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HOFSTR A UNIVERSIT Y MUSEUM

Cover image: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kuba peoples Helmet Mask (Bwoom), 19th-20th century Wood with sheet copper, cowrie shells, fur, beads, fabric and hair 17 3/4 x 11 1/4 x 18 3/4 in. Hofstra University Museum Collections Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU96.56

HOFSTR A UNIVERSIT Y MUSEUM

AFRICA: Sub-Saharan Diversity January 26-August 12, 2016 Emily Lowe Gallery

This exhibition is made possible by the New York State Council on the Arts with the support of Governor Andrew Cuomo and the New York State Legislature. Additional funding for this exhibition and catalog has been provided by the New York Community Bank Foundation. © 2016 Hofstra University Museum All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the Hofstra University Museum.

“ In light of events and discussions on college campuses across the country, it is important for us to remember that we strive to emphasize diversity in every sense at Hofstra: in our classrooms, in our campus life and in all aspects of our community. Education and awareness of our history, our cultures and customs allow us to understand and respect one another. It is at the foundation of a liberal arts education and the basis for living in a democratic society. We also believe that a college campus must be a safe space, a place where students can explore who they are and who they will become, living with and learning from people of all backgrounds ...” Stuart Rabinowitz President, Hofstra University November 2015 The Hofstra University Museum’s mission, “... advances knowledge and understanding through experiences with authentic works of art from the world’s diverse cultures.” The Museum’s exhibitions and educational programs seek to initiate and facilitate rich and varied cultural and artistic explorations in an atmosphere that promotes the open exchange of ideas.

Foreword

In AFRICA: Sub-Saharan Diversity we feature works from the Museum’s Collections highlighting the rich diversity and individuality of a wide range of cultures found in the Western and Central nations of the vast continent of Africa. The exhibited works offer a gateway for our visitors to gain further knowledge and understanding of the varied practices, societal mores and values, as well as the spiritual life, of the individuals that have inhabited specific regions of a number of Sub-Saharan nations for centuries, as reflected in the selected objects dating from the late 19th through mid-20th centuries. Our global society requires us to become ever more knowledgeable about our world neighbors, our fellow inhabitants of a truly diverse planet. As President Rabinowitz aptly encourages us to learn about the cultures and customs that define our world, this exhibition provides some of the tools to further our education. It is our intention that visitors will be impacted by the finely crafted sculptural figures, masks, weapons, jewelry and textiles exhibited, ultimately leading to either new insights or reinforced prior knowledge about the diversity of peoples and cultures that have coexisted, and in many cases, continue to exist on this second-largest continent. We extend our sincere thanks to those generous individuals, including Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Baird, Tony and Pura Chen, Roda Graham, Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James and Eleanor Imperato, Herman Klarfeld, Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, and Dr. Frederick Mebel, who have understood the cultural and educational significance of gifts of African art to the Hofstra University Museum. We additionally thank Dr. Imperato for his cogent and insightful essay written specifically for this exhibition. Karen T. Albert, associate director of exhibitions and collections at the Museum, has carefully chosen specific works to highlight her selected themes of masquerade, prestige and protection that reflect the cultures and practices of the Sub-Saharan regions of Africa. Her accompanying essay and didactic information, written with the assistance of Kristy L. Caratzola, collections manager, help guide us to the meaning of a number of the featured objects in the exhibit and their particular cultural significance. Lastly, we are grateful to Barbara Roux, the New York Council on the Arts and the New York Community Bank Foundation for their generous support of this exhibition and catalog.

Beth E. Levinthal Executive Director Hofstra University Museum

AFRICA: Sub-Saharan Diversity When traditional African art is viewed from a Western, that is an American or European, perspective it is often seen as a monolithic entity. In reality there is a tremendous diversity of cultures and art forms across the continent, with the broad term “African” encompassing all the indigenous ethnicities, languages and artistic output of a richly diverse continent. Africa is the second-largest continent and the second-most populous. It includes a wide range of environments and geographic features such as deserts, forests, jungles, mountain ranges, lakes and one of the longest rivers in the world, the Nile. African cultures, which pre-date contemporary national borders, change not only from country to country but also within individual nations.

Curator Statement

In Western art museums, works of African origin are most often viewed as aesthetic objects. Presented on pedestals and under Plexiglas, the cultural context, whether religious, societal or political, has been removed; the objects are no longer shown in all their complexity with associated costumes, music, dances and narratives. Western art history is generally presented as a linear timeline with a focus on stylistic changes, individual artists, and ways that artists have influenced each other. African art does not fit into such a chronological format and, since the turn of the 20th century, it has been defined as “exotic” or “primitive” in both American and European art museums. Western artists have appreciated the formal properties captured in African art, such as composition, texture and pattern, and often created their own collections. Early modern artists located in Paris, such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse, pursued ideas outside the boundaries of academic art and were especially drawn to objects arriving from the French colonies in Africa, incorporating “tribal” elements in their own work. Similar to many cultures around the globe, religion and spirituality were dominant forces in African life, family and society. The use of masks, cult or ancestor figures, and sculpture were common across many African ethnicities, giving concrete or physical form to the spiritual. In general, each object served a specific purpose in the society in which it was created and, hence, the object’s full meaning is lost without the connection to its original function. Wood, iron, clay, bronze and ivory were the primary sculptural materials used across the region. Most wooden objects were carved from a single block with pattern, texture and simplified lines either incised into the wood or painted on using natural mineral or plant-based pigments; the objects could be heavily ornamented with beads or shells. Disproportionally enlarged heads were characteristic of many African figures with the head seen as the center of character and emotion. An example of a typical stance for a sculptural figure includes arms positioned at the sides, eyes front and the figure’s weight evenly distributed on both feet. While specific beliefs vary greatly across the continent, many African peoples described the universe consisting of two realms: the earth and the otherworld. The earth was the visible, tangible world of the living and the otherworld the invisible realm of the sacred (deities, ancestors and spirits) that influence human affairs. Worship rituals, utilizing sculptural figures, and masquerades, in which the performers temporarily embodied otherworldly beings, mediated the connections and communications between the two realms. The exhibited works of art, which date from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century, fulfilled these roles. It is important to note that these objects reflect only a portion of the Sub-Saharan cultures. Most sculpture was produced and used by men, limiting our knowledge of how women related to ethnic traditions throughout the varied cultures of these regions of Africa. Many masks and figures from these areas were associated with elite or secret religious or political groups, excluding numerous members of the community. It was also the male population of these regions that generally oversaw and performed the masquerades, in which they would take both male and female roles.

