National History Day 2018 by Hofstra University

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CONFLICT & COMPROMISE IN HISTORY

TABLE OF CONTENTS 6

What is National History DayÂ®?

2018 Theme Narrative: Conflict & Compromise in History

U.S. History Sample Topics

European History Sample Topics

World History Sample Topics

Project Category Infographics

Discover Clues to Historical Puzzles Through the National Register of Historic Places

Congress Constructs the Great Society Through Conflict and Compromise

Rethinking Conflict: Its Role in Building Peace

Conflict and Compromise: Free People of Color in Antebellum America

Making a Way out of No Way

Sacred Insults: Religious Conflict and Compromise in 1930s Connecticut

Teaching Historical Thinking Skills Using Historic Newspapers from Chronicling America

Loyalty, Espionage, and Ideological Conflict in World War I

WHAT IS NATIONAL HISTORY DAY ? ®

National History Day (NHD) is a nonprofit organization that creates opportunities for teachers and students to engage in historical research. NHD is not a predetermined, by-the-book program but rather an innovative curriculum framework in which students learn history by selecting topics of interest and launching into year-long research projects. The mission of NHD is to improve the teaching and learning of history in middle and high school. The most visible vehicle is the NHD Contest. When studying history through historical research, students and teachers practice critical inquiry, asking questions of significance, time, and place. History students become immersed in a detective story. Beginning in the fall, students choose a topic related to the annual theme and conduct extensive primary and secondary research. After analyzing and interpreting their sources and drawing conclusions about their topics’ significance in history, students present their work in original papers, exhibits, performances, websites, or documentaries. These projects are entered into competitions in the spring at local, affiliate, and national levels, where they are evaluated by professional historians and educators. The program culminates at the national competition held each June at the University of Maryland at College Park. Each year National History Day uses a theme to provide a lens through which students can examine history. The theme for 2018 is Conflict and Compromise in History. The annual theme frames the research for both students and teachers. It is intentionally broad enough that students can select topics from any place (local, national, or world) and any time period in history. Once students choose their topics, they investigate historical context, historical significance, and the topic’s relationship to the theme by conducting research in libraries, archives, and museums; through oral history interviews; and by visiting historic sites. NHD benefits both teachers and students. For the student, NHD allows control of his or her own learning. Students select topics that match their interests. Program expectations and guidelines are explicitly provided for students, but the research journey is driven by the process and is unique to the historical research. Throughout the year, students develop essential life skills by fostering intellectual curiosity and academic achievement. In addition, students develop critical-thinking and problem-solving skills that will help them manage and use information now and in the future. Students’ greatest ally in the research process is the classroom teacher. NHD supports teachers by providing instructional materials and through workshops at local, affiliate, and national levels. Many teachers find that incorporating the NHD theme into their regular classroom curriculum encourages students to watch for examples of the theme and to identify connections in their study of history across time. NHD’s work with teachers and students extends beyond the contest and includes institutes and training programs, which provide teachers with opportunities to study history and develop lessons and materials they can share with their students. In addition, NHD offers continuing education courses for teachers (for graduate credit or professional development hours) to improve classroom practice (nhd.org/onlineeducation). NHD also offers teaching resources to help teachers integrate primary sources and critical thinking into the classroom. These resources are free and accessible to all teachers. Visit nhd.org to learn more.

6 | Conflict & Compromise in History

2018 THEME NARRATIVE:

CONFLICT & COMPROMISE IN HISTORY Amanda Hendrey, Programs Assistant, National History Day Lynne O’Hara, Director of Programs, National History Day National History Day (NHD) students will spend the 2017–2018 school year delving into a topic based on the theme Conflict & Compromise in History. You will ask questions that lead you down the path of discovery of not just what occurred, but how it occurred and, most important, why it happened and what the consequences were. As you set out to research your topic, you will discover the basic facts first, but then you will need to look deeper. You will go on to examine the factors that contributed to the development of your event, its influence on history, and the effect it had on the community, society, nation, and the world. Each year National History Day uses a theme to provide a lens to study history. The theme is always broad enough so that you can select topics from any place (local, national, or world history) and any time period. Once you choose your topic, you investigate historical context, historical significance, and the topic’s relationship to the theme by conducting research in libraries, archives, and museums; through oral history interviews; and by visiting historic sites. This year’s theme, Conflict & Compromise in History, requires you to view history through multiple perspectives. Compromise can sometimes prevent a conflict, but what happens when it does not? If a conflict occurs, how can compromise help to end the conflict? What happens if a failed compromise leads to an even larger conflict? Throughout this academic year, you will need to ask yourself these questions and more. How can compromise prevent future conflict? Is compromise simple to reach? Compromise has been used to prevent future conflict, but that does not mean it was easy. Consider First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt’s work to create the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Or look further back to the Constitutional Convention, when the Founding Fathers created the Connecticut Compromise to balance the needs of larger and smaller states. How did the individuals involved work together to create compromise? Were they able to ensure that these compromises would lead to continued peace? What did they need to give up in order for these compromises to occur? What happens when a compromise lasts for only a short time? Many times a compromise works only for a short time, until the conflict bubbles to the surface again. In the years leading up to the American Civil War, there are many examples of the U.S. government working to compromise and prevent conflict. Think of the Three-Fifths Compromise or the Missouri Compromise. Do you believe the leaders felt that the peace they achieved through those compromises would last? Was war inevitable, or could those compromises have been more successful? Sometimes a compromise leads only to a pause in the larger conflict. Consider the actions of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain; did the compromise he proposed, known as appeasement, lead to World War II? Would that conflict have taken place even without appeasement? Did appeasement delay or hasten the onset of the war?

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What happens when groups or individuals fail to reach a compromise? Does that always lead to conflict? Look to Australian history to see an example of what happens when a group fails to compromise. When British settlers first arrived in Australia, they happily traded and coexisted with the Aboriginal community. How long did that peaceful scenario last? What conflicts arose when the 1861 Crown Lands Act was established? Or consider Queen Mary I of England, a devout Catholic who refused to allow her subjects to worship as Protestants. How did her lack of compromise lead to conflict? How does history remember her today? What happens when an attempt at compromise brings about a conflict? Sometimes an attempt to compromise can lead to a conflict. Mahatma Gandhi is remembered as one of history’s most famous peaceful protesters. Did a conflict ever result from his actions? The Salt Marches, led by Gandhi in 1930, began as a peaceful protest against British rule of India, but how did they end? Did that demonstration lead to conflict, and did the protesters manage to negotiate a compromise? Consider the fight by women in Great Britain for the right to vote. The three organizations led by women, the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies, the Women’s Social and Political Union, and the Women’s League, all had very different views on how to achieve the vote. What conflicts did they have with each other, and how did they use compromise to work together to achieve their goal? What happens when neither side is willing to compromise? Compromise often results from conflict, but sometimes those involved in a conflict are unwilling to compromise. George Washington faced many conflicts, some of which were resolved through compromise, while others were not. The first conflict within the new United States of America was a risky uprising in 1794 by western Pennsylvania farmers rebelling against the liquor tax. What was Washington’s reaction to this revolt? Did he compromise with the Whiskey Rebels? Consider the Haitian Revolution, which began in 1791. What effect did this anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection have on the institution of slavery in the Americas and beyond? How can compromise resolve an ongoing conflict? How has compromise been used to end conflict throughout history? Consider the peace treaties that typically end wars. How are such treaties created? What kinds of compromises must be forged to negotiate peace after a conflict? Think of the Potsdam Agreement. How did the Allied Powers of World War II work together to control Germany? How did that agreement end the conflict in Europe? How did that compromise affect international relations during the following years? Students interested in labor history will encounter conflicts in the form of strikes. The Pullman Strike of 1894, for example, pitted the Pullman Company and the U.S. government against the American Railway Union. What conflicts arose out of that strike? How did the government attempt to compromise once the strike ended? Another example is the conflict between factory owners and groups fighting for better working conditions for workers, as well as higher wages and shorter working hours. Muller v. Oregon was a landmark case in gaining shorter working hours for women. Were all the parties involved happy with that decision? Which group had to compromise in order to allow women the right to shorter work hours? What causes conflict between people? Throughout history, differences in gender and race have resulted in numerous conflicts. The 15th Amendment was ratified in 1870, giving African American men the right to vote. Women sought suffrage as well; how did they compromise at that point in their struggle? What conflicts resulted throughout the nation? The American Civil Rights Movement was a long and difficult battle for equal rights for African Americans. Education was just one element. The Brown v. Board of Education decision ended segregation in schools. How did the courts compromise with both parties? How has that decision affected schools around the nation? Religion has often led to conflicts. The Crusades were religious wars that involved numerous nations for hundreds of years. How did that conflict begin? How was it resolved? The conflict between French Catholics and French Protestants during the late 1500s disrupted the peace and unity of France. King Henry IV signed the Edict of

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Nantes in 1598 to help restore unity. How did that edict help the French people? Were both sides satisfied with the compromise? Why or why not? Artists have created paintings, plays, and literature to depict the world around them throughout history. At times, their work sparked conflict by drawing attention to existing issues. Think of Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle, a groundbreaking work that opened people’s eyes to ethical issues within the food industry. How did the government react to the resulting outrage? What did officials create to appease both the people and the food industry? No matter which topic you decide to research, be sure to place it within its historical context. Examine the significance of your topic in history and show development over time. Begin by reading secondary sources, and then move on to seek out available primary sources. Using your research skills, you should be able to clearly explain the relationship of your topic to the theme, Conflict & Compromise in History. Based on that understanding, you can develop quality papers, performances, exhibits, websites, and documentaries for National History Day.

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National History Day Graduate Courses for Teachers 2017-18

nhd.org/OnlineEducation "I thought the class was fantastic! I learned many practical strategies to use with my classes and I look forward to implementing them."

