FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROSOCIOLOGY IN RELATION TO DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROSOCIOLOGY IN RELATION TO DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

1Former Technical Director & Head Water System M.N.Dastur& Co Ltd. Consultant, Tata Consulting Engineers External Examiner, School of Water Resources Engineering, Jadavpur University

Abstract - The importance of water as a Resource, a Commodity and as an important component of the EnvironmentandEcologicalsetupisincreasingveryfast.In fact we are reaching at a point of water crisis. Water encompasses practically all facets of our life and society. Hydrosociologydealswithallaspectsofinteractionbetween waterandsociety.Thispaperdealswithsomeoftheissues relatedtovastnessofthiseverincreasingproblem.

Key Words: Riparian Rights, Water Poverty Index, Water Footprint, Ethics, Ecology

1. INTRODUCTION

Waterisanessentialandbasicresourceforthedevelopment ofhumancivilization.Humanlifeoranyotherformoflife would not have been possible without existence of water. When we talk of water we mean fresh water of quality tolerable by human beings and all animal and plant life existing on landmass of mother earth. If we look at the worldmapwefindthathumanpopulationisconcentrated aroundariverorlakewhichservesassourceoffreshwater. AlltheoldcivilizationslikeEgypt(Nile),Iraq(Euphrates), India (Ganges, Sindh) have grown around major rivers. Waterisonesuchitemwhichisconnectedwithallaspectsof life and also an integral part of overall environment. Utilizationofwaterfordevelopmentneedsinvolvementof complete domain of human knowledge .Water is equally essential for rich and poor, educated and uneducated and personsfromall strata ofthesociety.Further, wateris an essential ingredient for development of industries, agriculture,ruralandurbansettlement.Althoughwaterisa verybasicandimportantresource(muchmorecomparedto Goldor,Diamond)tilltodaynonormhasbeencreatedfor fixingthe priceof waterat source. Rather, thisabsence of logicalpricingofthisessentialresourcehascausedimmense damageanddeteriorationofourenvironmentthroughmost ofourpresentdaydevelopmentalactivities..Thesituationis quite complex and should be studied with a holistic approach

2. HYDROSOCIOLOGY DEFINED

HYDROSOCIOLOGY is that branch of science which deals with interaction of community activities, governance, religious actions, health & hazardrisksinitiated through pollution,flood&drought,international&nationalpolitics

and basin economics with climate change, hydrometeorologicalfactors,hydro-geomorphicparametersand hydrogeologicalfactorskeepinginviewoverallgrowthplan ofthecountry.ThevariousbranchesofHydrosociologyare:

1. HydrolegalStipulations

2. Hydropolitics

3. HydrologicalWarfare

4. HydrologicalRiparianrights

5. HydrologicalGovernance

6. WaterPovertyIndex

7. WaterFootprint.

8. Hydroreligiousactivities

9. Hydroeconomics

10. Hydroethics

Hydro-sociologicSystemSetUpprovidesaplatformwhere the joint operations of Man and Water Resources are necessarily involved. Hydro-sociologic system is a set of interactingandindependententitiesrelatedtosocietyand water resources forming an integrated system with a definiteboundaryandalsocertaininputsandoutputswith water resources forming the throughput. Man’s symbiotic relationship with water is so obvious that Chorley (1969) hassuggestedthatthereshouldbeadoptionofunifiedview of earth and social sciences in general and study of hydrologyinparticular.Hydro-sociologicsystem operates through the collision of socioeconomics, socio- legal and hydrologiccycle.Inordertokeepinviewthebroadplatform of Hydro sociology one has to understand and appreciate that race, class, gender, rich, poor, religion, caste, creed , country,continent,plantlife,animallife,overallecological setup are all central elements to the issues of dam construction, bottled water, pricing of water, equitable distributionofwater,streamflow,groundwaterlevel,flood, drought,waterquality,fisheriesdevelopment,coastallife, globalwarming,limitstogrowth,foodandwatersecurity, international and national disputes, riparian rights, and waterrelatedlegalissues.