For all the similarities, there were numerous differences depending upon geographic location, community traditions and myths. The objects themselves varied greatly in shape, size and embellishment. There were no general standards of representation since the form and meaning of the objects are intrinsically linked to their function, the specific qualities of the subject and to the individual ethnic group. The exhibition, AFRICA: Sub-Saharan Diversity, contains sculptural figures that range in scale from the nearly life-size Standing Female Figure with Janus Head (HU93.5) from the Mitsogo peoples of Gabon to the small Dogon bronze Mother and Child (HU2005.3.34), which could fit in your hand. Some of the works are simple carved wood with a stain or use patina, where the surface appearance has been altered through handling and use, while others are fully embellished with a variety of materials such as pigments, metal, beads, shells, raffia and fur. Masks from Sub-Saharan Africa can be large enough to cover the head and shoulders of a performer, such as the Nimba (d’mba) Mask (HU92.54), or relatively small, only hiding the wearer’s face like the Female Face Mask (HU96.41) of the Dan peoples. Similar objects within a specific ethnic culture can have different characteristics. One example is the headdress used by the tyi wara society of the Bamana people. The horizontal (HU89.13) and vertical (2013.4) forms of the Chi Wara headdresses shared the same symbolism but originated in different regions of Mali. They combined various characteristics of animals to create a creature with great power: the horns of the antelope with the body of an aardvark and/or pangolin. The more abstract vertical Chi Wara, like most African sculptures, was carved from a single piece of wood while the horizontal style was made of two connected pieces – the head and neck are separate from the body. AFRICA: Sub-Saharan Diversity encompasses three broad categories: masquerade, prestige and protection. While the exhibition groupings focus on one specific aspect of the works of art, many of the works can easily fit within more than one of the categories. Masquerade was an important artistic tradition throughout Africa and often served to connect the otherworld to the earthly world. The masked performances fulfilled a variety of functions and were often religious or spiritual ceremonies petitioning the deities or ancestors for protection from natural elements and enemies, a positive agricultural season, and the welfare of initiates and the deceased. They could also serve as instruction, entertainment and narrative storytelling. Mask forms related directly to the way they were used and there was a wide range of types. The Nimba (d’mba) Mask (HU92.54) from the Baga peoples of Guinea was worn over the shoulders and completely covered the head. Other masks, such as those from the Bete peoples (HU97.38, HU95.23) and Dan peoples (HU85.58, HU96.41), covered the face of the wearer. The Buffalo Mask (HU2014.9) and Chi Waras (HU89.13, HU2013.4) are examples of headdress-style masks, which were worn on the top of the head or the forehead. During their lifetime of use, masks were often further embellished and/or repainted before each use. Large and elaborately detailed masks and costumes denoted a greater honor to the deity or ancestor appealed to and also elevated the status and prestige of the owner and their family. For example, the Egungun Masquerade Costume (HU93.2) consists of layers of fabric strips applied over a large tunic that serves as the base of the masking garment. The more elaborate and expensive the cloth used, along with the embellishment details of mirrors, buttons and trim, the greater the status of the owner. Since the strips were typically added to the exterior layer, the number of layers displays the family’s longevity and ancestry. It is important to understand that the masks were only one part of a multi-layered performance, which often included fullbody costumes, music, dance, food and audience interaction. The mask and costume hid the individual’s identity, allowing the wearer to shed their everyday persona and become empowered with the spirit of the deity or ancestor evoked. Through the inclusion of video and photographic images, the exhibition attempts to reintroduce some of the context of the masquerade providing the viewer with a more complete understanding of the performance.

Prestige, one’s importance and status, was shown by members of Sub-Saharan African societies in a variety of ways. As noted above, the scale and complex embellishment of masks was one way to display societal position. Additional types of objects elevated the prestige or status of an individual or community, depending upon their ethnic culture. Some objects, such as stools, were only used by ritualists, chiefs or village elders, thus designating their higher status, specifically within the Fon and Luba communities. Metalwork, due to its rarity, was a valued commodity in a number of cultures and often the basis for weapons and jewelry. Personal adornment and regalia were associated with an individual’s wealth and rank in the community. Two of the weapons included in the exhibition, Sword (HU86.100) and Spear (HU86.101), were unlikely to have been used for hunting or battle. In this case, the larger and more intricate the design of the ceremonial weapons the greater the status of the owner. For the Dogon people of Mali, the horse figured prominently in their creation myths. In their beliefs, the horse was the first animal to leave the otherworld and come to earth. Thus, the equestrian figure, or horse and rider, not only honored departed ancestors but also increased the status of the owner. Horse ownership was also associated with warfare and military might – a positive characteristic within this culture. In the harsh physical environment of Mali, only the wealthy could purchase and maintain ownership of a horse. Protection against malevolent forces, disease and infertility, among other concerns, was often requested from ancestors or deities through ritual practices associated with shrines and figurines. The sculpture, often in the human form of mythical beings or real ancestors, aided in establishing a connection between the otherworld and the earthly realm. A ritual practitioner used the sculptural figures in ceremonial rites such as funerary practices, fertility and initiation rites, and in petitioning for assistance against evil. The activity often involved the use of sacrificial offerings such as food, drink or tobacco. The practitioner may also have added elements to the sculpture such as the nails pounded into the Double-Headed Dog (Nkisi Kozo) (HU93.18). The cult or ancestor figures, represented in Sub-Saharan cultures, were generally symmetrical and stiffly posed with a frontal orientation. They were individualized by details such as scarification, hairstyles and costumes specific to an ethnic culture. The sculptures and shrines were kept in homes and presented daily offerings to aid an individual in avoiding trouble and malicious spirits. The scale and detail of the sculptures and shrines also indicated the owner’s social rank within a community. In works depicting a mother and child, such as the Dogon Mother and Child (HU2005.3.34) and the Yoruba Mother and Child (HU81.44), the mother figure often metaphorically symbolized the earth and the child represented “the people.” Sculptures of couples or twins frequently represented spirit ancestors or community founders who are seen as a symbol of strength and honor. The African art of West and Central Africa consists of a wide range of objects, including masks, weapons, sculptural figures and jewelry, which were used in traditional masquerades, to acknowledge one’s status and prestige, and in rituals petitioning protection from the otherworld. Culled from 25 different ethnic cultures from these regions of Africa, the exhibited objects illustrate the tremendous richness and diversity of traditional ethnic practices and art forms within the Sub-Saharan regions of the African continent.

Karen T. Albert Associate Director of Exhibitions and Collections Hofstra University Museum

Pascal James Imperato is a distinguished Africanist, African art historian and ethnographer. He is internationally respected for his studies of the art of the Bamana, Dogon and Peul of Mali; various peoples in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone; and the Luo of Tanzania. He is currently distinguished service professor and dean of the School of Public Health at the State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center, in New York City.

The Cultural Contexts of Traditional African Art By Pascal James Imperato

African art, like most art traditions, is defined in Western culture by imposed standards of quality, age and authenticity. During the 20th century, these standards came to characterize an artificial hierarchical canon originally fostered by European commercial dealers and later embraced by collectors, auction houses and museum curators.1 Throughout that century, there was also a cacophony of terminology used to describe traditional African art. These included primitive, tribal, customary, classical and canonical African art. None of these terms were really suitable for a variety of reasons. As Kraemer notes, the currently preferred term, traditional, “does not exclude the continuing complexity and vibrancy of African arts in their changing social contexts.”2 While the term traditional may be suitable for now, one should be open to the possibility that a more suitable word or phrase may be found in the future. The hierarichical nature of the artificially created canon defined what was desirable based on the preferences of Western dealers, collectors, auction houses and museums, and not necessarily on what African creator-artists and viewers once thought, or currently think, of these objects. Early Western collectors of African art attempted to perpetuate the idea that “African art of quality only existed in pre-colonial times and largely free of European influence.”3 This position served to reinforce their own aesthetic judgments and enhance the value of their collections as the market supply of art meeting these criteria dwindled. The principal focus of early Western collectors of African art was on aesthetics, age and authenticity. The latter refers to clear evidence of ritual use, often defined by such proxies as patina, erosions and wear. This very restricted view of traditional African art began to encounter philosophical opposition in the 1960s when younger scholars traveled to recently independent countries in Africa to conduct research, and often focused on the cultural contexts of this art. Based on field evidence, this younger generation challenged the view that African art was either extinct in Africa or else was static. They thereby demonstrated that it was in fact a creative continuum in which subtle changes in structural form occurred over time.5 This refreshing focus on the cultural contexts of African art found influential expression in serials such as African Arts, a quarterly first published in 1967 by the Regents of the University of California, in monographs, and in exhibition catalogues published by universities and museums. The flow of such information continues, and documents the dynamic character of traditional African art. Importantly, the field work of scholars in the last decades of the 20th century swept aside the previously long-held notion that African art objects were relics of a distant past, and that the cultural contexts of which they were a reflection were dead. Nonetheless, the canon established by Western art connoisseurs in the earlier decades of the 20th century is still in evidence. This is especially so in commercial auctions and galleries where provenance is often defined by prior Western ownership and a pedigree created by descent from known collectors. In part, this reliance on documentation of past prior Western ownership is an understandable reaction to the more recent creation of commercial copies by African artisans that incorporate mimetic physical signs of age and ritual use. Traditional African art is strongly linked to a broad range of religious and cosmological beliefs, social rituals and public entertainments. As such, it is distinct from contemporary modern African art, which is not usually integrated into these pillars of traditional African societies, even though some such art may be derivative in whole or in part. African art objects have historically been created from materials found in the physical environment. These include wood, metals, stone, ivory, bone, leather, horns, beads, shells, terra cotta, wool, cotton, feathers, plant fibers, leaves and roots, and other materials. The surfaces of African art objects are frequently culturally determined and adhere to historical traditions. For wooden sculptures, the trees selected to create given masks and statues are often those that have long been used by previous generations of artists. The ultimate surface character of objects is created by a variety of processes, including charring, pyroengraving, and the application of pigments, dyes, and other materials, including sacrificial substances. The latter usually result in an encrusted surface believed to imbue an object with enhanced spiritual powers.6