Introduction to Project-Based Learning Using the National History Day Framework July 3 to August 20, 2017

Conducting Historical Research in the National History Day Model September 11 to December 11, 2017

Developing Exhibits to Facilitate Historical Thinking Skills August 14 to October 9, 2017

NEW! Developing Documentaries to Facilitate Historical Thinking Skills October 2 to November 20, 2017

Developing Websites to Facilitate Historical Thinking Skills August 14 to October 9, 2017

NEW! Developing Performances to Facilitate Historical Thinking Skills October 2 to November 20, 2017

Invigorate your classroom, register today! Graduate credits offered through the University of San Diego

U.S. HISTORY SAMPLE TOPICS • The Canandaigua Treaty of 1794: Compromise After Conflict

• No Taxation Without Representation: The Failed Compromise That Led to a Revolution

• The Government Versus the Farmers: George Washington’s Lack of Compromise in the Whiskey Rebellion

• Conflict in Salem: The Witchcraft Trials

• The Treaty of Mortefontaine: Compromise to End the Quasi-War • The Second Great Awakening: Religious Conflict Driving Social Compromises • Conflicting Ideas over Religion: New Immigrants Challenging the Protestant Ideal • Fighting in World War I and Not Compromising Ideals: The Harlem Hellfighters • The Conflict of Monopoly and the Compromise of the National Association of Theatre Owners • Social Conflict During War: Japanese Internment • Conflicting Opinions, Compromised Values: The Vietnam Generation • Rodgers and Hammerstein: From Lighthearted Musicals to Serious Social Issues • Ronald Reagan and the Berlin Wall • The Camp David Accords • Theodore Roosevelt and the Completion of the Panama Canal • The Connecticut Compromise: The Prevention of Conflict • Opposing the War of 1812: The Hartford Convention

• Preventing Conflict: The Compromise of 1850 • Antebellum Politics: The Nullification Controversy • The Revolution of 1800 • The New York City Draft Riot of 1863 • The Indian Removal Act of 1830 • Reconstruction: Conflict and Compromise in the South • The Compromise of 1877 • The Pullman Strike • The Silver Question: Farmers Versus Industrialists • The Burlingame Treaty and Chinese Exclusion • The Big Three: Conflict and Compromise at Yalta • Dollar Diplomacy: Ending Conflicts Through Economic Investment • UAW v. General Motors: Sit Down for Compromise • Conscientious Objectors in World War II

• Taking the Fight off the Ice: The Creation of the NHLPA • The Truman Doctrine • The Marshall Plan • The Compromise to End All Conflict: The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928

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EUROPEAN HISTORY SAMPLE TOPICS • The End of Compromise: Boudicca’s Fight Against Rome

• George Fox and the Quakers: Conflict with Society, Compromise with a New Faith

• Charlemagne’s Conquest and the Spread of Architectural Ideas

• Selling Souls for Sugar: Slavery and the Sugar Islands

• The Crusades: No Compromise for Faith • Martin Luther’s Refusal to Compromise His Ideals

• The Conflicts and Compromises Needed to Unify Italy • The Munich Agreement: Appeasing Conflict

• Otto von Bismarck and the Unification of Germany

• The Treaty of Versailles: Prelude to the Second World War

• The Congress of Vienna: The Legacy of Napoleon’s Downfall

• Emmeline Pankhurst and Her Militant Struggle for Suffrage in Great Britain

• The Edict of Nantes: Compromise to End Conflict

• Henry II and Thomas Becket: A Conflict That Led to Compromise

• For the Sake of Divorce: Henry VIII Versus Rome • Bloody Mary: A Catholic Who Refused to Compromise • Oliver Cromwell and King Charles I: Conflicts and Compromises • Conflict at Sea: How the British Defeat of the Spanish Armada Changed the Face of Naval Warfare • Isabella, Ferdinand, and the Spanish Reconquista • Galileo: The Conflict and Compromise Between Science and Catholicism • The Division of Berlin After World War II • The Castle Hill Rebellion: Conflict Without Compromise • The European Coal and Steel Community That Led to a Union

12 | Conflict & Compromise in History

• Catherine de’ Medici and the Huguenots • Conflict and Compromise in the Restoration of King Charles II of England • The Troubles: The Conflict and Compromise of Ireland • The Glorious Revolution: A Conflict That Led to the English Bill of Rights • The Treaty of Madrid: The Compromise to End Conflict • The Treaty of Paris: The Uneasy Peace of the Seven Years’ War • Settlement of New Land: Conflict and Compromise of the Treaty of Tordesillas

WORLD HISTORY SAMPLE TOPICS • The Unbalanced Compromises of the Opium Wars • King Rajaraja Chola I Conquers Ceylon • Buddhism and Hinduism: Conflicting Ideas and Their Cultural Impacts • Sikhs and Hindus: A History of Conflict and Compromise • The Forced Compromise of the Boer Wars • Conflicts over Religious Interpretation: Sunnis and Shi’ites in Islamic Tradition • Conflicts over Borders Necessitate Compromise: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 • Constantine’s Conflict and Compromise over the Date of Christmas • The Paris Peace Accords: Compromises to End the Vietnam War • The Conflict and Compromise of Repatriation of Ancient Artifacts: Howard Carter and King Tut’s Treasure • Athens, Sparta, and the Battle of Marathon • The Rule of Akbar: “The Great Mughal” over India • The Establishment of the Manchu Dynasty in China • The Japanese Constitution of 1889 • The Crimean War

• Resolution 181: The Conflict and Compromise of Creating a Nation • United Nations Peacekeeping Missions: Compromising to Avoid Conflict • The Iran Hostage Crisis: Coming to a Compromise • Nelson Mandela and the Fight for Equality in South Africa • “Men and women are equal; everyone is worth his (or her) salt”: Mao Zedong’s New Marriage Law • Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan: Ending the Cold War Through Conflict and Compromise • King Bhumibol of Thailand: The Conflict and the Compromise of General Srimuang • Desmond Tutu’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission • Zapatista National Liberation Army and the Conflict and Compromise of the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement • The Conflict and Compromise That Led to Rwanda’s Arusha Accords • The Conflict of Blood Diamonds and the Compromise of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme • The Internal Settlement: Conflict in Rhodesia Leads to the Compromise of Zimbabwe

• Filipino Insurrection: Compromise with America to Win a Conflict Against Spain

• The Six-Day War • Colonization Conflicts: King Leopold’s Vision in the Congo

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PROJECT CATEGORY INFOGRAPHICS DOCUMENTARY

EXHIBIT

Do you find yourself critiquing every movie you watch? Do you love to tell stories using imagery and sound? If you answered yes to those questions, documentary is the category for you!

You may create a documentary as an individual, or in a group of up to five students.

Your documentary may not exceed

Do you find yourself doodling on the sides of your notes? Do your friends come to you for creative advice? If you answered yes to those questions, exhibit is the category for you!

You may create an exhibit as an individual, or in a group of up to five students.

10 MINUTES. CITE YOUR SOURCES!

The size limit on an exhibit is 40 inches wide, 30 inches deep, and 6 feet tall.

CITE YOUR SOURCES! INTRODUCE YOURSELF!

All images, music, and film must be credited at the end of your documentary and in your annotated bibliography.

Make sure to state the title of your entry and your name before you play your documentary.

Exhibits can include images, maps, and other visual primary sources!

Exhibits have a word limit of 500 student-composed words.

Do not use any media that requires audience or judge participation.

In addition to creating your documentary, you must write a process paper and annotated bibliography. Head to our website for more information: www.nhd.org/entering-contest/creating-anentry/documentary/

STUDENT EXAMPLES

The Journey of Sugar: Neither Short Nor Sweet Aditya Ailiani, Senior Individual Documentary, 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sv_bhnojoRQ&t=8s The Americans Are Very Strong Molly McLaughlin & Olivia Romig, Junior Group Documentary, 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SnLL8b11hxk

14 | Conflict & Compromise in History

All quotes and images must be credited on the board and in the annotated bibliography.

In addition to creating your exhibit, you must write a process paper and annotated bibliography.

Head to our website for more information: www.nhd.org/entering-contest/creating-anentry/exhibit/

STUDENT EXAMPLES

How the U.S. Dollar Rebuilt the World Rudy Moise, Junior Individual Exhibit, 2016 https://www.nhd.org/sites/default/files/Moise%20Exhibit.JPG Fifteen Cents to See the Infants on Display Jennifer Gilby & Gabrielle Hines, Senior Group Exhibit, 2016 https://www.nhd.org/sites/default/files/Hines%20Exhibit_0.jpg

PROJECT CATEGORY INFOGRAPHICS PERFORMANCE

PAPER Do you best express yourself through writing? Do you prefer writing over speaking in front of a crowd? If you answered yes to those questions, paper is the category for you!

The paper category is only for individuals.

NO GROUPS!

Traditional papers and various types of creative writing are permitted.

CITE YOUR SOURCES!

Papers must be between 1,500 and 2,500 words. Make sure you include the word count on the title page.

In addition to writing your paper, you will need to create an annotated bibliography.

Do you love being the center of attention? Do you enjoy speaking in front of a crowd? If you answered yes to those questions, performance is the category for you!

Your performance may not exceed

You may perform as an individual or in a group of up to five students.

10 MINUTES. Have fun creating your costumes, set, and props, but remember simple is often best!

INTRODUCE YOURSELF! Make sure to say the title of your entry and your name before you begin performing.

All quotes and ideas must be credited in your paper and annotated bibliography. You will need 5 total copies of your paper. You will submit 4 prior to the contest, and take one with you.

You are allowed to use media within your performance as long as you operate it yourself. In addition to preparing your performance, you must also write a process paper and annotated bibliography.

Head to our website for more information: www.nhd.org/entering-contest/creating-an-entry/paper/

Head to our website for more information: www.nhd.org/entering-contest/creating-anentry/performance/

STUDENT EXAMPLES

The European Organization for Nuclear Research: Exploration, Encounter and Exchange Through Nuclear Physics Owen Barr, Junior Paper, 2016 https://nhd.org/sites/default/files/Barr_Paper.pdf The Black Death, an Unforeseen Exchange: Europe's Encounter with Pandemic Sparked an Age of Exploration Camryn Franke, Senior Paper, 2016 https://nhd.org/sites/default/files/Franke_Senior_Paper.pdf

Mary Musgrove: Exploration, Encounter and Exchange in the Life of an Indian Princess Mercy Koehler and Devin Snyder, Senior Group Performance, 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yj_xh3ywQYI&feature=youtu.be Black, White and Blue: Vivien Thomas and the Cure for Blue Baby Syndrome Jasmine Hughley, Junior Individual Performance, 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhiHgBZaOMk

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PROJECT CATEGORY INFOGRAPHICS WEBSITE Do you love working with the latest technology? Do your friends come to your for technical advice? If you answered yes to those questions, website is the category for you!

Websites can be created individually, or in a group of up to five students. You must create your website using nhd.weebly.org.

Websites may include multimedia clips, but the total running time cannot exceed

4 MINUTES.

In addition to creating your website, you will need to write a process paper and an annotated bibliography.

CITE YOUR SOURCES!

All images, film, and music used must be credited on the website and in the annotated bibliography.

Your website can contain up to 1,200 visible student-composed words. Don't forget to include a word count on the home page!

Head to our website for more information: www.nhd.org/entering-contest/creating-anentry/website/

STUDENT EXAMPLES

Duel and Duality: New Journalism, New York Shay Pezzulo, Senior Individual Website, 2016 http://56004557.weebly.com/ Unit 731: Perpetrators of the Asian Holocaust Aman Agarwal & Daksh Gopalani, Junior Group Website, 2016 http://44479808.weebly.com/

16 | Conflict & Compromise in History

To download these and other materials to make an NHD bulletin board for your classroom, go to nhd.org/themebook.

MAKING HISTORY Series

Making History is a comprehensive series of workbooks that provides teachers step-by-step guidance on how to conduct historical research and gives students direccon on how to create NHD projects. Order now and receive the latest revised ediions of How to Create a Historical Performance, How to Write a Historical Paper, How to Develop a Historical Website, How to Create a Historical Exhibit, and How to Create a Historical Documentary. These newly updated versions include the most recent advice for craaing the best possible project.

