of people. Other massive production facilities sit atop undersea towers that descend as far as 4,000 feet (1,219 meters) into the depths - taller than the world’s most ambitious skyscrapers. In an effort to sustain their fossil fuel dependency, humans have built some of the largest floating structures on Earth.” “The drilling platform sits atop a giant, hollow cylindrical hull. The other end of the cylinder descends around 700 feet (213 meters) into the ocean depths. While the cylinder stops far above the ocean floor, its weight stabilizes the platform. A network of taunt cables and lines trail out from the cylinder to secure it to the ocean floor in what is called a lateral catenary system. The drill string descends down through the length of the cylinder’s interior and down to the ocean floor.” - Robert Lamb, 2008
Processor No. 3 at JBI’s Niagara Falls, NY, USA Plastic2Oil
Plastic2Oil “With its revolutionary Plastic2Oil (P2O) technology, JBI has pioneered the development of a process that derives ultra-clean, ultra-low sulphur fuel which does not require further refining, directly from unwashed, unsorted waste plastics.�
-Plastic2Oil, 2014
Cooling tower Chimney Draft fan Smoke scrubber Burn chamber Waste gas burner Condensers Sync gas recycling system Distillation column Chamber
Plastic ReďŹ nery Equipment
Plastic2Oil “The conversion ratio for waste plastic into fuel averages 86%. Approximately 1 gallon of fuel is extracted from 8.3 lbs. of plastic. The processor uses its own off-gases as fuel (approximately 10-12% of process output); minimal energy is required to run the machine. Approximately 2-4% of the resulting product is Petcoke (Carbon Black), a high BTU fuel. Emissions are lower than a natural gas furnace of similar size, and the quality of the emissions improve with increased feed rates.�
-Plastic2Oil, 2014
Crab Claw Sail
Akas (crossbeams)
Manu (stern and bow pieces)
Vaka (main hull)
Vaka Taurua (Maori double sailing canoe)
Crab Claw Sail
Ama (windward hull)
Vaka (main hull)
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The Tepukei ( Melanesian/ Polynesian ocean-going proa)
Makoko Floating School, Lagos, Nigeria NLE
Makoko Floating School “A new initiative aimed at assisting the clustered Makoko community area of Lagos, South-West Nigeria to adapt to the effect of climate change has resulted in the construction of a floating school, courtesy of NLE- an architectural firm with the support of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Africa Adaptation Programme and Heinrich Boll Stiftung. The Floating school, designed in a triangular shape on two floors to withstand wind and sea level rise, is built on water with planks and light materials sourced locally.�
-Kayode Aboyeji, 2013
POLITICS OF THE PACIFIC
UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA UK commonwealth 1901
TUVALU UK commonwealth 1978
REPUBLIC OF FIJI republic 1987
KINGDOM OF TONGA sovereign state 1970
SOLOMON ISLANDS UK commonwealth 1978
COOK ISLANDS NZ associated state 1965
REPUBLIC OF KIRIBATI republic 1979
NIUE NZ associated state 1974
REPUBLIC OF NAURU republic 1968
INDEPENDENT STATE OF SA soverign state 1962
REPUBLIC OF VANUATU sovereign state 1980 British-French condominium 1906-1980
FRENCH REPUBLIC
NEW ZEALAND UK commonwealth 1852
FRENCH POLYNESIA FR overseas collectivity 2003
1899 TRIPARTITE CONVENTION partitioned the Samoan Islands into German Samoa and American Samoa Germany gives Solomon Islands and Ton
NEW CALDONIA FR special collectivity 1999 SECOND SAMOAN CIVIL WAR 1898
WORLD WAR I 1914-1918
League of Nations Trusteeship 1914 German territoties, German Samoa + Nauru (German Marshall Islands) given to UK
LE 19
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY
COLONIALISM OF THE PACIFIC NATION
PUBLIC ENTITY
EVENT
ACTION
CONNECTION
PREVIOUS ASSOCIATION
AMOA
nga to uK
EAGUE OF NAITONS 920-1946
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
COMPACT OF FREE ASSOCIATION 1985
GUAM USA unincorporated territory 1950
REPUBLIC OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS sovereign state 1979
AMERICAN SAMOA USA unincorporated territory 1967
FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA sovereign state 1984
COMMONWEALTH OF NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS USA commonwealth 1978
REPUBLIC OF PALAU sovereign state 1994
UNITED STATES MINOR OUTLYING ISLANDS
TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS united nations 1947-1951
JARVIS ISLAND USA incorporated territory 1856 JOHNSTON ATOLL USA unincorporated territory 1859 KINGMAN REEF USA unincorporated territory 1860
UNITED NATIONS 1945
WORLD WAR II 1939-1945
TREATY OF PARIS 1898 Spain gives Guam and the Philippines to USA
MIDWAY ATOLL USA unincorporated territory 1867 WAKE ISLAND USA unincorporated territory 1899 PALMYRA ATOLL USA incorporated territory 1912
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 1898
KINGDOM OF SPAIN
HOWLAND AND BAKER ISLANDS USA unincorporated territory 1974 GERMAN-SPANISH TREATY OF 1899 Spain gives Northen Mariana Islands to Germany
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PITCAIRN ISLAND NORFOLK ISLAND
NZ
POLYNESIA
NEW ZEALAND
COLONIALISM OF THE PACIFIC_POST WWII 1947 AUS
INDEPENDENT NATIONS
FR AFFILIATED
USA AFFILIATED
AUS AFFILIATED
UK AFFILIATED
NZ AFFILIATED
EASTER SLAND
+200 NM High Seas
11 NM Territorial Sea
24 NM Contiguous Zone
200 NM Exclusive Economic Zone
National Economic Zones
25M 50M 100M
150M
United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea 10 December 1982 Amongst its 320 articles the UN convention laid down rules and guidlines for the world’s oceans and seas including the creation of national economic zones. National Economic Zones: 11 NM Territorial Sea Exclusive enforcement jurisdiction for all matters 24 NM Contiguous Zone jurisdiction for customs, immigration and sanitary matters 200 NM Exclusive Economic Zone Limited jurisdiction in areas of pollution, marine natural resources, national security +200 NM High Seas Subject to UNCLOS and other international treaties but freedom of high seas applies. Vessel are subject to the jurisdiction of the flag they fly All other States have freedom of navigation and overflight in the EEZ, as well as freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines; Archipelagic States, made up of a group or groups of closely related islands and interconnecting waters, have sovereignty over a sea area enclosed by straight lines drawn between the outermost points of the islands; the waters between the islands are declared archipelagic waters where States may establish sea lanes and air routes in which all other States enjoy the right of archipelagic passage through such designated sea lanes; Coastal States share with the international community part of the revenue derived from exploiting resources from any part of their shelf beyond 200 miles;
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