The long-term character of the surfaces of wooden sculptures is eventually affected by continuous use and the storage environment. The Bamana people of Mali, for example, often store their masks and headdresses suspended from the roof poles of kitchens. This has been and is done so that the smoke and soot from wood-burning cooking fires cover and penetrate the wood. This results in the eradication of destructive wood borers and termites that frequently infest sculptures. However, this exposure also deepens the black color of these objects over time. Prior to annual or semi-annual use, these sculptures are taken down. Shea butter (Vitillaria paradoxa), known in the Bamana language as sie, is then rubbed onto their surfaces. Repeated applications of shea butter onto layers of soot result in a black luster. This is further enhanced over time by handling and use during which human sweat and rubbing impart a distinct patina to the wood. Thus, in the final analysis, the well-recognized dark lustrous surfaces of many authentic Bamana masks and headdresses are the result of efforts to eradicate insects that might otherwise quickly destroy sculptures. These surface treatments result in desired aesthetics pleasing to both the creator-artists of objects and to their audiences. Equally pleasing are the forms of sculptures, which generally conform to traditional standards for size and types of woods used. However, these features may be modified over time because of the creative expressions of artists. The interaction of artistic innovation, often apparent as subtle changes, and the need to adhere to traditional forms valued by society often result in distinctive substyles. These creative modifications may in time produce newer forms that express both constancy and change. A number of accretions are often added to African art objects These include such attachments as cloth, fiber, bells, horns, raffia, nails and spikes, pieces of metal, beads, feathers, animal horns, quills, cowrie shells, and other objects. These are not random attachments. Rather, they comprise an integrated whole with the wooden sculpture that reflects its overall meaning and purpose. The scope of African art objects created in sub-Sahara Africa is vast. Ethnic group-specific styles can be dramatically different, but each can generally be identified. Wooden objects are often sculpted by blacksmiths who learn their skills through apprenticeship. Using simple adzes, they are able to create beautiful sculptures that sometimes reflect their own subtle styles, just as an individual’s handwriting and an artist’s brushstroke do. Although most of the creators of African art objects are anonymous, some are known by name and others by the unique characteristics of the forms they created. Sculptors and their clients are often exquisitely sensitive to the quality of a finished sculpture. Consequently, while the passage of time has obliterated memory of master sculptors, some were greatly renowned in their lifetimes for reasons that are obvious in the beauty and strength of the works they created, and because of their distinctive sub-styles. The globalization of knowledge of African art collections has now permitted the identification of widely dispersed objects that came from the same hand or the same workshop. Unfortunately, however, it is often not possible to identify the artists by name. The artists who create African art objects, whatever the material they use, are an integral part of the societies in which they live. They are also thoroughly schooled in the cultural contexts in which objects are used. These contexts are highly varied and range from secret sacrificial altars to public pantomimes. For most African societies, the functions and purposes of art objects are as important as their forms, and are an integral part of their spiritual, social and cultural lives. Objects may constitute a bridge between the living and the ancestors, invoke the protection of benevolent spirits, neutralize possible harm from sorcery and witchcraft, and assure fertility and economic prosperity. Some masks are central to the rituals of male initiation societies, while sowei helmet masks in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone function in the same manner for the female Sande society. Masks can depict ancestors, bush spirits, wild and domestic animals, categories of people and mythological figures. Among the latter are tyi wara headdresses that represent a mythic being who taught the Bamana of Mali to farm. The name tyi wara literally means “working animal,” and is widely understood by the Bamana to mean “farming animal.” Tyi wara was the son of the first created being, Mousso Koroni (little old woman), and the cobra.7 The paired male and female headdresses are sculpted in a variety of highly abstract styles. Some of these sculptures are vertically oriented, while others are horizontal. In the vertical sculptures, the roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) is often the paradigm for the male headdress, while the oryx (Oryx algazal) is that for the female headdress.8

While tyi wara symbolize agricultural fertility, the use of a pair of male and female headdresses and the presence of a baby on the back of the female are also metaphors for human fertility. Both antelope paradigms represent strength and endurance to the Bamana, crucial to a subsistence agricultural society. Some variants of these headdresses depict the pangolin or the anteater, two animals that symbolize ploughing because they are capable of digging deeply into the earth with their claws. Other horizontal styles prominently depict the hornbill (Lophoceros nasutus nasutus) known for its shrewdness, intelligence and endurance despite its maladroit behavior.9 Tyi wara sculptures are usually perceived in the West as antelopes because of the prominence of horns depicting the roan antelope (dagé in the Bamana language). However, the stylized form of the cobra (n’gorogo in the Bamana language) is also subtly present but often not perceived by Westerners. Its presence emphasizes an important component of the Bamana myth of creation, and the fact that these sculptures were once physical expressions of a snake cult. Sculptured figures are often housed in shrines where frequent sacrifices to them of millet porridge, animal blood and other substances appease ancestors or invoke the protective powers of benevolent spirits. Some statues such as ibeji figures of the Yoruba of Nigeria and flanitokele of the Bamana of Mali represent twins who have died. Both ethnic groups possess prescribed rituals for caring for these figures, which they believe embody the spirits of deceased twins.10 While Western observers perceive African sculptures as art, various ethnic groups in Africa often view them as ritual objects. Their formal structures and the contexts in which they are used together address either religious or social needs. This does not negate African visual appreciation of the beauty inherent in form, surface treatment and accreted materials. For Western observers, great age valorizes these objects as authentic. However, within the cultural contexts of Africa, old objects are primarily treasured because of the spiritual power they are believed to possess as a result of multiple generational use. The African art collection of the Hofstra University Museum includes a broad range of objects that reflect a rich diversity of styles, materials and functional uses. Through these objects, viewers can become informed not only about the exceptional creative talents of African artists, but also about the rich cultural contexts of which their artistic creations were once a part. For these artists did not uniquely create their art for its own sake. Rather, they created it to serve the religious, political and secular needs of the societies in which they lived.

References Kraemer, Christine Mullen. Defining the Discipline: African Art History and the Walt Disney-Tishman African Art Collection, in African Visions. The Walt Disney-Tishman African Art Collection. Munich: Smithsonian National Museum of African Art/Prestel, 2007, pp. 7-21. 2 Kraemer. p. 21. 3 Kraemer. pp. 9-10. 4 Kraemer. pp. 9-10. 5 Ezra, Kate. The Traditional Panels. African Arts 2001; 34(3):87. 6 Kahan, Leonard, Page, Donna, and Imperato, Pascal James. In collaboration with Charles Bordogna and Bolaji Campbell. Surfaces: Color, Substances, and Ritual Applications on African Sculpture. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2009. 7 Imperato, Pascal James. The Dance of the Tyi Wara. African Arts 1970; 4(1):8-13, 71-80. 8 Zahan, Dominique. Antelopes du Soleil. Arts et Rites Agraires d’Afrique Noire. Wien: Edition A. Schendl, 1980, p. 64. 9 Imperato, Pascal James. Bambara and Malinke Ton Masquerades. African Arts 1980; 13(4):47-55, 82-85, 87. 10 Imperato, Pascal James and Imperato, Gavin H. Twins, Hermaphrodites, and an Androgynous Albino Deity. Twins and Sculpted Twin Figures among the Bamana and Maninka of Mali. African Arts 2008; 14(1):40-49. 1

Acknowledgments Special thanks are extended to Leonard Kahan, an internationally respected authority on African art, and African art curator at the Queensborough Community College Art Gallery, City University of New York, and Donna Page, an African art curator, writer and artist, for their helpful suggestions. I also wish to thank Lois A. Hahn for her careful preparation of the typescript.