How to Create a Historical Performance........................................$26 How to Write a Historical Paper.....................................................$26 How to Develop a Historical Website.............................................$26 How to Create a Historical Exhibit..................................................$26 How to Create a Historical Documentary........................................$31 A Guide to Historical Research.......................................................$43

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DISCOVER CLUES TO HISTORICAL PUZZLES THROUGH THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES Explore primary and secondary sources from all eras of North American history with the National Register of Historic Places, a National Park Service program Katie Orr, Historian, National Park Service Cultural Resources Office of Interpretation & Education

magine writing about the women’s suffrage movement without referring to Washington, D.C.’s Lafayette Park. Try to visualize the 1960s African American Civil Rights movement without explaining what happened at the Lincoln Memorial, or at Selma’s Edmund Pettus Bridge. Comprehending place is an essential part of solving any historical puzzle, and can help us better understand how people have faced conflict and negotiated compromise. Places reveal evidence of the past wherever people have gathered throughout history. Students can research conflict at Spanish colonial forts, Civil War battlefields, abandoned mines, and the Stonewall Inn. They might choose to investigate stories of compromise at historic courthouses, on farms once supported by enslaved laborers, and at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, where the nascent American states formed a union. These iconic locations and thousands more provide historians with evidence of the motives, environments, and values that have guided historical actors. Scholars use places to interpret the past—and so can National History Day (NHD) students. Young scholars might want to begin their history investigation at the National Register of Historic Places. The National Register, a program of the National Park Service, documents and collects information about more than 100,000 historic sites in the United States. The “places” catalogued in this online database include, among other things, bridges, skyscrapers, log cabins, mansions, archeological sites, neighborhoods, and even ships. To be recognized as a National Register site,

18 | Conflict & Compromise in History

a place must be historically significant because it is a rare, surviving example of a past trend or because it is associated with an important person or event. National Register historic sites are typically at least 50 years old, although there are exceptions (The Forty Acres in Delano, California, was designated as historic only 40 years after its historical era of significance).

National Register of Historic Places The National Park Service provides an online database where students can search for compelling evidence of conflict and compromise in history. From the home page, look to the navigation bar for research instructions. Teachers should contact the National Register or see the FAQ page if they or their students have questions. Learn more at: nps.gov/nr/.

Whether a student chooses a topic associated with a National Park site, a private home, the main street of his or her community, or one of the 23 World Heritage Sites located in the U.S., the National Register offers valuable information. Every site listed is documented on a nomination form that contains information about the location’s history and its significance. Nominations range in length from 15 to 150 pages. Longer nominations include detailed historical essays about the topics and

broader contexts to which the site relates. A National Register-listed historic site also provides primary and secondary sources of information. The sheer volume and diversity of sites listed in the National Register make it very likely that students working on any topic related to American history will discover useful information. The National Register also lists historic places with significance that predate United States history. Students interested in pre-Columbian topics, for example, can access nominations for sites related to indigenous history. The Register nominations contain rich documentation on North American Mound Building cultures, about which evidence exists in historic spots like Poverty Point, Louisiana, and Cahokia, Illinois. What did the great earthworks mean to these peoples? What do they tell us about societies that left no written records? Did the people who engineered the earthworks at Ohioâ€™s Hopewell Culture Mounds promote conflict or compromise with what they built? To tackle questions like these, students can examine the archeological evidence along with scholarly sources to form their own theories and develop their own inquiries.

the historic sites, and can also provide access to rare textual primary sources. For example, nominations about Spanish Missions in the Southwest typically include block quotes from translated diary entries by Jesuit and Franciscan padres. The Pueblo Revolt of the late seventeenth century is documented in the National Register nominations for New Mexicoâ€™s colonial missions and forts, through both twentiethcentury archeological evidence and in the collection of translated primary sources they gathered. The Spanish

The Tiwa pueblo of Kuaua lies in ruin at Coronado Historic Site, Bernalillo, New Mexico. Courtesy of the National Park Service.

fathers saw the revolt as a pagan rebellion against God, while the Pueblo sought freedom from spiritual oppression. Good historians can avoid perpetuating the prejudices of a given letter writer by consulting a variety of kinds of sources as well as multiple written perspectives. Students who choose to interpret conflict and compromise between oppressing and oppressed groups may find it especially helpful that the National Register provides different kinds of sources side-by-side. Simmering Mounds, Hopewell Historical Park, Ohio. National Park Service photograph courtesy of Tom Engberg.

Projects about topics that occurred after European contact might have the benefit of written primary sources along with archeological sites and historic buildings. The thousands of National Register nominations about English, French, and Spanish colonial-era history include recent documentation about

Students interested in African American history can also benefit from the place-as-evidence approach. During the colonial and antebellum eras, conflict arose because it was uncommon or illegal for an enslaved person to be able to read and write. National Register sites can help students find information about the beliefs, needs, and desires of enslaved Africans through the physical spaces they created for themselves and the way they interacted with those spaces. For example, archeologists have discovered small objects such as toothbrushes and

National History Day 2018 | 19

carved figures that were buried by slaves working in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century kitchens, including at the Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site in Missouri. According to written records, artifacts like these—which may have been given to the slaves by their owners— were ultimately not used in ways their enslavers expected. Buried artifacts were also found in the kitchen of Robert E. Lee’s Arlington House. Is readapting gifts in this way evidence of conflict or compromise between the slave and the enslaver? Students could begin to answer that question by researching historic places like Grant’s White Haven Farm and Lee’s home.

impressive social clubs, which have provided historians with details of the private and social lives of Cuban immigrants. Students might want to consider researching the architecture found in immigrant communities like Ybor—styles that draw from the old country while negotiating with the new—to explore compromise in history.

Historic photo of a cigar factory in Ybor City, Florida, circa 1886. Courtesy of the National Park Service.

Artifacts found by archeologists during an excavation of White Haven Farm’s summer kitchen. National Park Service photograph courtesy of the Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site.

In addition to listing historic sites, the National Register includes historic districts: neighborhoods or groups of historic properties that, together, contribute to a single aesthetic or history. They contain private and public spaces. District nominations can be particularly useful for students researching the conflicts and compromises inherent in immigrant history. Immigrants in any era tend to settle in groups in the same regions, forming neighborhoods to support their own communities. Many such culturally diverse neighborhoods have become federally recognized historic districts. Miami, Florida’s Ybor City Historic District, for example, includes hundreds of historic houses as well as architecturally

20 | Conflict & Compromise in History

Districts are also useful for National History Day projects about labor history, which is rife with tales of conflict. Historic mining towns and company towns can be found on the National Register, including Michigan’s Quincy Mine Historic District. In that company town in Northern Michigan and nearby communities, ethnically-diverse groups of copper miners faced down foes like the Pinkertons with help from labor leadership, including Mary Harris “Mother” Jones. The Register’s nomination documents that conflict with general descriptions of the history, maps of the region and the district, and primary sources. The United Farm Workers Strike, a labor conflict related to Filipino and Chicano history, is documented in the historic district nomination for The Forty Acres, which includes photographs of Cesar Chavez and civil rights protests, as well as the buildings at the Delano Field Office in California. Portions of some active military bases have also been designated as historic. Students can use places such as these to research military and aviation projects, including space exploration, during the twentieth century. Historic sites with National Register nominations documenting space exploration include Houston’s

Mission Control Command Center and the Lunar Landing Research Facility in Langley, Virginia, where Apollo astronauts prepared to take “one small step for man... .”

on how such resources will be used, students could consider nominations as scholarly sources, government documents, primary sources, or technical forms.

Discover Teaching with Historic Places at nps.gov

Documentation for NASA’s Space Flight Operations Facility in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a National Historic Landmark in Pasadena, California, is available online at the National Register. Courtesy of NASA.

Historic places have the power to show history that might otherwise be hiding in plain sight. Approaching a place as evidence of the people who built it, lived there, and valued the site demands both critical analysis and historical thinking. Fortunately, teaching students how to use historic places as evidence through the National Register of Historic Places has never been easier. To honor the 50th anniversary of the National Historic Preservation Act in 2016, the National Park Service published two teaching tools aimed at teaching young adults about historic preservation and how to use the Register: the National Historic Preservation Act Junior Ranger Activity Book and the NHPA 50th Anniversary lesson plan from Teaching with Historic Places. In addition to supporting arguments, historic places provide unique opportunities once students settle on the form they want their project to take. Historic sites can provide a model stage for students to ground a performance project. With proper permission, historic places also provide engaging settings to film a documentary and find inspiration for writing a paper or creating a performance. Website and exhibit projects require illustration, and historic sites provide visual evidence. Papers—and all the written portions associated with any project category—can draw directly from National Register nominations. Depending

The Teaching with Historic Places resource offers lesson plans about National Register sites, including the examples mentioned in this article. Access over 160 lessons by browsing indexes organized by location, era, curriculum standards, skills, primary documents, and subjects. Some popular subjects include the histories of Civil Rights, American Indians, Women, Politics and Government, Immigration, and the U.S. Military. Learn more at: nps.gov/subjects/ teachingwithhistoricplaces/.

Historic places ground us in the past, and they can also make projects come to life. They transcend the classroom: they line our streets, house our courts and government, and provide the backdrop for recreation and vacations. Some local sites play a role in national or global perspectives. Whatever the topic, the National Park Service is here to help. Logging on to the National Register of Historic Places database is a good first step toward developing a solid NHD project. To learn more and find additional resources, visit nhd.org/themebook.

National History Day 2018 | 21

HONORING THE PAST PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE

CONFLICT & COMPROMISE IN 2018 HISTORY® SALUTES NHD PARTICIPANTS

CONGRESS CONSTRUCTS THE GREAT SOCIETY THROUGH CONFLICT AND COMPROMISE Sarah D’Antonio Gard, Archivist, Robert J. Dole Institute of Politics, University of Kansas Debra Davendonis-Todd, Director, and Bob Bullock, Archivist, W. R. Poage Legislative Library, Baylor University Danielle Emerling, Congressional and Political Papers Archivist and Assistant Curator, West Virginia University Libraries Hope Grebner Bibens, Political Papers Archivist and Assistant Professor of Librarianship, Drake University Archives & Special Collections James Wyatt, Director of Programs and Research, Robert C. Byrd Center for Congressional History and Education, Shepherd University

he Great Society was President Lyndon B. Johnson’s plan to improve Americans’ lives through a set of domestic programs that would eliminate poverty and racial injustice. It was an ambitious agenda that sought to reshape U.S. domestic policy on a scale not seen since President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal. While President Johnson’s vision and leadership were largely responsible for the Great Society, the policies could not have been enacted without the cooperation and compromise of the 89th Congress between 1965 and 1966. By examining primary source material featured in “The Great Society Congress” online exhibit (acsc.lib.udel.edu/great-congress), students and teachers can gain a better sense of how the Great Society was shaped and the balance of conflict and compromise involved in creating broad and extensive legislation that still affects our lives today. “The Great Society Congress” is a collaborative project of the Association of Centers for the Study of Congress (ACSC) (congresscenters.org), which was founded in 2003 as an independent association of organizations and institutions that promotes the study of the United States Congress. Many ACSC member organizatons maintain archival collections of current and former members of the House of Representatives and the Senate, as well as other research collections. These collections are rich in primary sources, such as photographs,

government documents, press releases, and personal correspondence, not found anywhere else. The online exhibit features more than 400 items from 18 member institutions. It is designed around primary sources that explore American society and politics during the mid-1960s and the legislative process. It is organized into three sections: The 89th Congress, The Political Environment, and The Legislation. Throughout these sections a rich but complicated story of Congress, conflict, and compromise can be seen.

& Members of the 89th Congress, left to right: Senators Thomas Kuchel (R-CA), Philip Hart (D-MI), Ted Kennedy (D-MA), Mike Mansfield (D-MT), Everett Dirksen (R-IL), and Jacob Javits (R-NY). Courtesy of Everett McKinley Dirksen Congressional Leadership Research Center.