3. HYDROSOCIOLOGY AND CIVILISATION

If one follows the civilizational history it will be observed that waterhasbeenplayingamajorroleintherise,decline andfallofdifferentcivilizations.Nearlyallgreatcivilizations oftheworldhavegrownaroundwater.Thewaterbodyhas notonlysuppliedfreshwaterfordrinkingandsanitationbut

alsoforagriculture,trade,transportanddefense.TheIndian Civilization,EgyptianCivilization,OmayyadDynasty(Syria& Iraq), Roman Empire were all founded on their access to water which provided their population with the means to surviveandexpand.Thedemandandimportanceofwateris increasing with expansion ofcivilization.Humanprogress hasalwaysbeenconditionedonadvancesinwaterscience and their application through engineering and technology forthebenefitofsociety.TheIndusvalleycivilizationsuchas Harappa and Mahenjodaro represent one of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley civilizationgrewonthebankoftheSindhu(Indus)riverand extendedfromBaluchistantoGujrat.SindhuRiverhastaken its birth in the mountains of Tibet and flows West ward. Sindhu was very important for India in ancient days. The Indus civilization was a precursor of the later civilization. .Saraswati Sindhu civilization flourished during 3000 to 1700BContherivervalleysoftheIndusandSaraswatiand after the drying up of the river Saraswati many people migratedtotheGangaYamunaDoab.Theimportanceofthe NileRiverintheancientEgyptiancivilizationisveryhigh. FlowingintoEgyptfromanelevationof1800mabovethe sealeveltheNiledepositedsilt,naturalfertilizer,alongthe bank in Lower Egypt. The sacred water of the Nile characterized every important aspect of the Egyptian Civilization. Ancient Egyptians developed highly complex irrigationmethodstomaximizetheeffectoftheNilewater. TheTigris-EuphratesriversystemispartofTigrisEuphrates alluvial Salt Marsh eco-region of the Middle East and is characterizedbytwolargerivers,theTigrisandEuphrates. Historically,theareaisknownasMesopotamia.Aspartof thelargeFertile Crescent it sawthe earliestemergence of literateurbancivilizationintheUralperiodforwhichreason it is often termed the “Cradle of Civilization”. This river systemsupportedtherichagriculturalregionsofSyriaand Iraq which were part of the Omayyad Empire (661 – 750 AD). The development of Roman Empire bear ample evidenceofwaterrelateddevicesandstructures.Therivers Rhine and Danube are huge streams and they formed the northern border of the Roman Empire. The first Roman aqueduct was built in 312 BC. Connecting cities to water supplies and drainage of waste water through drainage channelswasacharacteristicoftheentireRomanEmpire.

4. HYDROSOCIOLOGY AND RELIGION

Water plays a prominent role in all major mythological systems.InHinduMythologywaterhasbeenrecognizedasa Primordial Spiritual symbol since the Vedic period (Baartmans, F, 1990). Water is considered to have an intrinsicpurityandcapacitytoabsorbpollutionandcarryit away. Water is considered the most common medium of purification.VedicPhilosophybestowsasacredcharacteron water. The role of Mother Ganga in Hinduism and the significanceoftheenormousfuneralpyresinthesacredcity ofVaranasishowhowimportantwaterisinourlifeandeven after death. Neptune was the God of the sea in Roman

Mythology.FromthereligionsoftheScandinavianVikingsto the monotheistic desert religions of the Middle East the importanceofwaterisveryclear.InPolynesianmythologya largefishwasidentifiedasanislandbybrotherofMani.In the ancient Egyptian religion ocean was personified as a formless divinity. Ancient Egyptians tried to understand theirplaceintheuniverseandtheirmythologycenterson nature, the earth, sky, sun moon and the Nile River. It is statedthatinthebeginningoftimeeverythingbeganwith Nu (a description of what the planet was before land appeared).Nuwasavastareaofswirlingwaterychaos.The first God to appear out of the watery mess was Atum. According to Shinto legend the original couple of creation plungedintotheprimordialoceanandthengavebirthtoa seriesofislandsincludingthearchipelageofJapan.

5 HYDROSOCIOLOGY AND CULTURE

Waterisanintegralpartoflifebothforsurvivalandcultural expression. Water has served as a stimulus for many differenttypesofart.Sea,rivers,lakes,cloud,haveallserved asmotivepowerbehindart,music,literature.Leonardoda Vinci described water as “the Vehicle of Nature” just as” bloodina human body”.He alsoobservedthedestructive power of water in storm and flood. Water in its different form is a source of recreation. Water is a key element in manyotherrecreationalandsportsactivitieslikeswimming, fishing,boatingandcamping.

6. HYDROSOCIOLOGY AND ASTROLOGY

Astrologically,thewatersymbolizesemotion.Watermoves indeeprivers.Itseeksitsownlevelandflowsuntilitfinds itsownlevel.Thecycleofwaterisendlesswiththesnows fallinginthemountainsandmelting.Themountainstreams jointomakegreatriversthatruntothesea.Thetidesand currentsmeettheoceans.Similarlyourfeelingsareflowing astheyconnectthepresentwiththepastexperiences.