The African Collection at HUM The Hofstra University Museum Collections contain 272 works of African art representing 18 different countries and 73 different ethnic cultures, mainly located in western and central Africa. The African Collection consists of a wide range of objects, including doors and door locks, figures, jewelry, masks, staffs, stools, textiles, tools and weapons. The African works date from the 19th century although the majority of works were made in the 20th century. Most of the sculptures are wood; some have pigment traces and attachments made of raffia, beads or shells. Since its beginning, the Museum Collections have included objects and works of art from a wide range of world cultures. Ethnographic objects gifted to Hofstra in the 1960s included donations of African, Oceanic and pre-Columbian objects. In 1966 Mrs. Joseph (Dolce) Baird donated a group of 20 objects that included masks, figures, bracelets and a stool from the present-day countries of the Republic of Benin and Côte d’Ivoire. The Headdress (HU66.1) and Stool (HU66.2) from this early gift are included in the exhibition. Since the 1980s African art collectors have added tremendously to this aspect of the Collections, in particular Mr. and Mrs. Sol and Josephine Levitt, Dr. and Mrs. Gilbert and Roda Graham, Dr. Frederick Mebel, and Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato. Over a period of 17 years (1981-1998), the Levitts contributed 90 works art, representing 15 different nations in Africa and 40 ethnic cultures. Twenty-three objects in this exhibition are from their donations. Between 1985 and 2005, the Grahams donated numerous African works to the Museum’s Collections. The Grahams focused on collecting objects created by the Dogon peoples of Mali and, thus, 55 of the 63 works of art donated by them are from this culture, with eight of them included in this exhibition. From 1986 through 1994, Dr. Mebel gifted more than 50 African works to the Museum, primarily metalwork weapons and tools. The Sword (HU86.100) and Spear (HU86.101), shown in this exhibit, are representative of his contributions. More recently, between 2010 and 2015, the Imperatos have donated 24 African works to the Museum; 12 are included in this exhibition. These recent acquisitions continue to enrich the Collection with representative works from ethnic cultures not previously represented in the Collection, providing greater depth and strength to this valuable aesthetic and educational resource. In addition to exhibitions, the Museum’s African art works are regularly used in Museum educational programs. Hofstra University courses in African studies, anthropology and fine arts/art history, among others, schedule class sessions at the Museum to view and study these authentic objects. The Museum’s Art Travelers through Time: Literacy and History through the Arts program, geared to third-grade students who study communities of the world, regularly employs our varied African masks to make direct curricular links through the study of authentic objects from the world’s cultures. The masks are positioned in the gallery for viewing and close examination by the students. Additionally, a series of posters located throughout the Hofstra University campus as a component of the Museum’s Cultural Diversity Awareness outreach, feature five African objects. We are grateful to and acknowledge the insightful collectors who have and continue to recognize the intrinsic value of these works and their educational value. Their generosity in gifting these works to the Hofstra University Museum has created this rich and diverse African Collection of extraordinary depth.

Karen T. Albert Associate Director of Exhibitions and Collections Hofstra University Museum

Côte d’Ivoire, Dan peoples Female Face Mask (Deangle or Tankagle) 19th-20th century Wood with pigment and patina 9 1/2 x 6 x 4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU85.58

Côte d’Ivoire, Dan peoples Female Face Mask (Deangle or Tankagle) 19th-20th century Wood with pigment, patina, metal, hair, animal teeth and yarn 9 1/4 x 7 x 2 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU96.41

Burkina Faso, Nouna, Bobo peoples Buffalo Mask, mid-20th century Wood with polychrome red and black vegetable pigments and white kaolin 23 1/2 x 12 1/2 x 12 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2014.9

The Bobo, also known as Bwa, are an agricultural-based community located in the upper Volta River region. The mask forms depict serpents, monkeys or water buffaloes, which represent protective bush spirits who promote fertility, fecundity or growth. Masquerades are performed during harvest festivals, funeral ceremonies and annual village cleansing rites, which rid the community of malevolent spirits in order to begin anew. The Bobo share this type of mask and the traditional design of red, white and black geometric patterns with neighboring groups such as the Gurunsi and Nouna. As a result, it can be difficult at times to differentiate objects of these cultures.

The Female Face Masks of the Dan peoples reflect the culture’s ideal of feminine beauty. Traditional features of these masks are an oval-shaped face, narrow eye slits, a long nose and full lips. In this instance, the same mask is associated with multiple masquerade characters depending upon the costume, accessories and choreography that accompany the specific performance. When used for entertainment the Female Face Mask is known as a tankagle and is worn by the singer who accompanies the go ge or great mask, which demonstrates the power of the go society, a secret society responsible for the initiation rites of young men into adulthood. It also serves as the Deangle or guard mask, and is worn by intermediaries moving between the village and male circumcision camps.

Côte d’Ivoire or Liberia, Bete peoples Face mask (Nyabwa) 9th-20th century Wood with fiber and iron 15 3/4 x 7 1/2 x 7 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU97.38

Côte d’Ivoire or Liberia, Bete peoples Face Mask (Nyabwa) 19th-20th century Wood with horns, brass studs hair and cowrie shells 14 1/2 x 8 1/2 x 7 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU95.23

Democratic Republic of the Congo Kuba peoples Helmet Mask (Bwoom), 19th-20th century Wood with sheet copper, cowrie shells, fur, beads, fabric and hair 17 3/4 x 11 1/4 x 18 3/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU96.56

These face masks, due to their fierceness, have been called war masks but serve multiple purposes. Believed to embody spiritual forces of the forest, the masks are associated with social control, addressing conflicts and local warfare, but can also be used to protect the community, evade evil or they can be worn during funerary rites. Common characteristics of this type of mask are projecting horns, slit eyes and brass studs, which are believed to enhance the mask’s spiritual power.

The Kuba people arrived in the lower Kasai River region of the central Democratic Republic of Congo in the 16th century and became a prosperous empire. Due to successful agricultural endeavors and control of important trade routes, the civilization was in full power during the 17th-19th centuries. The Kuba kingdom is currently composed of approximately 18 multiethnic subgroups that are under the jurisdiction of the Bushong, representing the largest of these ethnic subgroups.

Bete carvers likely adopted this type of mask from a neighboring culture, the Wee (also known as Guere or Ngere). The place of origin of the Bete people is unclear as one group settled in Liberia, but the culture is more commonly associated with the Côte d’Ivoire.

During the height of their power, the Kuba produced many kinds of objects for their rulers and important titled people, including 20 different types of masks. The helmet mask or Bwoom is one of the three most significant royal masks, which are based on mythological stories. The cowrie shells, glass beads and fur embellishments on the mask indicate that the wearer was a royal or eminent person. The mask was used in ceremonial dances, at boys’ initiation rites, and in funerary contexts. The character portrayed depended upon the occasion and context.

Democratic Republic of the Congo Suku peoples Mask (Kakuungu), 20th century Wood with pigment, kaolin and raffia fiber, 25 1/2 x 14 1/2 x 8 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU83.14 The Kakuungu mask, based on the human face, was a mask of power. Features of this mask include sunken eyes, a raffia beard, and a large round forehead, cheeks and chin. The mask was only used at a young boy’s initiation ceremony when the masquerade was performed to protect the initiates from dangerous influences, to support them in times of crisis, and to promote obedience to and respect of elders.