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The Great Society: Congress at Work In the American system of government, Congress is a bicameral legislature with two bodies: the House of Representatives and the Senate. Congress is responsible for writing and enacting laws, and it played an integral role in bringing President Johnson’s Great Society to life. The “89th Congress” section of the exhibit explores the many voices, party dynamics, and rules and procedures that were at play in creating the individual pieces of legislation. The November 1964 election was an historic landslide for Democrats. President Lyndon B. Johnson won the biggest popular vote—61 percent—since Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936, defeating his opponent, Republican candidate Barry Goldwater. The Democratic Party also won huge majorities in Congress, outnumbering Republicans 295-140 in the House of Representatives and 68-32 in the Senate. These numbers, along with strong leadership, set the stage for one of the most productive Congresses in American history. Nonetheless, the Republican minority did not give up easily in the legislative process and found ways to influence the legislation that ultimately defined the Great Society. To better understand how Congress works, it is helpful to understand the rules members follow. Rules and procedures change in response to new circumstances, and members of Congress must use the rules to advance, delay, or defeat legislation. The rules of each chamber force representatives and senators to compromise with their colleagues in order to overcome conflicts while crafting new laws. Otherwise, no new laws can be passed. For example, in the Senate, the filibuster, which allows for any senator to speak continuously on the floor to delay or prevent a vote on a bill, is sometimes used to block legislation. Southern segregationists in the Senate famously used this tool to prevent the passage of meaningful civil rights legislation throughout much of the twentieth century. Using another rule, known as cloture, the Senate can end a filibuster with a two-thirds vote, which traditionally has been a difficult number to obtain. With the threat of a filibuster always looming, senators introduce and vote on amendments to pending bills in order to help ensure their passage. However, 1

during the 88th Congress, a loose coalition of liberal Democrats and moderate Republicans gained the power to invoke cloture and block conservative filibusters during the fight to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. During the 89th Congress, this coalition invoked cloture again to halt the filibuster of the Voting Rights Act in July 1965. Without the filibuster as a backstop, southern segregationists, most of whom were Democrats, were forced to compromise and find alternative ways to impact pending legislation from their own party that they did not support.1 Without a majority in either chamber and with little opportunity to influence legislation through normal channels, Republicans in the House and Senate also had to compromise on items they did not support, including several procedural changes initiated by Democrats. In an effort to generate popular support for their policy proposals and leverage through which they could force Democrats to compromise, Republican leaders turned to the media to present their critiques of the Great Society agenda to the American people. Following formal meetings of the Joint Senate-House Republican Leadership, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen (R-IL) joined with House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford (R-MI) in regular press conferences popularly known as the “Ev and Jerry Show.”

Featuring the question of the week, “What Can We Believe?” House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford (R-MI) and Senator Everett Dirksen (R-IL) take part in one of the “Ev and Jerry Show” press conferences. Courtesy of the Everett McKinley Dirksen Congressional Leadership Research Center.

Julian Zelizer, The Fierce Urgency of Now: Lyndon Johnson, Congress, and the Battle for the Great Society, (New York: Penguin Press, 2015), 215–223.

24 | Conflict & Compromise in History

During the first half of 1966, with television cameras rolling, Dirksen and Ford repeatedly critiqued the Great Society initiatives, defended the Republican countermeasures, and asserted the central importance of a strong and vigilant minority party to American democracy.

Listen to recordings of the “Ev and Jerry Show” at dirksencenter.org/emd_audio/1965.htm. Transcripts and lesson plans also accompany the audio clips at the Dirksen Center’s website.

As Senate Minority Leader Dirksen (R-IL) explained: It is unwise, it is dangerous and it can be disastrous, when an overwhelming majority is permitted to prevail without question or hindrance. Only as a majority is repeatedly questioned and checked by a strong minority can the foundations of this Republic be preserved. That we, a present minority, would welcome majority status is undeniable, but until that inevitable day we believe it all-important to the American people that our numbers and our hand be strengthened sufficiently to outlaw forever from Capitol Hill the push-button, the computer, the soulless rubber-stamp.2 Primary sources in the “89th Congress” section reveal the Democrats’ methods for altering rules, explaining the legislative process and the Great Society agenda items they wished to pursue. Conversely, the Republican minority sources document their uphill battle in resisting reforms and explaining their criticisms. Whether part of the Democratic majority or the Republican minority, one fact was true of all members of Congress: each represented the interests of his or her constituents.

The Great Society: Political Environment at Home and Abroad The landscape in which Congress legislated in 1965 and 1966 was shaped not only by President Johnson’s desire for sweeping reforms, but also by the interests of everyday Americans in congressional districts and states. Additionally, the influence of social movements and even international events shaped the Great Society. The section of the exhibit called “The Political Environment” uses three different lenses to explore the cultural, social, and political landscape of the Great Society era. By examining primary source materials highlighting racial unrest, the growing conflict in Vietnam, and world hunger, students can study how these forces greatly affected the work of the Great Society Congress and lives of Americans at home. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s was characterized by important social evolutions toward racial equality and also by many violent confrontations. When President Johnson called upon Congress to address minority voting rights in the South, letters urging congressional action poured into House and Senate offices supporting the movement. In a March 1965 letter, Wade Watts, Vice President of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in Oklahoma, sought help from Congressman Carl Albert (D-OK) to alleviate the harsh conditions activists faced in Selma and asked for his support for voting rights legislation.3 Watts described an environment in which Civil Rights activists were “surrounded by state troopers, horses of war, and tear gas, and guns” because “we want the right to vote, as all other American citizens.” 4 However, it was not only pro-Civil Rights advocates who put pen to pad in regard to the issue. Segregationists and states’ rights advocates met Civil Rights protestors with “massive resistance” in the courts and in the streets, and they too

Everett McKinley Dirksen, “A Record of Press Conference Statements Made by Senator Everett McKinley Dirksen and Representative Gerald R. Ford for the Republican Leadership of the Congress,” Everett McKinley Dirksen Congressional Leadership Research Center, http://acsc.lib.udel.edu/exhibits/show/89th-congress/item/19. 3 Carl Albert, “Correspondence, Constituent from McAlester, Oklahoma, with Representative Carl Albert,” Carl Albert Congressional Papers, Legislative Series, Box 89, Folder 83, Carl Albert Center Congressional Archives, University of Oklahoma, http://acsc.lib.udel. edu/exhibits/show/political-env/item/21. 4 Ibid. 2

National History Day 2018 | 25

wrote their elected representatives. When examined together, both sides of the constituent correspondence reveal the complexity and conflicting nature of Americans’ attitudes toward Civil Rights issues during the 1960s, and in particular, the Voting Rights Act of 1965. At the same time, the situation in South Vietnam was becoming increasingly fragile. President Johnson

document that constituents from across the country wrote to members of Congress to express varying opinions, from messages of support for a stronger war effort and the men fighting, to pleas to leave Vietnam and an unwinnable situation, to calls for the small but growing contingent of war protestors to be tried for treason. While perhaps more famous for supporting the expansion of American combat operations in Vietnam in an effort to prevent the spread of communism, the 89th Congress also supported soft-power initiatives that aided developing nations and heightened American diplomatic influence around the globe. At President Johnson’s behest, Congress intervened to help alleviate a critical food shortage in India by tying an already existing assistance program, Food for Peace, to the Great Society goals of eradicating hunger and poverty. When the 89th Congress revisited the legislation in 1966, it redefined a number of provisions, most significantly requiring that a recipient country’s government propose self-help measures to improve food production in order to receive aid.5

While visiting the U.S. Embassy in Saigon, Congressman Harley O. Staggers, Sr., (D-WV) was given a map displaying the areas of conflict in Vietnam as well as an economic map of Southeast Asia. The map also includes a timeline of the conflict, ranging from 1945 to 1965. Courtesy of Harley O. Staggers, Sr., Congressional Papers, Robert C. Byrd Center for Congressional History and Education.

responded by escalating attacks, sending an additional fifty thousand troops to the region by the end of 1965. This action resulted in an increase in anti-war activity at home. Although the White House largely concealed its policy from Congress, fearing debate about the war would damage the domestic programs of the Great Society, it still attracted criticism. Primary sources 5

Congressmen Bob Poage of Texas (with hat) and Bob Dole of Kansas (dark suit, center) watch American grain being unloaded in Madras harbor on December 19, 1966. Photograph by R.N. Khanna, courtesy of W. R. Poage Papers, Box 1622, File 4, W. R. Poage Legislative Library, Baylor University, Waco, Texas.

Kristin L. Ahlberg, Transplanting the Great Society: Lyndon Johnson and Food for Peace (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2008), 92–95.

26 | Conflict & Compromise in History

Following Congress’ passage of the Food for Peace Act in November 1966, a bipartisan congressional delegation traveled to India to survey the food crisis. Upon their return, Congressmen Bob Poage (D-TX) and Bob Dole (R-KS) and Senator Jack Miller (R-IA) wrote Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman recommending that the “awesome prospect of suffering” necessitated the United States donate 1.8 million tons of grain to India for distribution “free to needy persons” in support of drought relief efforts in the nation. The congressmen also expressed the hope that other nations, including the U.S.S.R., would enact similar aid programs.6 The “Political Environment” section documents the various tensions felt by members of Congress and those they represented over disputes at home and abroad. Particularly powerful messages can be found in correspondence from citizens attempting to reconcile conflicting feelings related to race, poverty, and war. The internal memos, press releases, and letters to constituents document the efforts of the members of Congress to establish common ground and develop compromises to the pressing domestic and international crises that were wrenching the nation apart.

The Great Society: Legislation and Legacy At home, the country was experiencing another kind of conflict—consumer protection versus industry productivity—and Congress was caught in the middle. One conflict involved Congress, health organizations, and the tobacco industry. Health organizations, including the National Interagency Council on Smoking and Health, wanted strong legislation that would effectively inform the public about the hazards of cigarette smoking, while the tobacco industry wanted warning labels be as limited as possible.7 On January 11, 1964, the U.S. Surgeon General issued a detailed report saying that cigarette smoking was a health hazard warranting “appropriate remedial action.”8 A few months later in June, the Federal Trade

Commission (FTC) announced that beginning on January 1, 1965, the tobacco industry would have to put health warning labels on their cigarette packages and that starting July 1, 1965, similar health warnings would be required in their advertisements. The tobacco industry fought back with an aggressive lobbying effort on Capitol Hill and a public relations campaign that included brochures such as “Tobacco—a vital U.S. Industry,” stressing the economic importance of the industry and its contributions to federal revenues.9 On January 15, 1965, Senator Warren G. Magnuson (D-WA) introduced a bill in the Senate (S. 559) that required cigarette packages to prominently bear the statement, “Warning: Continual Cigarette Smoking May be Hazardous to Your Health.” In a nod to the tobacco industry, the bill also prohibited the FTC from mandating cigarette advertising to contain a cautionary statement for three years. Representative Walter Rogers (D-TX) introduced a similar bill in the House of Representatives (H.R. 3014). Instead of S. 559’s three-year ban, the House bill permanently banned the FTC or other federal agency from ever regulating health warnings in cigarette advertising. Both the House and Senate were under immense pressure from health organizations and tobacco interests to bend to the other side’s wishes. When the House approved its bill by a voice vote on June 22, 1965, it triggered strong opposition from health organizations and liberal advocacy groups. Americans for Democratic Action, a liberal lobbying organization, issued a press release stating that the Senate-passed bill is at least tolerable in comparison to the House bill. The organization urged President Johnson to veto the legislation if the House language permanently barring FTC action on health warnings in advertising remained in the bill.