7. HYDROSOCIOLOGY AND POLITICS

Restructuring of a nation may depend on water. Radcliff award of 1947 regarding boundary between India and erstwhileEastPakistan(PresentBanglaDesh)atthetimeof IndianIndependenceinvolvingKhulna,Murshidabad,Malda andNadiadistrictsforpartitioningthethenBengalprovince was primarily based on the consideration of equitable distributionofwaterresources.Waterisasourceofconflict among nations and states. Immediately after partition in 1947IndiaandPakistanwerelockedinadisputeovershare of water from Indus Basin. However, with the technical backing of World Bank this problem was finally solved throughInduswaterTreaty.IndusWaterTreatywassigned in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by the Indian Prime MinisterPanditJawaharlalNehruandPresidentofPakistan FieldMarshalMd.AyyubKhan. TheFarakkaBarrageonthe GangesRiverlocatedinWestBengalroughly10Km.From

theborderofBanglaDeshwascompletedin1974-1975.The DamwasbuilttodiverttheGangesWaterintotheHooghly Riverduringdryseasontoflushoutaccumulatingsiltatthe major Kolkata Porton the HooghlyRiver.Bangladeshand India are engaged in a long standing debate on how the constructionofFarakkabarrageisaffectingtheagricultural activitiesinBangladesh.Butpresentlythisdisputehasbeen solved amicably .Nepal and India share one of the biggest Geo-hydrologicalregionscalledGangaBrahmaputrabasin. MahakaliTreatyonwatersharingwassignedbetweenIndia andNepalbyPrimeMinisterofIndiaMr.P.V.NarsimhaRao and Prime Minister of Nepal Mr. Sher Bahadur Deuba. National andInternational Conflictsarealways associated withpoliticalimplications.Asfarbackasin1979toanalyze the political developments in relation to the international watersoftheMiddleEastWaterbury(1979)introducedthe conceptofHydropolitics.WolfusedthetermslikeHydroConflictsandHydro-Coperation.(Biswas1994)whiledealing withthehydropoliticalhistoryoftheriverbasinsoftheNile, Jordan & Euphrates. Hydrological matters represent a critical dimension in the Arab Israeli Conflict. And this dimension is increasing at a fast rate with increase in population. Stephan Libszewski (1995) has presented a detailedaccountofvariousaspectsofthiscrisis.Thebulkof Syria’swaterdemandiscoveredbytheEuphrates.Lebanon hasanumberofsmallriversintheirhillregion.Waterbeing a very important resource in this region Water related infrastructures have been a military target of numerous skirmishesandwarsthroughoutthecourseofArabIsraeli conflict.However, water’sroleasa catalystofconflicthas not been particularly pronounced. The Southeastern Anatolia Development Project of Turkey plans to utilize a majorpartofwateroftheEuphratesandtheTigrisrivers with the construction of 22 dams and 19 Hydroelectric Power Plant projects. This project created a great deal of resentmentfromSyriaandIraqwhoaretheotherriparian’s oftheEuphrates TigrisBasin.In India presentlythereare several disputes in water sharing between various State Govts. These are briefly presented below: 1) Vansadhara RiverWaterDisputebetweenOrissa&AndhraPradech.2) Mahadayi/MandoviRiverDisputebetweenGoa,Karnataka & Maharashtra. 3) Krishna River Water Dispute between Maharashtra, Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh. 4) Cauvery Water Dispute between Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Pondicherry.5)SharingofAvailableWaterofRavi&Beas betweenPunjab,Rajasthan,Jammu&Kashmir&PEPSU.6) Dispute between Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh over constructionofBabhaliBarragebyGovt.ofMaharashtrain thereservoirsubmergenceareaofSriramSagarProject7) MullaPeriarDamIssuebetweenKeralaandTamilnadu.In India most of the disputes are handled through tribunals according to INTER STATE WATER DISPUTES ACT, 1956. This Act had to be amended several times to take care of problems in a comprehensive manner. Even The Sarkaria Commission hot involved in the Water Disputes between different States in India and they have made number of recommendationsincludingpreparationofadetaileddata