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Yaka peoples Men’s Initiation Mask, 19th-20th century Wood, canvas, raffia fiber and polychrome pigment, 30 x 20 x 13 1/8 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU85.59 The Yaka people who originally migrated from Angola during the 16th century, settled along the banks of the Kwango River in what is now known as the Democratic Republic of Congo. Different types of Yaka masks were used in masquerades during the initiation rites of adolescent boys into adulthood. Circumcisions, a part of the initiation rites, and activities teaching the community’s beliefs, traditions and laws were organized by the secret societies in remote locations. Male ancestors and cultural heroes appeared in the choreographed performances that celebrated the new social status of the initiate. The masks were used only once and then either destroyed or sold. The intricate and polychromed initiate’s mask has a cone-shaped superstructure with a jutting armature. Incorporating human and animal elements, the anthropomorphic face, with its upward-turned nose, is adorned with a raffia coiffure. A hidden supporting handle is placed at the base of the mask.

Guinea, Baga peoples Nimba (d’mba) Mask, 19th-20th century Wood with pigments and patina, 39 1/2 x 12 1/4 x 20 1/8 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU92.54 The Nimba (d’mba) headdress has become the most identifiable object created by the Baga peoples of the Atlantic coastal country of Guinea. This immense example, in the form of an armless torso, would have been carried atop a dancer’s head and shoulders and supported by the leg-like projections beneath the pendulous breasts. An opening beneath the breasts enabled the masquerader to see, and his disguise was completed by means of a raffia cloak that descended from beneath the breasts. Representing Nimba, the goddess of fertility, these headdresses appeared twice yearly in agricultural ceremonies for the planting and harvesting of rice. They symbolized the beauty and strength of the Baga women and were worn in ceremonies in order to protect pregnant women and to ensure their fecundity. The carved geometric designs, braided hair, flattened ears and the crescent-shaped coiffure were all designed to embellish the female’s beauty and importance.

Liberia, Gere peoples Face Mask, 19th-20th century Wood with pigment, patina and brass, 12 x 7 1/2 x 6 3/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU87.42

This Face Mask represents the untamed forces of nature called the Gle or Gre. Masquerades using this mask were performed during times of strife and war. It was also used for funerary rites and judicial proceedings. The mask shares some traits with the masks of the Bete peoples. While both utilize brass embellishments and narrow, slit eyes, this mask’s forms are more fully rounded and the jaw is hinged.

Mali, Bamana peoples Chi Wara Antelope Headdress 19th-20th century Wood with pigment, patina and iron 15 x 4 3/4 x 23 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU89.13

Mali, Bamana peoples Chi Wara Antelope Headdress (Sogoni Koun) Late 19th-early, 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 15 x 5 1/8 x 3 1/4 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2013.4

Mali, Bamana peoples Face Mask with Twin Antelopes (Ntomo), 20th century Wood with metal, sheet brass, cloth, fur and nails, 28 x 9 x 6 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU85.63 Members of the tyi wara society, who managed all aspects of agricultural production in the farming-based communities of the Bamana, performed the masquerade to petition the mythical figure Chi Wara, who instructed them in the fundamentals of agriculture, for a bountiful harvest. The masks were used in pairs, which represented the male and female. The headdresses share the same symbolic use of digging or burrowing animals, depicting the antelope’s large horns along with the body features of an aardvark and/or pangolin, but differ stylistically depending upon the region in Mali where they were created. The horizontal style consists of two sections, the body and the head and neck, which were connected by a large metal band or “staple.” The vertical style was carved from a single piece of wood and was more abstract and geometric in form, emphasizing the upward thrust of the horns. The headdress represents the male; the female depiction includes a baby on the animal’s back.

The Bamana, the major ethnic group of Mali, inhabit the central and southern sections of the country. Their masks are associated with a number of different societies and have distinctive stylistic variations. This mask, used by the Ntomo society, was employed during ritual performances of initiation for adolescent boys. These face masks typically feature elongated human faces with long narrow noses. They are crowned with vertical, upwardpointing horns and have a figure or animal in the center. This one is unusual because of the twin antelopes on the superstructure.

Mali, Bamana peoples Hyena Mask (Suruku Koun), late 19th-early 20th century Wood with pigment and patina, 22 x 6 x 5 1/2 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2013.3

Male initiation into adulthood in the Bamana culture was managed by the Kore society. The Hyena Mask was used by one group of initiates; other groups would have used masks with imagery based on lions or monkeys. The animal masks were worn during performances at the conclusion of the initiation rites, where elders conveyed the traditions and beliefs of their culture to the young men. This mask demonstrates the traditional elements of a Hyena Mask: a domed forehead, elongated jaws and ears, and a projection between the ears. The projection represents the tuft of hair the hunter would remove from a slain animal, which was used in the preparation of ritual medicines.

Mali, Beledougou region, Bamana peoples Cow Mask (Misikoun), early/mid-20th century, Wood with pigment traces and light patina, 21 1/2 x 11 1/2 x 8 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2010.1.1

The cow was respected for its strength and contributions to agricultural production, specifically ploughing the fields. The depiction of the cow is naturalistic but very stylized. The emphasis is placed on the horns, which are feared but also admired for their gracefulness.

Mali, Dogon peoples Monkey Mask, 20th century Wood with pigment and patina, 11 1/2 x 5 3/4 x 4 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham, HU2005.3.16 Animal spirit masks of the Dogon peoples of Mali are used in cyclical celebrations called Dama and Sigui, which respectively serve to ensure the passage of a recently deceased elder or an entire generation into the next world. Hundreds of initiated male members of the Awa Society carve and wear masks and costumes during these rites that mark the end of mourning, counteract the imbalance caused by death, and protect the living from the potential danger of spirits lingering in the wilderness. This particular mask represents Dege, the black monkey who is characterized as mischievous and thieving and represents inappropriate social behavior. The rounded form is a departure from the more conventional tall, rectangular type and is a considerably more naturalistic depiction of a baboon. This effect is enhanced by conspicuous features such as a prominent brow, pronounced snout, small ears placed high on the sides of the head, and the smooth, irregular surface of the patina.

Mali, Katiena region, Marka peoples Beautiful Woman Mask (Djobloi Koun), early/mid-20th century, Wood with pigment, 9 x 6 3/4 x 5 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2010.1.2

This mask appeared in masquerades dedicated to petitioning for a robust agricultural season and increasing prosperity. The Beautiful Woman Mask typically appeared paired with a male version of the mask. Marka masks shared some design traits with those of the Bamana, a neighboring group. This mask and the Face Mask with Twin Antelopes (Ntomo) both feature elongated faces, long noses, and small but full lips.

Nigeria, Ketu region, Ineko Latunji Mosudi, Yoruba peoples Gelede Mask, c. 1950s Wood with pigment, gourd, cowrie shells and fiber, 27 5/8 x 13 x 14 1/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU98.20

Nigeria, Yoruba peoples Egungun Masquerade Costume, 19th-20th century Fabric with strip woven dyed cotton, felt, metal coins and mirrors, 60 3/4 x 59 x 12 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU93.2

This mask was created for Gelede, a masquerade performance that usually took place at the beginning of the agricultural season and, although danced by men, paid tribute to the mystical powers of women elders, ancestors and deities. During these performances, masks in the form of human heads were worn like caps and angled over the forehead. Over the lifetime of a mask’s use, from one year’s performance to the next, it might have been physically altered by its owners.

The Egungun masquerade was an annual celebration in which the performers appealed to the spirits of ancestors to intercede in the earthly world on their behalf. The costume is composed of layers of indigenous and imported textiles, which were cut into panels and trimmed with contrasting fabrics, attached to a cloth-covered wood board. The costume covered the performer who could see through a mesh fabric insert. When in motion, the textile strips undulate and move, fanning out around the performer.