In May 1965, FTC Chairman Paul Rand Dixon wrote Senator Magnuson to restate the position of the agency that warnings in cigarette advertising—not just labels

W. R. (William Robert) Poage, “Joint letter to Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman from the Congressional Delegation to India,” Robert J. Dole House of Representatives Papers, Box 144, Folder 8, Robert J. Dole Archive and Special Collections, University of Kansas, http://acsc.lib.udel.edu/items/show/113. 7 “Health Warning on Cigarette Packs,” Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 89th Congress, 1st Session, 1965, Vol. XXI, (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 1965), 344–351. 8 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, “Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service,” (Report, Washington, D.C., 1964), https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/NNBBMQ.pdf. 9 Tobacco Institute, “Tobacco—a vital U.S. Industry,” (Brochure, Washington, D.C., c. 1965), http://acsc.lib.udel.edu/exhibits/show/legislation/item/169. 6

National History Day 2018 | 27

on packages—would more fully inform the public of the hazards of cigarette smoking and to reassert that the public interest would be served “if the Commission is left free by the Congress to take action... .” While Dixon continued to resist Congress’ preemption of the FTC’s regulatory action, he supported amendments to the Senate’s bill providing for a three-year moratorium on FTC regulation while more information about “the health consequences of smoking” was obtained.10 Differences between the Senate and House bills were resolved by a conference committee that compromised on a four-year ban on any advertising action by the FTC. On July 6, the Senate adopted the conference report by a voice vote, and on July 13, the House adopted the report by a 286 to 103 roll call vote. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act into law on July 27, 1965, without comment.

The Great Society: Today When the members of Congress arrived for work in January 1965, they did so with a mandate from the American people: enact the legislation required to make President Lyndon Johnson’s sweeping vision for the Great Society a reality. In the ensuing two years, the 89th Congress did just that, passing 60 pieces of landmark legislation (181 measures in all), including federal support for voting rights, education, infrastructure improvement, aid for economically depressed areas, health care for the elderly and needy, immigration reform, and new environmental and consumer protections. Legislation passed during the 89th Congress affected virtually every American and initiated durable changes to the nation that are still felt and debated today.

Did you know? President Johnson called the 89th Congress the “Consumer Congress.” In addition to the Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act, the lawmakers mitigated several other conflicts over consumer protection and information transparency through these pieces of Great Society Legislation: • Fair Packaging and Labeling Act • National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act Congressman Harley O. Staggers, Sr. (D-WV), Chairman of the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, speaks with Michigan Governor George Romney during committee hearings on the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act.

• Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control & Solid Waste Disposal Act

Courtesy of Harley O Staggers, Sr., Congressional Papers, Robert C. Byrd Center for Congressional History and Education.

• Water Quality Act

To learn more and find additional resources, visit nhd.org/themebook.

Paul Rand Dixon, “Letter from Federal Trade Commission Chairman Paul Rand Dixon to Senator Warren G. Magnuson Regarding S. 559.” May 13, 1965; “S. 559, Folder 2 of 3” folder, Box 7; Senate Committee on Commerce; 89th Congress; Records of the U.S. Senate, RG 46; National Archives, http://acsc.lib.udel.edu/exhibits/show/legislation/item/172.

28 | Conflict & Compromise in History

Learn More “The Great Society Congress” online exhibit shows the central role that the 89th Congress played in the construction of the Great Society and how some of the most impactful pieces of legislation in American history were shaped through conflict and compromise. We encourage you to also use the exhibit: To find and connect with congressional archives in your area: Eighteen institutional members of the Association of Centers for the Study of Congress have contributed to the exhibit; however, there are over 75 members of ACSC (congresscenters.org/member/directory) that would be willing to help with any educational-related needs. We bet there’s someone near you! Learn more at acsc.lib.udel.edu/about. To become active and engaged citizens: This exhibit will help you understand how citizens, Congress, and the President work together to shape the future of our country. For utilizing our lesson plan in your classroom: Developed in partnership with the Center for Legislative Archives at the National Archives and Records Administration, this lesson plan can help students understand President Johnson’s vision for the Great Society, the historical context, and how Congress responded. Learn more at acsc.lib.udel.edu/items/show/412. For National History Day project inspiration: The stories, topics, and primary sources featured in this article are a small selection of what is available to students and teachers. Please explore the exhibit to discover additional content.

Learning about yesterday’s world That’s today’s social studies Students relate to history better when they understand how events of the past have affected their lives today. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) publications feature a wide range of ideas for the history classroom, including: · Lesson plans with reproducible primary documents, especially in the Sources and Strategies and Teaching with Documents columns of Social Education; · Advice on how to bring history alive through the use of oral histories, diaries, graphics, literature, and art; · Insights that enhance history teaching from geography, economics, civics, and the behavioral sciences; and · Resources to help your students look at history in a new way. National History Day teachers will find the teaching tips and historical information in NCSS publications to be invaluable as they guide their students to the accomplishment of successful history projects. As part of our mission of educating students for civic life, NCSS supports history teaching that is sensitive to issues of rights and responsibilities. Our resources andprepare interdisciplinary expertise provides students with the knowledge and critical thinking skills that them for effective help educators lives of their students to the world yesterday—andexpertise to createhelp the world of participation in link the the democratic process. Our resources andof interdisciplinary educators tomorrow. link the lives of their students to the world of yesterday—and to create the world of tomorrow. PLUS: Art and the Kennedy Assassination • Looking at the Law • Bullying and Cyberbullying

Find out how NCSS can help you. Visit us online at www.socialstudies.org or write for a membership kit today. Link to the recently published C3 Framework at www.socialstudies.org/C3

Teaching Difficult Topics with Primary Sources

Plus: Special Section on Technology • Teaching with Documents • Looking at the Law

A Historic Voyage: Teaching the Economics of World History Guest Editors: Mark C. Schug and William C. Wood

Guest Editor Lee Ann Potter

The official journal of National Council for the Social Studies Volume 75, Number 6 November⁄December 2011 www.socialstudies.org

The official journal of National Council for the Social Studies

Volume 77, Number 2 March/April 2013

www.socialstudies.org

National Council for the Social Studies 8555 Sixteenth Street • Suite 500 • Silver Spring, MD 20910 • 301-588-1800 • Fax 301-588-2049 • www.socialstudies.org

RETHINKING CONFLICT: ITS ROLE IN BUILDING PEACE Ann-Louise Colgan, Director of Public Education, U.S. Institute of Peace Allison Sturma, Program Coordinator, Public Education, U.S. Institute of Peace Mena Ayazi, Research Assistant, Public Education, U.S. Institute of Peace

hen you hear the word “conflict,” what immediately comes to mind?

This is an exercise we often use with students at middle school and high school levels. Off the tops of their heads, their answers typically include “violence,” “war,” “fight,” and sometimes “destruction” or even “hatred.” Looking at these associations, it is clear what the words have in common: they are negative. The dominant connotation in many young people’s minds is that conflict is inherently bad. So we ask them next: When can conflict be positive? Gradually, students begin to wrap their heads around this notion and offer responses. They can find examples from world history when struggles for civil rights and political rights led to positive change. They may cite examples from their own lives, when a disagreement with a friend led to a resolution that actually strengthened the relationship. Our organization, the United States Institute of Peace (USIP), defines conflict as “an inevitable aspect of human interaction…when two or more individuals or groups pursue mutually incompatible goals.” Importantly, the definition clarifies: “conflicts can be waged violently, as in a war, or nonviolently, as in an election or an adversarial legal process. When channeled constructively into processes of resolution, conflict can be beneficial.” Simply put, conflict in and of itself is neutral. It is a fact of life. People disagree, argue, even fight. It has been this way throughout human history. It is this way in our daily lives. We all know conflict, with our friends, our families, our co-workers. It is part of human nature.

out is determined entirely by how it is handled—by the attitudes and skills of those involved. Negative assumptions may cause us to try to avoid conflict, or they may lead us to become instantly combative, unwilling or unable to see any possibility of a constructive outcome. This is precisely why it matters that we rethink conflict in how we teach history and in how we prepare students for dealing with the world around them. Conflict is not only inevitable, it is essential. Throughout history and still today, conflict is the expression of big fault lines and the seed of big changes in our world. If we understand that conflict can be managed without violence, and can in fact be transformed into an engine of positive change, we begin to see how conflict can actually be a critical part of building peace. By holding up examples that show this throughout history, and by giving students the tools and the perspectives they need to understand and approach conflict in constructive ways, we can open their eyes and their minds to the many men, women, and young people making a difference, and we can open the possibilities for them to find their own roles as peacebuilders.

Lesson Plan: Defining Conflict The first lesson in USIP’s Peacebuilding Toolkit for Educators, “Defining Conflict” is a two-part, 110-minute lesson plan in which students begin to define conflict and explore various interpretations of conflict in order to further their understanding. Learn more at usip.org/2018NHDThemeBook.

But where it leads is not predefined. Conflict is neither intrinsically negative nor positive. In fact, how it plays

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The Movements Some of history’s most prominent examples of a different approach to conflict come from mass movements that organized across political, religious, ethnic, or age groups to effect positive change in their communities and countries. Many of these groups faced oppression, discrimination, and threats of (or actual) violence, but they remained committed to confronting conflict nonviolently and using peacebuilding tools to achieve their goals. Consider the following examples. Protesting and Parading for the Right to Vote One of the most successful social movements in United States history, women’s suffrage is an example of how nonviolent resistance and peaceful activism in the face of discrimination can lead to effective social change.

defended the exercise of free speech, the right to dissent, and free assembly through using innovative nonviolent means to publicize their cause. Influenced by British suffrage processions and the United States’ tradition of parades, suffragists began demonstrating in the streets.1 Successful lobbying efforts and putting political pressure on politicians from state to national levels eventually led to the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting women the right to vote.

USIP Peace Term: Nonviolent Civic Action Action, usually undertaken by a group of people, to persuade individuals to change their behavior. Examples include strikes, boycotts, marches, and demonstrations. Nonviolent civic action can be categorized into three main classes: protest and persuasion, noncooperation, and intervention.

Solidarity in Poland

Photograph of Suffrage Parade in New York City, 1913. Courtesy of the National Archives and Records Administration (208-PR-14M-3).

Having initially gathered steam during the 1850s, the movement lost momentum during the Civil War. By building on the eradication of slavery and the inception of the 14th and 15th Amendments shortly after the war, women—who were some of the critical activists in the fight against slavery—seized the moment to include women’s rights in the debate on equality. Activists began to unify in the late 1800s through the formation of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, which

What started as a single strike at a shipyard in Gdansk, Poland, in 1980 quickly spread to other factories and, just over two weeks later, forced the Communist government to grant permission for what soon became the Self-Governing Trade Union Solidarity.2 It grew into a “genuinely popular movement” that pursued peaceful, nonviolent action to advance the cause of workers’ rights.3 As the union evolved into a movement, the government became concerned and declared martial law. Yet, even though it was outlawed, Solidarity continued to operate through an independent, underground press in a language and manner that spoke to all Polish citizens. The media provided updates on imprisoned leaders, shared the messages of the movement and calls for next steps, and essentially gave the movement a collective identity. Support from the international community helped Solidarity influence

”The Fight for Women’s Suffrage,” HISTORY®, last modified 2017, accessed January 26, 2017, http://www.history.com/topics/womenshistory/the-fight-for-womens-suffrage. 2 Jeffrey Donovan, “Poland: Solidarity—The Trade Union that Changed the World,” Radio Free Europe, August 24, 2005, accessed January 26, 2017, http://www.rferl.org/a/1060898.html. 3 Mark Kramer, “The Rise and Fall of Solidarity,” New York Times, December 12, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/13/opinion/the-riseand-fall-of-solidarity.html. 1

32 | Conflict & Compromise in History

the country’s political discourse and made the press an important driving force of the revolution. This method has influenced modern social movements, where all forms of media are used as means to inform, to unify, and to mobilize in peaceful revolution.4

human rights violations perpetrated during apartheid, providing a path toward healing for the victims.6

USIP Peace Term: Reconciliation The long-term process by which the parties to a violent dispute build trust, learn to live cooperatively, and create a stable peace. It can happen at the individual level, the community level, and the national level.