base on Water Resources of different States. Various International Bodies have also been engaged to deal with problems related to sharing of water between different countries. Some of these efforts are presented below : 1) 1966 Helsinki Rules : Adopted by the International Law Association at the 52 nd Conference held at Helsinki in August,1966, the rules govern use of water in an International Drainage Basin except as may be provided otherwise by Convention, Agreement or binding custom among the Basin States. 2) UN Sponsored Conference on Water at Mar Del Plata, Argentina, 1977 3) The Hague Declaration,19894)WorldWaterCouncil,Montreal,1995 5)GlobalWaterPartnership,19966)WorldWaterForum, Morocco,1999.ThemostrecentInternationaldisputeaffects IndiasinceChinaisusingWaterasatoolforaggressionby constructingdamsonBrahmaputraRiverwhichoriginates from Tibet.China is alsodoingthe same thingonMekong River.

7. HYDROSOCIOLOGICAL SET UP & HUMAN ACTIVITIES:

Itisaparadoxthatalthoughhumanbeingshaveunderstood andappreciatedthevalueofwaterresourcesfromthedawn ofcivilizationnoefforthasbeenmadetoprotectthisvery importantresource.Eventodaywearedumpingdomestic sewage and industrial effluent in rivers and other water bodies.Eventodaywearefeelingupnaturalwaterbodies forrealestatedevelopment.Weareoverirrigatingourland tocreatesalinityalkalinityproblem.Weareover-pumping ourcoastalaquiferandinitiatingseawaterintrusion.Weare over-pumpingourinlandaquifertocreatearsenicpollution or fluoride pollution. The time has come to include the economicsof thesedamagesinouroverall socioeconomic planning.Ghosh,(1999)andGhosh&Mallick(2002)have attempted to study impact of industries and other human activitiesonHydro-sociologicalset-up.GhoshandMukherjee (1980) carried out an ecological survey in the three settlementsofRanaghat.Animportantaspectofthisstudy wasevaluationofperceptionofruralpopulationtofactors relatedtowaterpollutioninitiatedbyhumanfactors.Infact morethan75%reportedthattheyhavenotseenanybody contaminatingwaterbodybybathingorwashingclothes.Of course 70 % reported that they do not get clean drinking water.However, presently thesituationhasimprovedsofar asawarenessisconcernedbuttilltodayinruralIndiaillness andchilddeathduetolackofcleandrinkingwaterisamajor healthproblem

8. WATER POVERTY INDEX

Water Poverty Index: Lawrence, P, Jeremy, Meigh and CarolineSullivan(2002)haveformulatedanindextermed “WATER POVERTYINDEX“toexpressaninterdisciplinary measure which links household welfare with water availabilityandindicatesthedegreetowhichwaterscarcity impactsonhumanpopulation.ThisindexenablesNational

and International Organizations concerned with Water ProvisionandManagement tomonitorboththeresources availableandSocioeconomicfactorswhichimpactonaccess anduseoftheseresources.TheideaofWaterPovertyIndex istocombinemeasuresofWateravailabilityandaccesswith measuresofpeople’scapacitytoaccesswaterinholisticway that brings in the diverse aspects and issues that are relevant.

9. VIRTUAL WATER AND WATER FOOTPRINT:

VirtualWaterisdefinedasthevolumeofwaterrequiredto produce a commodity or service. The concept was introduced by Allan in 1993, 1994 (Hoekstra Et Al, 2007).The virtual water content of a product can be classified as: 1) Green Virtual Water: Rainwater which evaporates2)BlueVirtualWater:SurfaceorGroundWater whichevaporates.3)GreyVirtualWater:Theportionwhich becomespollutedduringproduction.TheconceptofVirtual Waterlinksalargerangeofsectors.TheconceptofVirtual Waterlinksalargerangeofsectorsandissuesthatrevolve aroundrelievingpressureonwatersources,ensuringfood security,developingglobalandregionalwatermarkets.The WaterFootprintConceptwasintroducedbyHoekstraand Hungintheyear2002.Thewaterfootprintconceptisclosely linkedtothevirtualwaterconcept.Thewaterfootprintisa consumptionbasedindicatorofwaterusethatcouldprovide usefulinformationinadditiontothetraditionalproduction sector based indicators of water use (Hoekstra and Hung, 2002).VirtualWaterTradereferstothetransferofvirtual water associated with the transfer of commodities. It has emergedasanewfieldofWaterManagementwhichmaybe utilized as a strategy to eliminate Water Scarcity and to achievewaterandfoodsecurity.During1995to1999,USA, CANADA, THAILAND, ARGENTINA, INDIA, AUSTRALIA, VIETNAM,FRANCE,GUETEMALA&BRAZILwerethemajor exporter of Virtual Water and SRI LANKA, JAPAN, NETHERLAND,KOREA,CHINA,SPAIN,INDONESIA,EGYPT, GERMANY,ITALY were the net importer of Virtual Water. The quantum of virtual water in various agricultural and industrialproductsarepresentedinTable1Below:

10. WATER PRICING AND HYDROSOCIOLOGY.

Pricessignalvaluetocustomersandhelpdeterminewhether consumers use waster efficiently. Pricing of water is intimatelyrelatedtovariouskeyHydrosociologicalfactors like Water Governance, Water Rights and Affordability. Water Pollution Control , Treatment and Reuse of Waste Water are also intimately connected with overall water governanceandpricing.Sinceaccesstowaterisintimately connectedtoabasicsocialrightpricingofwaterhasalways metwithsomeresistanceparticularlyfromsocialactivists. Considering this economists have long advocated the “Pollutant Pays” principle. OECD Countries have taken positive steps to implement water pricing (Tom Jones, 2003). Till date there is no specific guidance regarding pricing of water at source. However, most of the govt. agencies and municipalities fix some nominal charges to cover part of their expenses towards treatment, pumping andpipeworksystem.Andforthisseveralpricestructures maybefollowed(EPA,1998).Theseare:1)IncreasingBlock Rate2)TimeofDayPricing3)WaterSurcharges4)Seasonal Rates.Oneveryimportanthydrosociologicalfactorwhich affects implementation of uniform pricing policy is the affordability. Since water is intimately connected to basic healthsystemofpopulationatlargeandsinceinanysociety thereareneedypeoplethechargemustmatchthelevelof affordabilityofdifferentstrataofthesociety.Thus,success of a Water Pricing System for municipalities, irrigation or industriesdependonthefollowingfactors:1)Willingnessto Pay2)CapacitytoPay3)CapacitytoCharge4)Willingness to collect. This aspect has been discussed in detail with reference to Irrigation Reforms in Karnataka by Barton, David,Raju,K.V.AndMcNeilDesmond.

11.PRIVATIZATION AND HYDROSOCIOLOGY

WiththeadventofthewaveofLiberalization,Privatization andGlobalizationmakingtheroundsthroughouttheworld theconceptofprivatizationofwaterhasalsotakenitsroots. However, Privatization proposal in this key public service sectorlikewaterarestronglyopposedbypoliticalandsocial groups throughout the world. The most recent of such protest is seen in protests at 5th World Water Forum in Istanbul on16thMarch, 2009.Agroupofprotesters from severalNon-GovernmentalOrganizationsraisedtheslogan“ NoCommercializationofWater”,“NoPrivatizationofWater Assets”,”WaterisLifeitcannotbeSold”.Inordertogodeep intotheproblemwehavetoanalyzetheprobleminvarious parts: 1) Natural Source of Fresh Water: Rivers, Lakes, Aquifer 2) Structure for Tapping Natural Water: Intake/ InfiltrationWellonRiver/Lake,BoreWellforUnderground Water.3)StorageofWater:Dams/Barrage/Weir/Onground Reservoir/UndergroundReservoir/OverheadReservoir.4) PumpingandconveyanceofRawWater5)TreatmentofRaw Water 6) Pumping and Conveyance of Treated Water 7) DisinfectionofTreatedWater8)StorageandDistributionof treatedwater.9)Collection&TreatmentofWasteWater10)

Recirculation of treated waste water for industries and urban settlement. 11) Canal System for Irrigation 12) Operation & Maintenance of Water Assets Thus, it is observedthatthemostimportantpartofWaterisitssource inNatureandobviouslyitbeingpartofoverallenvironment shouldnotbeprivatizedandallcitizensoftheworldshould haveequalrightforthis.WhethertheWaterrelatedassets like pumping system, treatment system, piping system shouldbeunderthecontrolofGovt.Sectororparticipation of private sector should be welcome needs to be debated. However,whenitcomestoOperationandMaintenanceof the system along-with revenue collection it has been observedthatprivatesectorworksmuchbetterthanGovt. Sector.However,PrivateSectormustfollowsomeguiding principles