While African art from this region does not typically bear the signature of an individual artist, within the Yoruba society artists can at times be identified by their specific and regular use of formal design elements. The lower portion of this mask, fashioned after a woman’s head covering, was carved by Latunji Mosudi. The upper superstructure, the embellished gourd, was likely added by another artist.

New outer layers were added to the costume over time, adding texture, color and vibrancy to the garment. The number of layers and the quality of the fabric used indicated the wealth and status of the wearer and his family, along with showing greater honor to his ancestors.

Prestige

Sierra Leone, Mende peoples Bundu Mask for Sande Society 20th century Wood with black stain and raffia fiber 44 x 17 x 17 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU83.8

Sierra Leone, Mende peoples Bundu Mask for Sande Society 20th century Wood with black stain and raffia fiber 27 x 10 x 10 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU83.9

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Luba peoples Stool, 19th-20th century Wood with pigment and iron, 17 1/8 x 13 3/4 x 13 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU97.42

Bundu are unique in that they are the only known African masks exclusively produced for use by women, specifically initiated members of the matrilineal Sande Society. Among the Mende peoples of Sierra Leone, sacred masks can solely be created or worn by individuals who have achieved an elevated level of initiation. Only men who are members of the Poro Society, an all-male association that compliments the Sande, may carve ritual sculpture, including masks. This gender-based division of labor is consistent with masking traditions in much of Sub-Saharan Africa. A distinctive contrast exists in Sande practice in which high-ranking females wear Bundu to administer performances and initiation rites to instruct adolescent girls in the ways of womanhood. During performance, the mask is connected to a larger costume composed of long strands of black raffia fiber, which conceal the identity of the wearer and enhance her movements. A finely polished blackened surface articulated with slit eyes and pursed lips speak to ideals of aesthetic beauty and refined behavior while scarification, neck rings and cowrie shells modelled in the hair indicate the social rank of an initiate or female elder.

Among the Luba peoples stools were objects of royal regalia and the “seat” of authority and power; the female figure holding the seat was a common motif. Evidence suggests that the Luba were a matrilineal people tracing their heritage through their female ancestors. Integral to their community, mothers and wives served as priestesses, political advisors and ambassadors. The caryatid (a female figure used as a column) may also have represented the ruler’s reliance on women and referred to his gender ambiguity. The Luba ruler personified both the male and female, eliminating the separation between genders, and, therefore, the divisions between the earth and the otherworld.

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pende peoples Spear, 19th-20th century Wood with steel, fiber and shell, 53 1/2 x 5 x 1 1/2 in. Gift of Dr. Frederick Mebel, HU86.101

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zande peoples Throwing Knife (Kpinga), 20th century Iron and fiber, 15 1/2 x 11 x 1 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Cedric H. Marks, HU66.55

In Sub-Saharan Africa bladed weapons were both tools of war and symbols of authority. Spears and swords were functional weapons used in combat and hunting but were also ceremonial, indicating the political authority and leadership of the wearer. The status of the owner was enhanced by the larger dimensions and intricate embellishment of these armaments. This Sword, a Takoba with a straight, double-edged tapering blade, was typically worn by equestrian warriors.

The Throwing Knife (Kpinga) was a functional, multi-bladed weapon, used by Zande warriors in battle. The design of the knife, including the number and position of the blades, increased the possibility of its effectiveness. Ownership of the weapon indicated a warrior’s power and an individual may have possessed a number of knives.

Mali, Dogon peoples Bracelet, late 19th-early 20th century Bronze with use patina, 1 1/4 x 3 1/4 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.5

Mali, Dogon peoples Bracelet, early 20th century Bronze with use patina, 5/8 x 3 1/4 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.7

Ghana, Ashanti peoples Gold Weight in the Form of a Bird, undated Bronze with use patina, 2 3/16 x 3 3/4 x 2 in. Gift of Herman Klarsfeld, HU80.26

Mali, Dogon peoples Bracelet, early 20th century Bronze with use patina, 1 x 3 1/4 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.8

Weights, crafted to be portable and easy to trade, were used for measuring gold dust throughout Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire from the 15th century to the 19th century. The traders used a balance scale, and both parties had to agree to the final transaction. The weights were made in a range of quantities. One’s status and wealth would be indicated by the number of weights owned along with the quality of the detailed fabrication.

Jewelry such as these bracelets and anklets was used for personal adornment and also served as currency, but was not used for daily transactions. Made from a variety of metals, they provided a simple method for storing wealth that was also easy to transport. The overall form along with the cast and engraved designs were particular to each ethnic culture, as can be seen in these three examples from the Dogon, Maure and Tuareg peoples.

Mali, Dogon peoples Horse and Rider 20th century Iron with patina 9 1/4 x 17 3/4 x 2 3/4 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.38

Mali, Dogon peoples Covered Bowl with Equestrian Figure 19th century Wood with pigment and patina 30 x 9 1/8 x 10 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU92.55

Mali, Dogon peoples Horse and Rider 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 4 x 1 x 3 1/4 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.10

Mali, Dogon peoples Horse and Rider 20th century Iron with patina 9 1/2 x 9 7/8 x 2 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.37

There are two interpretations regarding the meaning of Dogon equestrian sculptures. They could be understood as images of Hogon religious chiefs who were linked to the creation myth. In Dogon mythology the horse was the first animal to leave the heavens and populate the earth. In another interpretation, the horse and rider sculptures could also be portraits of esteemed figures or ancestors of the Dogon people. Horse ownership was also associated with warfare and military might – a positive characteristic within this culture. In the harsh physical environment of Mali only the wealthy could purchase and maintain ownership of a horse. In either case, ownership of an equestrian sculpture elevated their status as the power and prestige surrounding the animal was reflected back on the owner. These four examples of a Dogon horse and rider illustrate how differently the same subject may be depicted. The works demonstrate a great range in size, from small to large, and materials used, both wood and iron. Stylistically the iron sculptures are spare and simple exhibiting elements of minimalism, while the wood sculptures are more finely rendered and detailed.

Mali, Tuareg peoples Anklet, late 19th-early 20th century Brass alloy with use patina, 1 x 3 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2014.3

Mauritania, Maure peoples Anklet, early 20th century Metal with use patina 1 x 3 1/2 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2014.1

Mali, Kala region, Bamana peoples Horse and Rider, early/mid-20th century Wood with pigment and patina, 21 3/4 x 2 1/2 x 4 1/2 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2010.1.4

Mauritania, Maure peoples Anklet, early 20th century Metal with use patina 1 1/4 x 3 1/2 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.2

Equestrian figures were found in a number of West African cultures, including Bamana, Dogon and Senufo. The horsemen were seen as warriors, invaders or emissaries from other kingdoms.

Northern Nigeria/Northern Cameroon, Fulani peoples Sword (Takoba), 19th-20th century Iron and brass, 62 1/4 x 9 1/2 x 1 in. Gift of Dr. Frederick Mebel, HU86.100

Republic of Benin (former Kingdom of Dahomey), Fon peoples Stool, 19th-20th century, Wood with pigment and patina, 13 x 8 x 13 3/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Baird, HU66.2

Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa stools were only used by those with a higher status and most people stood or sat directly on the ground. There are two basic types of African stools: a rectangular or square block with a carved seat a top and a cylindrical form similar to a spool or reel. Fon stools typically are the former. In this example, the vertical attendants support the “roof” over the important personage being carried in the hammock. The Kingdom of Dahomey was a monarchy and objects such as this one were commissioned by the king, the royal family and military societies of the royal court.