The People

Strike at the Vladimir Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk, Poland, August 1980. Courtesy of the European Solidarity Center.

Reconciling After Conflict Between 1948 and 1990, the white minority in South Africa used legal measures to establish racial segregation policies, which came to be known as apartheid. When a nonviolent resistance began to form, consisting of political action, mass demonstrations, and strikes, the South African government reacted violently.5 The international community began to respond with economic sanctions, ultimately pressuring the government to begin to repeal some apartheid laws and participate in a series of negotiations with opposing parties. A new constitution in 1994 resulted in the election of a government with a nonwhite majority, bringing apartheid to an end through a peaceful transition of power. The peacebuilding process following the end of apartheid centered on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) led by Desmond Tutu and supported by Nelson Mandela, both leaders of the apartheid resistance. The TRC was a way to address

Though conflict has often been addressed by groups, it is most frequently at the individual level where choices are initially made about how to approach conflict. What motivates someone to choose nonviolent means? For those who have experienced violent conflict, how has that affected their views and their subsequent choices? What difference has this made in history? Leaders in War, Advocates for Peace Presidents George Washington and Abraham Lincoln both served in turbulent periods and led the country through violent conflicts on U.S. soil, but they remained committed to the principle and the pursuit of peace. In fact, George Washington frequently mentioned his preference for peace in his personal correspondence, and commissioned a weathervane in the shape of a dove, a symbol of peace, for his home in Mount Vernon.7 It still stands to this day. Abraham Lincoln ended his Second Inaugural Address with a plea for conflict resolution and reconciliation, saying: “…let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds…to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.”8

Arch Puddington, “How Solidarity Spoke to a Nation: Lessons for Today’s Democratic Insurgents,” Freedom House, July 17, 2012, accessed January 26, 2017, https://freedomhouse.org/blog/how-solidarity-spoke-nation-lessons-today’s-democratic-insurgents. 5 “Apartheid,” HISTORY®, last modified 2017, accessed January 26, 2017, http://www.history.com/topics/apartheid. 6 “Truth Commission: South Africa,” U.S. Institute of Peace, 1995–2000, accessed January 26, 2017, http://www.usip.org/publications/truth-commission-south-africa. 7 “Letter from George Washington to Jonathan Boucher, August 15, 1798,” Founders Online, National Archives and Records Administration, accessed January 26, 2017, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/06-02-02-0422. 8 Abraham Lincoln, “Second Inaugural Address” American Presidency Project, University of California at Santa Barbara, March 4, 1865, accessed January 26, 2017, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25819. 4

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Soldier, Lawmaker, Peacebuilder

Leaders in Civil Disobedience

Spark M. Matsunaga was a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army during World War II when he was detained in a Japanese internment camp. After petitioning President Roosevelt for release, he and other Japanese Americans formed the decorated 100th Infantry Battalion.9 Matsunaga, who later represented Hawaii in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate, had believed from his youth that peacemaking is as much an art as making war, and that it can be learned. He was named chair of the Commission on Proposals for the National Academy of Peace and Conflict Resolution. The U.S. Institute of Peace Act of 1984 was based upon that commission’s findings and recommendations.10

Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. are remembered as iconic figures because of their commitment and contribution to nonviolent civil disobedience. Although they lived around the world from each other, both led movements that relied on nonviolent tactics to achieve their goals. Mahatma Gandhi was the primary leader of India’s independence movement against British rule that began in 1919 with his call for peaceful strikes, demonstrations, and boycotting British-run sectors in India.11 Beginning in the mid-1950s in the United States, Martin Luther King, Jr. led the Civil Rights Movement, which worked for equal rights and the end of segregation among blacks and whites through peaceful demonstrations that were heavily influenced by Gandhi’s teachings and approach.12 Mediating Violent Conflict in Northern Ireland In the mid-1900s, former U.S. Senator George Mitchell was invited by the British and Irish governments to lead peace talks to end the bloody conflict in Northern Ireland that had lasted for decades, based on complex religious and political factors. For two years he served as a mediator, devising the Mitchell Principles to set the requirement that the paramilitary organizations use only democratic and nonviolent methods to achieve political goals. Those efforts ultimately resulted in the Good Friday Agreement, regarded as the cornerstone of a commitment to peace and stability in Northern Ireland.13 As part of the U.S. Senate Leaders Lecture Series, Mitchell argued that “no matter how ancient the conflict, no matter how much harm has been done, peace can prevail.” 14

Senator Spark Matsunaga speaks to winners of USIP’s National Peace Essay Contest circa 1986–1989. Courtesy of the U.S. Institute of Peace.

Peter B. Flint, “Spark M. Matsunaga Dies at 73; Senator Led Fight for Reparations,” New York Times, April 16, 1990, http://www.nytimes. com/1990/04/16/obituaries/spark-m-matsunaga-dies-at-73-senator-led-fight-for-reparations.html. 10 “Important Figures in Our History,” U.S. Institute of Peace, http://www.usip.org/about/origins-usip. 11 “Mahatma Gandhi Biography,” A&E Television Networks, last updated October 1, 2015, accessed January 26, 2017, http://www.biography.com/people/mahatma-gandhi-9305898. 12 “Martin Luther King, Jr. Biography,” A&E Television Networks, last updated January 5, 2017, accessed January 26, 2017, http://www.biography.com/people/martin-luther-king-jr-9365086. 13 “George Mitchell Transcript: Building Peace in Northern Ireland,” U.S. Institute of Peace, accessed January 26, 2017, https://www.usip.org/public-education/george-mitchell-transcript. 14 “Address by Senator George J. Mitchell,” U.S. Senate, June 16, 1999, http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/ Leaders_Lecture_Series_Mitchell.htm. 9

34 | Conflict & Compromise in History

USIP Peace Term: Mediation A mode of negotiation in which a mutually acceptable third party helps the parties to a conflict find a solution that they cannot find by themselves. It is a three-sided political process in which the mediator builds and then draws upon relationships with the other two parties to help them reach a settlement. Unlike judges or arbitrators, mediators have no authority to decide the dispute between the parties, although powerful mediators may bring to the table considerable capability to influence the outcome.

Conflict analysis is an essential skill in conflict management. It enables us to break down conflicts in ways that help us understand the players, the issues, the dynamics, and the broader context. All these pieces of information help explain what is happening, offer new perspectives and understandings, and can lead to new ideas and opportunities for problem-solving. In teaching history, conflict analysis helps us all look more deeply at how conflicts evolved, how they were handled, and why. More broadly, it enables us to learn from that history, to see opportunities that might have been missed, to look for pieces of the story that might really matter even though they don’t usually get the attention they deserve, and ultimately to use this new perspective to better understand conflict in today’s world.

Tools for Teachers The preceding examples illustrate the diversity of conflicts in history, and the range of tools that movements and individuals have used to address these conflicts through nonviolent means. This toolkit for peacebuilding includes skills in communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creative problemsolving. These tools are, in fact, applicable at multiple levels and in many different contexts—from handling conflict inside the classroom to negotiating agreements in international settings. Explaining this toolkit and making it accessible to students can empower them to see and pursue the potential for conflict to be handled constructively. There are also tools and frameworks that can help those of us who teach this aspect of history rethink conflict and how we unpack it with our students.

Lesson Plan: Identifying the Elements of a Conflict This 90-minute activity presents a thorough framework for analyzing conflicts, allowing students to engage more deeply in the process of understanding conflicts. Learn more at: usip.org/2018NHDThemeBook.

USIP’s visualization of the Curve of Conflict, adapted from Michael S. Lund. Courtesy of the U.S. Institute of Peace.

The Curve of Conflict is another useful tool that helps us visualize the evolution of conflict—how it tends to escalate and recede over time—and to see opportunities to prevent it from becoming violent. By deconstructing the dynamic of conflict, we can seek to understand it and handle it more effectively. This is especially true because, along the curve, we can identify discrete stages where action can be taken to prevent, manage, or resolve conflict. In teaching history, the Curve of Conflict enables us to take the elements of conflict identified using conflict analysis, to see how a particular situation moved through stages, and to discover what was (or was not) done to address it as it unfolded. Again, helping students realize that the evolution of conflict may be understood,

National History Day 2018 | 35

and can be addressed to avoid violence, is an important lesson in seeing new perspectives and new possibilities for problem-solving.

The Bottom Line Sometimes it is the simplest ideas that are the most radical. The fact that conflict does not have to be violent—and that conflict can even be a force for positive change—is eye-opening for many young people. It offers a different perspective, not only on history, but also on life. Understanding that conflicts can be managed in ways that don’t involve violence, and there are skills and attitudes that make this possible, is a fundamentally empowering proposition. For educators, this is one of the areas in which history can most effectively be brought to life. By taking a new lens to what is by definition old content, it is possible to find and teach new perspectives on history, to broaden students’ views and understandings, and ultimately to set them up to be better informed, critical thinkers, and real agents of positive change in today’s world.

About USIP The U.S. Institute of Peace (USIP) is an independent, nonpartisan institution established by Congress to help the U.S. manage conflict and build peace at the international level. USIP engages directly in conflict zones and provides analysis, education, and resources to those working for peace. Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed the United States Institute of Peace Act in 1984, building on an American commitment to peace that can be traced all the way back to our first president, George Washington. Learn more at usip.org.

To learn more and find additional resources, visit nhd.org/themebook.