12. ETHICS AND HYDROSOCIOLOGY

Waterisabasicresourceandoneofthemostimportantpart of overall environment where everybody has equal right. Handling, treatmentandconveyanceofthiscommodityto every citizen’s door step needs efficient handling of the system for which private sector participation may be essential.However,keepingallaspectsinviewwehaveto bringtheconceptofEthicstotheareaofWaterResources. Ethics is traditionally regarded as the Science of the rightnessandwrongness,goodnessandbadnessofhuman conduct. Mishra (2004) has characterized Ethics as a normative discipline. Ethics is not concerned with what humanbeingsdobutwhattheyoughttodo.Thisbringsinto focusestablishmentofaphilosophicallyacceptedstandard of moral judgment. Here man is the only animal endowed withrationalityandmanisconsideredtobethemoralagent. Mitra(2004)hasobservedthattheevolutionofthehuman brain is explosive. The skull area of human species has undergoneenormousdevelopmentwithinlasthalfamillion years.Man’sjourneyasananimalspeciesisrathershortand curious.Manislatecomerinthe500millionyearshistoryof lifeonearth.Yetmanhasmultipliedinsuchashorttimeto 80 billion creatures and have invaded a wide range of habitats. In the path of development of lifestyle, human beingsdidnotfaceanycompetitionfromanyotherspecies and thus, human beings have developed a concept of civilizationwheremanissupremeandrestofthenatureis consideredanentitytoservemankind.Tillrecentlyman’s sphereofmoralityincluded onlyhuman beings. However, nowthetimehascomeforhumanbeingstousetheirbrain and mind to save the mother earth and whole ecological system.Thebasicprincipleshouldbemanhasnotinherited the world resources buttheyhaveborroweditfromtheir futuregeneration. Hassan(2004)hasobservedthatwateris one of our enduring human symbols of life, regeneration, purityandhope.Itisoneofthepotentlinkswiththesacred, with nature and with our cultural inheritance. With the water crisis looming large it is our opportunity to bring waterforwardasamediumforaglobalhydro-sociological project that unifies humanity in a single cause for peace,

stability,amityandecologicalstabilityand securityofthis vitalinternationalresourceswhichisalsoaveryimportant andessentialcomponentofoverallecologicalsetup.

REFERENCES:

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2) Barton, David N, Raju K.V&Desmond McNeill, Water ValuationandPricing–WhenaretheyusefulinWater Management. Striver Policy Brief/Issue No.3. NorwegianInstituteforWaterResearch(NIVA)

3) Biswas,Asit,K ed. (1994),International Waters of the MiddleEast,FromEuphrates–Tigris–Nile,Bombay, OxfordUniversityPress,1994

4) Chorley,RichardJ(1978),IntroductiontoGeographical Hydrology,SpatialAspectsoftheInteractionsbetween Water Occurrence and Human Activity, London, Methuen,1978.

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7) Ghosh,AsokKumar(2004),RoleofHydrosociologyin SustainableWaterResourcesManagement,TowardsA Better Tomorrow, Part II : Environmental Issues, pp 218-225

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9) Ghosh,A.K.&B.N.Mukherjee(1980),EcologicalSurvey ofThreeSettlementsinRanaghatBlockII,CouncilOf SodialDevelopment,NewDelhi,p120

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11) Hoekstra, A.Y & A.K.Chapgain (2007), Water Foot PrintsofNations:WaterUsebyPeopleasaFunctionof Their Consumption Pattern, Water Resour Manage (2007),21:35-48.

12) Hoekstra,A.Y.&Hung,P.Q(2002),VirtualWaterTrade: A Quantification Of Virtual Water Flows between NationsinRelationtoInternationalCropTrade,Value ofWaterResearchReportSeriesNo11,UNESCO-IHE DELFT.

13) Jones,Tom,(1999),PricingWater,OECDEnvironment Directorate

14) Lawrence,Peter,JeremyMeighandCarolineSullivan, (2002), The Water Poverty Index, : An International Comparison.KERP,KeeleEconomicsResearchPapers. 2002/19

15) Libiszewski Stephan (1995), Water Disputes in the JordanBasinRegionandTheirRoleintheResolutionof ArabIsraeliConflict.ENCOP,SwissPeaceFoundation Berne.

16) MishraPushpa(2004):EnvironmentEthics:TowardsA BetterTomorrow,PartII,pp165-19717)MitraKumar (2004) : Environmental Ethics:In Search of A Better Tomorrow, Towards A Better Tomorrow, Part II, pp 206–217.

17) Waterbury, John (1979), Hydro politics of the Nile Valley,NewYork

Author detail

BE(Mining),PhD(Hydrology)

Hydrology, Hydrogeology, Water Resources, Industrial & Urban WaterSystem.