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Protection

Côte d’Ivoire or Mali, Senufo peoples Headdress (Kwonro), 20th century Wood with pigment and patina, 44 1/2 x 25 1/2 x 33 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Baird, HU66.1

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kongo peoples Double-Headed Dog (Nkisi Kozo), 19th-20th century Wood with pigment, patina, nails, mirror and resin, 9 1/4 x 22 1/4 x 6 1/2 in. Gift of Tony and Pura Chen, HU93.18

This monumental Senufo headdress known as kwonro is associated with a specific level of initiation rites for the members of Poro, a secret male society that has existed in varying forms across several coastal nations of West Africa for more than 400 years. Kwonro are carved by the Kulebele, an elite collective of Poro wood sculptors who were revered for their technical skill and feared for their understanding of the Senufo worldview, knowledge that was solely revealed to an exclusive group of high-ranking elders and artists. The protective power of this type of headdress is further expressed through the complexity of the alternating design formed by four tiers of iconic openwork figures and animals carved from a massive rectangular plank. This impressive structure is supported by a thick conical base boldly modelled into the head of a buffalo surmounted by a seated female figure. In Senufo culture, the buffalo is considered to be a physically powerful animal that is also symbolic of regeneration in terms of an initiate’s level of advancement within Poro.

The Kongo people used powerful sculptural works as tools to prevent and cure illnesses, deter evil doers, destroy or weaken evil spirits, and to settle arguments. This Kozo, a nkisi in the form of a double-headed dog, was a carrier of magical substances that when activated by a ritual practitioner empowered the sculpture with spiritual forces. The ritual expert placed resin filled with medicines or other magical substances under a mirror on the animal’s back. In collective ceremonies, where the ritualist acted as witness and served as a link to the otherworld, the wood carvings were pierced with nails or metal blades of the petitioners. The more metal spikes on these figures, the greater their power was believed to be.

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Vili peoples Baboon Skull Medicine Object (Nkisi), 19th-20th century Bone with rattan fiber, pigment, feather and patina, 9 1/2 x 6 1/2 x 7 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU96.55

A nkisi is a vessel or figure that acts as a container for a spirit from the otherworld. A practitioner will use the object along with a ritual to appeal to the spirit to assist in healing and protecting the community and, alternately, delivering retribution. The object, made from a baboon skull and encased with an intricately woven covering of rattan fibers, contains “magical” substances that aid these endeavors.

Gabon, Mitsogo peoples Standing Female Figure with Janus Head, 19th century Wood with kaolin pigment, 52 x 8 1/4 x 9 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU93.5

Standing figures represented ancestors and were petitioned for their assistance. They were thought to harness the ancestor’s powers to protect the home. Ancestors were believed to wield the same power in the afterlife as they had in the community while alive. The figures were often presented as male and female pairs; there likely would have been a male counterpart for this female figure. The term “Janus head” originally referred to the Roman god of beginnings and transitions but has come to mean any figure that has one head with two faces that look in opposite directions.

Mali, Dogon peoples Kneeling Couple, 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 20 x 6 x 5 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.43

Mali, Dogon peoples Primordial Couple, 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 29 x 9 3/4 x 7 1/4 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.33

Mali, Dogon peoples Mother and Child, 20th century Bronze with patina 3 7/8 x 1 1/2 x 1 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.34

Mali, Dogon peoples Kneeling Maternity Figure 20th century Wood with pigment 21 3/4 x 6 x 6 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.18

Nigeria, Yoruba peoples Mother and Child, 19th century Wood with pigment 10 1/2 x 2 1/4 x 4 1/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU81.44

Sculptures of couples in Dogon culture referred not only to the value placed on family life but also to Dogon mythology, which held a belief in sexual duality, meaning that every being contains both sexes. The carved figures are almost identical and have similar dimensions, giving equal emphasis to both the male and female figures. Twining of the forms reflects the complementary interdependence of the sexes; one is not elevated over the other. Sculptures of couples or twins frequently represented spirit ancestors or community founders who are seen as a symbol of strength and honor.

In works depicting a mother and child, such as the Dogon Mother and Child (HU2005.3.34) and the Yoruba Mother and Child (HU81.44), the mother figure often metaphorically symbolized the earth and the child represented “the people.” Female figures were often shown with children to emphasize their nurturing role in the community. The kneeling position, a pose often used as a sign of grief at funerals, is common in Dogon sculpture. Since many Dogon figures were placed on ancestral altars, the kneeling position showed respect for deceased family members.

Republic of Benin, Fon peoples Asen Altar, 19th-20th century Iron with patina 42 x 9 x 8 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU96.44

Republic of Benin, Fon peoples Asen Altar, 19th-20th century Iron with patina, 40 1/2 x 6 1/2 x 6 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU96.45

Nigeria, Yoruba peoples House of the Head (Ile Ori) 19th-20th century, Textile, fiber, cowrie shells and beads, 30 x 15 x 11 7/8 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt, HU97.40 This shrine sculpture, known as a House of the Head or (ile ori), was created to contain and protect an individual’s essence, which the Yoruba believed resided in one’s head. The “inner head,” symbolic of this essence, was made in the form of a beaded object, the ibori. The House of the Head was created to surround and shelter the ibori. Because great importance was placed on maintaining one’s unique spirit, offerings were made to ensure a long and prosperous life. The shrine also served as an object of prestige. Embellishment with beads and cowrie shells, valuable commodities to the Yoruba, emphasized the importance of the shrine and elevated the owner’s status. Shrines of larger dimensions and with elaborate decoration indicated the wealth of the owner.

Exhibition Checklist

All African objects are from the Hofstra University Museum Collections.

Masquerade Burkina Faso, Nouna, Bobo peoples Buffalo Mask, mid-20th century Wood with polychrome red and black vegetable pigments and white kaolin 23 1/2 x 12 1/2 x 12 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.9 Côte d’Ivoire, Dan peoples Female Face Mask (Deangle or Tankagle), 19th-20th century Wood with pigment and patina 9 1/2 x 6 x 4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU85.58

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Suku peoples Mask (Kakuungu), 20th century Wood with pigment, kaolin and raffia fiber 25 1/2 x 14 1/2 x 8 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU83.14

Mali, Bamana peoples Face Mask with Twin Antelopes (Ntomo), 20th century Wood with metal, sheet brass, cloth, fur and nails 28 x 9 x 6 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU85.63

Nigeria, Yoruba peoples Egungun Masquerade Costume 19th-20th century Fabric with strip woven dyed cotton, felt, metal coins and mirrors 60 3/4 x 59 x 12 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU93.2

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zande peoples Throwing Knife (Kpinga) 20th century Iron and fiber 15 1/2 x 11 x 1 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Cedric H. Marks, HU66.55

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Yaka peoples Men’s Initiation Mask 19th-20th century Wood, canvas, raffia fiber and polychrome pigment 30 x 20 x 13 1/8 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU85.59

Mali, Bamana peoples Hyena Mask (Suruku Koun) late 19th-early 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 22 x 6 x 5 1/2 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2013.3

Sierra Leone, Mende peoples Bundu Mask for Sande Society 20th century Wood with black stain and raffia fiber 44 x 17 x 17 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU83.8

Ghana, Ashanti peoples Gold Weight in the Form of a Bird, Undated Bronze with use patina 2 3/16 x 3 3/4 x 2 in. Gift of Herman Klarsfeld HU80.26

Sierra Leone, Mende peoples Bundu Mask for Sande Society 20th century Wood with black stain and raffia fiber 27 x 10 x 10 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU83.9

Mali, Dogon peoples Bracelet, late 19th-early 20th century Bronze with use patina 1 1/4 x 3 1/4 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.5

Côte d’Ivoire, Dan peoples Female Face Mask (Deangle or Tankagle), 19th-20th century Wood with pigment, patina, metal, hair, animal teeth and yarn 9 1/4 x 7 x 2 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU96.41

Guinea, Baga peoples Nimba (d’mba) Mask 19th-20th century Wood with pigments and patina 39 1/2 x 12 1/4 x 20 1/8 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU92.54

Côte d’Ivoire or Liberia, Bete peoples Face mask (Nyabwa) 9th-20th century Wood with fiber and iron 15 3/4 x 7 1/2 x 7 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU97.38