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CONFLICT AND COMPROMISE: FREE PEOPLE OF COLOR IN ANTEBELLUM AMERICA MAKING A WAY OUT OF NO WAY Jacquelyn Browning, NHD Resource Coordinator, National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian Institution Candra Flanagan, Coordinator of Student and Teacher Initiatives, National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian Institution

rom the founding of the United States, the American values of liberty and freedom have been fluid and changing. The basic truths of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness have come to define key characteristics of what it means to be an American, so much so that it can seem as if these concepts have encompassed everyone from the beginning. However, the original definition of who could enjoy the rights of citizenship and benefits of full participation in society was privileged, white, landowning males. Slowly, groups of marginalized people—women, African Americans, Native Americans, white wage workers, and others—have gained access to “the truths we hold self-evident” as written by Thomas Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence.

assumed that people of African descent were members of an enslaved class, but this was not always true. Individuals found themselves outside slavery’s bonds through self-emancipation by purchase or running away,

The nascent American economy and society were based upon an institution of forced labor that enslaved African peoples and their descendants. Over time, the system of enforced labor became defined through racial terms, with whites, specifically white men, enjoying liberty and freedom while people of African descent were seen as lesser, sub-human, and property. At the dawn of the American Revolution, all thirteen colonies engaged in the institution of slavery. Although slavery became the main system of labor within the colonies and the subsequent United States, a free black population emerged alongside the developing system of race-based chattel slavery that, after the revolution, became more codified and strict. Socially, it was

38 | Conflict & Compromise in History

Servants at the Pump, Nicolino Calyo (c. 1840). This painting shows a glimpse of the varied lives and occupations of free African Americans in antebellum New York. Courtesy of the Collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.

manumission by a slave owner, emigration to places such as Canada where slavery was not legal, or being born to free parents, specifically a free mother. In the century leading up to the 13th Amendment (1865), which abolished slavery, African Americans who lived outside the institution of bondage created a society within a society. This tension between slavery and freedom was a palpable reality for persons of African descent in the newly-founded United States, a situation that continued until the eve of the Civil War. The existence of free persons of color conflicted with the social hierarchy, which was based upon race and placed persons of color at the bottom. Free blacks, while not enslaved, could not let down their guard. Free communities and individuals of color were in danger of suffering from small and large injustices of racism, frequent political and economic disenfranchisement, kidnapping to be returned to enslavement or enslaved anew, and the indignity of laws that sought to proscribe the movement and activity of free blacks. During the antebellum period, they both compromised (carrying freedom papers or coping with limited occupational choices) and resisted compromise (challenging educational access or fighting for the eradication of slavery). While protecting their tenuous freedom, free persons of color created their own institutions, fostered strong familial ties, and fought against injustice in various ways. The lives of these men and women were filled with conflict and compromise, and their experiences provide insight into a world rich with potential topics for National History Day (NHD) students. This article outlines examples of their struggles in a society where it was increasingly made clear that while not enslaved, they were not wholly free.

Establishing Financial Sustainability Racism, segregation, and certain social and cultural expectations alternately permitted or restricted the types of trades, occupations, and professions in which free blacks could engage during the antebellum era. Often employed in the lowest paid and least desirable jobs, many found it difficult to enjoy the economic

Freedom papers and handmade tin carrying box belonging to Joseph Trammell (1852). This tin box was used by Joseph Trammell to secure the legal documents that declared his freedom in Virginia. Traveling without one’s “freedom papers” could mean re-enslavement or being kidnapped into bondage. Freedmen could be asked at any time to produce proof of their status, and such papers would have been treasured items. This sturdy metal box was made by Trammell to protect his cherished liberty. Courtesy of the Collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Gift of Elaine E. Thompson, in memory of Joseph Trammell, on behalf of his direct descendants.

opportunities that accompanied an expanding nation. This affected the financial vitality of free communities of color and hindered their ability to create and sustain institutions and infrastructures that would serve their communities. Despite the conflicts and challenges, small groups of free blacks managed to find limited economic success that allowed them to own land (such as the deed for a church), which could provide a relatively safe and secure place for gathering. Oftentimes financially successful free blacks became community leaders, role models, or philanthropists. The mid-1800s saw the Southern economy expand agriculturally. This growing demand, accompanied by higher prices for enslaved labor on plantations, caused a labor shortage. Jobs such as carpentry, tailoring, bricklaying, butchering, domestic service, blacksmithing, and barbering were classified as “negro work,” and many whites were unwilling to engage in such trades.1 Free people of color filled these jobs and, in some instances, could live well and succeed financially. Even this success came with the risk of upsetting and unsettling the white community because it threatened the falsehoods of black inferiority upon which white supremacy was built.

In the North, competition for skilled labor positions between free blacks and white Americans grew as new European immigrants came into the United States. Employers hired white workers for low wages, and free

Ira Berlin, Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon Books, 1974), 235–236.

National History Day 2018 | 39

black laborers were excluded from work. Despite white hostility, free blacks in the North found their greatest success as small shopkeepers, merchants, barbers, hairdressers, and entrepreneurial businessmen and women. They also had opportunities to be educated and practice professions, becoming lawyers, doctors, ministers, teachers, and dentists. NHD students might consider the lives of Elizabeth Keckley or James Forten. Keckley used her skills as a seamstress to purchase freedom for herself and her son, became the personal dressmaker and confidante to First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln, and acquired financial resources and political connections that allowed her to help members of the African American community. She founded the Contraband Relief Association in 1862 to help previously enslaved African Americans transition to freedom.2 Forten, freeborn, became a wealthy Philadelphia sailmaker and activist who supported full participation of free blacks in the abolition movement. He helped to establish a number of institutions in the free black Philadelphian community. Like Elizabeth Keckley, Bridget “Biddy” Mason used her success in business to help her fellow African Americans.

Bridget “Biddy” Mason (date unknown). Courtesy of Miriam Matthews Collection, Los Angeles Public Library.

Mason, who in 1856 petitioned for and won freedom for herself and children in California, became a real estate entrepreneur. Her philanthropy helped fund the first black church in Los Angeles.

Organizing Through Faith Several free black communities established churches, often in response to racism, segregation, and discrimination or because they felt unwelcome in whiteled congregations throughout the United States. These churches were often on land or in a building owned by free blacks. There they could gather and worship freely, engaging in political and social experiences that were denied to them in society such as holding office (in church leadership positions), voting (by ordaining ministers), and having a voice in society (by managing church policy). The religious institutions established by free blacks in the North during the early republic foreshadowed the central role that the church would ultimately carry within the black community. One potential NHD topic is the formation of the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church in Philadelphia by Richard Allen, a Methodist preacher of color who purchased his own freedom. In 1785, he was asked to preach to the black church members throughout the city. He “saw the necessity of erecting a place of worship” for blacks, considering them “a long-forgotten people and few” attending public worship.3 One morning in 1792 during the middle of prayer at St. George Methodist Church, Allen and other black congregants were pulled off their knees and told they must move to the newlyconstructed segregated gallery. Allen and the other black members left the church and soon founded the AME Church. Other places of worship to consider include African Union First Colored Methodist Protestant Church in Delaware (1789), Congregation Church in Connecticut (1819), First African Baptist in Kentucky (1827), Abyssinian Baptist Church in New York (1808), St. Augustine Catholic Church in Louisiana (1841), and First Baptist Church in Virginia (1774).

Elizabeth Keckley, Behind the Scenes, or, Thirty years a Slave, and Four Years in the White House (New York: G. W. Carleton & Co., Publishers, 1868), 112–116. 3 Richard Allen, The Life, Experience, and Gospel Labours of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen. To Which is Annexed the Rise and Progress of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Containing a Narrative of the Yellow Fever in the Year of Our Lord 1793: With an Address to the People of Colour in the United States (Philadelphia: Martin & Boden, Printers, 1833), 12–14. 2

40 | Conflict & Compromise in History

Helping One’s Fellow Man

Brotherhood of Freedom

Often connected to a religious organization, mutual aid and benevolent societies developed in response to the conflict free blacks experienced when attempting to navigate and socialize in a racist society that, at best, tolerated their presence. Free blacks compromised by pooling their resources and providing for their own community by forming membership societies to aid members and their families when there was a need related to birth, employment, education, marriage, illness, or death. The first known African American mutual aid society was the African Union Society in Rhode Island in 1780. Its mission was to record births, deaths, and marriages, and to help employ youth. Other societies followed and were tailored to the needs of their specific free black communities.

Fraternal organizations were community networks that offered power and opportunity to their members. They were often secular societies that practiced the idea of a universal brotherhood. Ironically, this conflicted with the racist beliefs that permeated the newly created American society. The most notable fraternal organization in the early United States was the Freemasons, who believed in, supported, and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment: liberty and dignity of an individual, freedom of worship, democratic government, and public education through study, self-improvement, and philanthropy.6 Despite those beliefs, the early

One such mutual aid society was the Brown Fellowship Society (BFS) of Charleston, South Carolina. Established in November 1790 by the free African Americans who attended the white-led St. Philip’s Episcopal Church, the BFS mission was to help widows and orphans, support members’ families during illness, and provide burial land and funeral services, all of which were denied by the white-led church and fellowship societies.4 The vitality of this society produced members who expanded its mission to include education, establishing the Minor’s Moralist Society to educate poor and orphaned African American children. Students from this school, such as future bishop of the AME Church, educator, abolitionist, and historian Daniel Alexander Payne, went on to create their own academies in Charleston that educated free and enslaved children until 1835, when laws were passed preventing such institutions for African Americans.5 Other examples of these societies include the Free African Society in Philadelphia (1787), the New York African Society for Mutual Relief (1808), the African Benevolent Society in Ohio (1827), and the Mutual Benefit and Relief Society in California (1849).

Masonic apron from the Prince Hall Masonic Lodge in Massachusetts (late eighteenth century). Founded in Boston in 1775, the Prince Hall Masons, like other fraternal organizations, provided an outlet for free black men and a haven of secrecy for its members in a society that invaded and attempted to control all elements of their lives. Courtesy of Collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Gift of Worshipful Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Massachusetts.

American Freemason lodges, which were predominantly white, often denied free blacks membership based upon race. Free blacks compromised by establishing their own lodges that afforded the benefits of fraternal societies such as community forums, political activity, and economic development, and in doing so, created institutions that provided infrastructure to unite free black communities.

Robert L, Harris, Jr., “Charleston’s Free Afro-American Elite: The Brown Fellowship Society and the Humane Brotherhood,” The South Carolina Historical Magazine 82, no. 4 (1981), 291. 5 Harris, “Charleston’s Free Afro-American Elite,” 295. 6 Julie Winch, Between Slavery and Freedom: Free People of Color in America From Settlement to the Civil War (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2014), 55. 4

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Prince Hall, who had formerly been enslaved, founded the Prince Hall Masons, the first black fraternal organization in the United States, after being denied entry into the white-led lodges in Boston.7 Societies like the Prince Hall Masons supported abolition and equal rights for blacks, engaged in philanthropy, and promoted the practice of social respectability. Their members were educated and politically-minded men who emerged as leaders in free black communities.

Opening Minds Toward Freedom Education provided a way for individuals to elevate their social status. Free and enslaved people of African descent believed deeply in education as a method for fighting injustice, gaining equality, and proving their right to exist in American society. During the colonial era, some free and enslaved blacks obtained rudimentary elements of education, as a by-product of religious instruction. As slavery and its associated racism grew more entrenched, white society made it more difficult for free African Americans to obtain an education. For example, laws existing since the 1740s made it illegal to teach an enslaved person how to write, and by the 1840s, laws were passed in Georgia and Virginia that made it illegal for free blacks to be educated.8 Other states in the North and South passed similar legislation. White people, slave-owners especially, were concerned that educating black people would make them less satisfied with their assigned station in life and more desirous of freedom and equality. The ability of free and enslaved people to obtain an education differed regionally. Due to the strict literacy laws, blacks in the South pursued education through clandestine means such as illegal schools or private lessons from whites, other blacks, or religious institutions. Free black communities pooled resources and created their own educational institutions using whatever means they had, and in most Southern states, had to guard against being perceived as threatening slavery in any way.