Liberia, Gere peoples Face Mask, 19th-20th century Wood with pigment, patina and brass 12 x 7 1/2 x 6 3/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU87.42

Côte d’Ivoire or Liberia, Bete peoples Face Mask (Nyabwa) 19th-20th century Wood with horns, brass studs hair and cowrie shells 14 1/2 x 8 1/2 x 7 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU95.23

Mali, Bamana peoples Chi Wara Antelope Headdress 19th-20th century Wood with pigment, patina and iron 15 x 4 3/4 x 23 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU89.13

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kuba peoples Helmet Mask (Bwoom) 19th-20th century Wood with sheet copper, cowrie shells, fur, beads, fabric and hair 17 3/4 x 11 1/4 x 18 3/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU96.56

Mali, Bamana peoples Chi Wara Antelope Headdress (Sogoni Koun) late 19th-early 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 15 x 5 1/8 x 3 1/4 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2013.4

Mali, Beledougou region, Bamana peoples Cow Mask (Misikoun) early/mid-20th century Wood with pigment traces and light patina 21 1/2 x 11 1/2 x 8 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2010.1.1 Mali, Dogon peoples Monkey Mask, 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 11 1/2 x 5 3/4 x 4 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.16 Mali, Katiena region, Marka peoples Beautiful Woman Mask (Djobloi Koun), early/mid-20th century Wood with pigment 9 x 6 3/4 x 5 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2010.1.2 Nigeria, Ketu region, Ineko Latunji Mosudi, Yoruba peoples Gelede Mask, c. 1950s Wood with pigment, gourd, cowrie shells and fiber 27 5/8 x 13 x 14 1/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU98.20

Prestige Democratic Republic of the Congo, Luba peoples Stool, 19th-20th century Wood with pigment and iron 17 1/8 x 13 3/4 x 13 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU97.42 Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pende peoples Spear, 19th-20th century Wood with steel, fiber and shell 53 1/2 x 5 x 1 1/2 in. Gift of Dr. Frederick Mebel HU86.101 Northern Nigeria/Northern Cameroon, Fulani peoples Sword (Takoba), 19th-20th century Iron and brass 62 1/4 x 9 1/2 x 1 in. Gift of Dr. Frederick Mebel HU86.100

Mali, Dogon peoples Bracelet, early 20th century Bronze with use patina 5/8 x 3 1/4 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.7 Mali, Dogon peoples Bracelet, early 20th century Bronze with use patina 1 x 3 1/4 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.8 Mali, Dogon peoples Covered Bowl with Equestrian Figure 19th century Wood with pigment and patina 30 x 9 1/8 x 10 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU92.55

Mali, Dogon peoples Horse and Rider, 20th century Iron with patina 9 1/2 x 9 7/8 x 2 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.37 Mali, Dogon peoples Horse and Rider, 20th century Iron with patina 9 1/4 x 17 3/4 x 2 3/4 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.38 Mali, Dogon peoples Horse and Rider, 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 4 x 1 x 3 1/4 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.10 Mali, Kala region, Bamana peoples Horse and Rider, early/mid-20th century Wood with pigment and patina 21 3/4 x 2 1/2 x 4 1/2 in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2010.1.4 Mali, Tuareg peoples Anklet, late 19th-early 20th century Brass alloy with use patina 1 x 3 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.3 Mauritania, Maure peoples Anklet, early 20th century Metal with use patina 1 x 3 1/2 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato, HU2014.1 Mauritania, Maure peoples Anklet, early 20th century Metal with use patina 1 1/4 x 3 1/2 diameter in. Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Pascal James Imperato HU2014.2

Exhibition Checklist con’t.

Northern Nigeria/Northern Cameroon, Fulani peoples Sword (Takoba), 19th-20th century Iron and brass 62 1/4 x 9 1/2 x 1 in. Gift of Dr. Frederick Mebel HU86.100 Republic of Benin (former Kingdom of Dahomey), Fon peoples Stool, 19th-20th century Wood with pigment and patina 13 x 8 x 13 3/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Baird, HU66.2

Protection Côte d’Ivoire or Mali, Senufo peoples Headdress (Kwonro), 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 44 1/2 x 25 1/2 x 33 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Baird, HU66.1 Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kongo peoples Double-Headed Dog (Nkisi Kozo), 19th-20th century Wood with pigment, patina, nails, mirror and resin 9 1/4 x 22 1/4 x 6 1/2 in. Gift of Tony and Pura Chen HU93.18

Democratic Republic of the Congo, Vili peoples Baboon Skull Medicine Object (Nkisi), 19th-20th century Bone with rattan fiber, pigment, feather and patina 9 1/2 x 6 1/2 x 7 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU96.55 Gabon, Mitsogo peoples Standing Female Figure with Janus Head, 19th century Wood with kaolin pigment 52 x 8 1/4 x 9 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU93.5 Mali, Dogon peoples Kneeling Couple, 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 20 x 6 x 5 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.43 Mali, Dogon peoples Kneeling Maternity Figure 20th century Wood with pigment 21 3/4 x 6 x 6 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.18 Mali, Dogon peoples Mother and Child, 20th century Bronze with patina 3 7/8 x 1 1/2 x 1 1/2 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3.34

Mali, Dogon peoples Primordial Couple, 20th century Wood with pigment and patina 29 x 9 3/4 x 7 1/4 in. Gift of Roda Graham HU2005.3. Nigeria, Yoruba peoples Mother and Child, 19th century Wood with pigment 10 1/2 x 2 1/4 x 4 1/4 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU81.44 Nigeria, Yoruba peoples House of the Head (Ile Ori) 19th-20th century Textile, fiber, cowrie shells and beads 30 x 15 x 11 7/8 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU97.40 Republic of Benin, Fon peoples Asen Altar, 19th-20th century Iron with patina 42 x 9 x 8 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU96.44 Republic of Benin, Fon peoples Asen Altar, 19th-20th century Iron with patina 40 1/2 x 6 1/2 x 6 1/2 in. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Sol Levitt HU96.45

Selected Resources

Books Beckwith, Carol and Angela Fisher. African Ceremonies, Volume 2. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1999. Print. Bossoni, Ezio (Curator), et al. Arts of Africa: 7,000 Years of African Art. Monaco: Skira/Grimaldi Forum, 2005. Print. Drewal, Henry John and Gail Gelburd. Shapes of the Mind: African Art from Long Island Collections. Hempstead, New York: Hofstra Museum, Hofstra University, 1988. Print. Ezra, Kate. The Art of the Dogon: Selections from the Lester Wunderman Collection (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1988. Print. Lamp, Frederick John. See the Music, Hear the Dance: Rethinking African Art at The Baltimore Museum of Art. New York: Prestel, 2004. Print. Silverman, Raymond A. Expressions of Africa: Selections from the Museum Collections of Michigan State University. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 1989. Print. Stepan, Peter. Spirits Speak: A Celebration of African Masks. New York: Prestel Publishing, 2005. Print.

Websites National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., www.africa.si.edu University of Iowa, “Art and Life in Africa,” https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/

HOFSTRA UNIVERSITY STUART RABINOWITZ

President Andrew M. Boas and Mark L. Claster Distinguished Professor of Law

GAIL M. SIMMONS

Provost and Senior Vice President for Academic Affairs

HOFSTRA UNIVERSITY MUSEUM BETH E. LEVINTHAL Executive Director

KAREN T. ALBERT

Associate Director of Exhibitions and Collections

KRISTY L. CARATZOLA Collections Manager

NANCY RICHNER

Museum Education Director

RENEE B. SELTZER

Museum Educator

CHRISTINE M. BURNS Museum Educator

GRADUATE ASSISTANTSHIP Joie M. Johnson-Walker

GRADUATE STUDENT ASSISTANTS Chelsea Laggan Mairead Senk