Northern and western states and territories had no legal restrictions against free blacks obtaining an education. The greater problem was access. Whites tolerated black access to education but made it difficult. Black children were often barred from the public school systems, did not have the time or assets to attend school, or the available segregated schools lacked resources and quality teaching. Free blacks in the North compromised by attempting to establish their own integrated, private, or religious schools. Some free blacks rejected compromise and fought desegregation through the courts, as in the case of Roberts vs. City of Boston (1850). NHD students might explore how Sarah Roberts was barred from attending her local school because she was black, and thus had to walk past five all-white schools to reach the all-black school in Boston. Benjamin Roberts sued the city of Boston, basing his argument upon an 1845 ordinance allowing families to recover damages when children were unlawfully kept from school. The court did not rule in favor of Roberts because, although Sarah did have to walk farther to attend school, an education was provided for black children.9 NHD students could also investigate free blacks who attempted to introduce integrated schools such as the Noyes Academy (1835) in Canaan, New Hampshire, and faced great resistance from the white community, which dragged the school off its foundation and destroyed it. The conflict around free blacks seeking education also extended to the university level. A small number of free blacks were accepted and obtained degrees from universities and colleges in the North such as Oberlin College, Franklin College, and Harvard Medical School. Other institutions, such as Wilberforce University (1857), were founded by free blacks and their white allies. As an enslaved child in Georgia, Susie King Taylor was taught to read and write despite the laws making it illegal. Her first teacher, a free black woman, ran a secret school in her home for 25 to 30 black children.10 After self-emancipating, Taylor and her family were relocated to St. Simon Island under the protection of the

Winch, Between Slavery and Freedom, 54. Hilary J. Moss, Schooling Citizens: The Struggle for African American Education in Antebellum America (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2009), 97â€“98. 9 Winch, Between Slavery and Freedom, 79. 10 Susie King Taylor, Reminiscences of My Life in Camp with the 33d United States Colored Troops Late 1st S.C. Volunteers. (Boston: Published by the Author, 1902), 5â€“11. 7 8

42 | Conflict & Compromise in History

Benjamin Banneker, Harriet Jacobs, Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, Charlotte Forten Grimké, William Wells Brown, and Henry Bibb.

Susie King Taylor (1902). Courtesy of the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division (LC-USZ61-1863).

Union Army in 1862. There she became the first African American teacher to openly operate a freedman’s school in Georgia.

Resisting Through Words Throughout the colonial and early republic eras, print was used against the advancement of free black communities by sensationalizing the dangers posed by free black people on white society. The mainstream American press added fuel to the conflict when it mocked the notion of blacks achieving middle-class respectability by using demeaning print images or focused on the poor social and economic standing of many free African Americans in the urban north by justifying the ideologies of white supremacy or slavery. The free black communities of the antebellum period rejected the negative press espoused by the dominant white society. For a time, individual free and enslaved blacks used literature to rebut these racist beliefs: biographic works detailing their lives as examples contrary to the notion of black inferiority; political pamphlets pushing for equality and civil rights; and works of fiction and poetry by authors such as Olaudah Equiano, Phillis Wheatley,

Yet, it was the development of the first black newspaper, Freedom’s Journal, in 1827, that gave free African Americans a unifying force where they could actively present and define themselves in print and fight against the injustices toward their communities. Of all the free black newspapers of the era, the most wellknown and influential was The North Star, published by Frederick Douglass in 1847. The North Star was an anti-slavery newspaper, and while pointing out injustices and racism in the mainstream community, the paper highlighted conflicts of the racist notions entrenched in the antebellum abolitionist movement. NHD students could research Douglass’ The North Star, George Moses Horton’s poetry, Bethany Veney’s autobiography, or Frank J. Webb’s novels to understand more about how African Americans established a sense of identity through a written forum.

Conclusion Free communities of color threatened the foundation of a race-based society. In the early years of the nation’s founding, people of color were capable of participating in society, albeit limited by developing thoughts about the hierarchy of races. As the egalitarian ideals of the revolutionary generation gave way to the era of the new nation and race became the defining factor of social status, the line between the American value of freedom and a permanent class of servitude began to harden. Free people of color were caught in a society that sought to control them by limiting opportunities and resources and penalizing free people who sought to defy the social norms. Freedom did not guarantee liberty or simple dignities, and was overshadowed by the tangible danger of (re)enslavement. Even in the face of such challenges, free people of color valued their freedom and connection to America. They resisted the belief that they were second-class, instead choosing to use whatever financial gain, education, status, and resources they had to better their own lives and the lives of other blacks, both free and enslaved. Free people lived in a conflicted society, and while their liberties were compromised by

National History Day 2018 | 43

those in power, they did not compromise on the truth of American values. Instead, they chose to develop resources, institutions, and communities to push the boundaries of the freedom that would be written into the 13th Amendment, and so stringently fought for into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

To learn more and find additional resources, visit nhd.org/themebook.

To discover additional artifacts and resources related to this essay, visit the Smithsonian Learning Lab at learninglab.si.edu, keyword search: NMAAHC, Conflict and Compromise, free blacks. A digital resource that gathers artifacts, documents, images, and other resources from across the Smithsonian, the Learning Lab is an excellent research tool for educators and their students. To accompany this article, the NMAAHC staff has curated a selection of resources from across the Smithsonian that has connections to the history of free communities of color, their challenges, innovations, and resiliency.

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nhd.org/normandy

SACRED INSULTS: RELIGIOUS CONFLICT AND COMPROMISE IN 1930s CONNECTICUT Newseum Education

ince ratification in 1791, the five freedoms of the First Amendment—religion, speech, press, assembly and petition—have both protected and engendered vigorous debate. This year’s National History Day (NHD) theme not only provides an opportunity for students to examine the conflicts and compromises that have shaped the United States throughout history, but also for our young citizens to practice the vital skills needed to navigate conflicts today.

In this article, you will find:

NewseumED uses a pedagogy of First Amendment media literacy and an approach of case study debates that make these sensitive topics accessible and approachable in the classroom. It marries the analytical aspects of media literacy, such as the ability to spot misinformation and bias, with active free expression in order to generate productive social engagement. First Amendment media literacy is both the compass we need to chart a course through the barrage of information and the spark we need to ignite action in response.

Touching the “Third Rail”: Four Guidelines for Teaching Controversial Topics in History

By engaging in this case study, your students will develop a nuanced understanding of a historical conflict that provoked passion, protests, and intense debate about the protections and limits of the freedom of religion. As students enter into these disputes, they learn how a local community, city government, and the Supreme Court resolved political differences. At the same time, students practice thinking critically, analyzing primary sources, forming evidence-based arguments, and communicating ideas clearly and persuasively. They gain the skills essential to supporting our democracy.

1. Guidelines to leading productive classroom debates; 2. A classroom-ready case study on Cantwell v. Connecticut (1938); and 3. Two worksheets—one for using primary sources to build an evidence-based argument and one for preparing a persuasive argument.

Reading about current debates on topics from politics and public protests to racial tensions and religion is one thing; helping students form opinions and respectfully listen to—or even be persuaded by—others’ points of view is another. The same is true for historical events, especially those that tie to contemporary issues. It is impossible to study history without teaching controversial issues. NewseumED has created a set of guidelines for creating a respectful yet vibrant environment for students to explore diverse ideas on controversial topics. The guidelines that follow are first steps; you can find additional tips and tricks in our complete “Provocative to Productive” teachers guide at newseumed.org/provocative-to-productive. Once you create a free account, you will have full access to the teachers guide and many other articles included in the NewseumED collection.

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Guideline 1: Be confident in your content. To be confident in your content, you must be two things: prepared and committed. Being prepared means reading up on any necessary background material in order to feel comfortable with the topic at hand and share it in a way that meets your participants’ needs. You do not have to be an expert, but you do need to anticipate the types of questions your students might have and be prepared to answer them. You should also be prepared to be honest about what you do not know. If students ask questions that fall outside of what you have reviewed, commend them on their insight and make a plan to find the answer— immediately, if you are teaching an informal lesson and have access to a computer, or later if that makes more sense. Being committed means believing that the conversation you are undertaking, while it may require effort to prepare and may lead to some uncomfortable moments, is a worthwhile endeavor. Establish a clear learning objective and commit to helping your students reach it. Think about why you are having this conversation and how to convey that purpose to your students. Guideline 2: Respect your participants. Every teacher has heard the adage about student performance rising to meet expectations. When dealing with controversial topics, it is particularly important to enter the conversation with elevated but realistic expectations. The first part of respecting your participants is trying to understand their mindset and frame of reference for the topic you’re discussing. Try to predict how your students will approach the topic. Ask yourself: What do they already know about it? What will they be curious about? What will make them laugh? Groan? Clam up? These questions will help you emphasize the elements of the conversation that will bring out the best in your students and not get caught off guard by their reactions. The second part of respecting your participants is giving them clear information about what they will be talking about, why, and how. Students cannot meet

48 | Conflict & Compromise in History

your expectations if they do not know what they are. So, refer back to the objective that you set and spell out the purpose of your conversation and how it will take place. Who will talk when? What should students do if they disagree with an idea? What if time runs out before they have had a chance to be heard? Laying some ground rules will make participation feel less risky and quell some potential frustrations. Guideline 3: Ask questions. Every productive discourse about a controversial topic should be modeled on a genuine conversation involving a give and take of ideas, not a lecture. From the beginning, make it clear to students that their participation is vital and their ideas will drive the experience. Then use tiered questions to help your students ramp up into the topic at a pace that will not overwhelm them. You should plan a series of questions that will move your students from basic comprehension of facts through analysis and evaluation of ideas, similar to a streamlined version of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Guideline 4: Encourage debate. When discussing a controversial or challenging historical topic, the goal should be holding a healthy dialog, not determining a final answer. In some instances, a consensus may begin to emerge, but even then, your role as the facilitator should be to find ways to continue pressing students to refine and defend their ideas. The key to keeping the debate vibrant and active is for the facilitator not to stay neutral, but rather take all possible sides of the debate. Be contrary and challenge as many ideas as possible. This tactic will allow you to inject energy into the debate to ensure that no voice or voices become unfairly dominant. It protects the facilitator from being perceived as taking any single side. And it also feeds on middle- and high-school students’ innate desire to argue with authority. In this case, their contrary nature is an asset and helps drive the debate.

TRY IT: Campaigning Against Religions—Jehovah’s Witnesses Spread One Religion, Attack Another Summary For this case study, students relive the 1938 debate on the limits of freedom of religion. They will work in small groups to argue the case as historical participants, with access to primary sources that the person could have seen. This approach ensures that students understand the multiple points of view involved in the conflict and how the participants navigated their differences. When searching for NHD topics, students often bring forward contemporary topics. Such subjects do not work well for NHD projects because the short- and longterm effects of these issues are not known. This case study is an example of a way to redirect students from modern issues (how far does freedom of religion reach today?) to a historical example where the effects can be examined and analyzed.

A record titled The Dead bears a message from Judge Joseph Rutherford, leader of the Jehovah’s Witnesses from 1917 to 1942. Courtesy of Newseum Collection.

Procedure 1. Open the Cantwell case study page on NewseumED.org, newseumed.org/cantwell-connecticut, so students can examine the primary sources for this case. Here you can also find teacher background material on the Supreme Court case. 2. Review the First Amendment’s five freedoms.

3. Read the case study scenario, found on the next page. Check for comprehension and ask students to identify the First Amendment freedom(s) at issue in this case. 4. Break your class into small groups and assign each group one of the debate positions, found on the next page. Hand out copies of the “Organizing Evidence” and “Present Your Position” worksheets that can be found at the end of this article and on the online case study page. Give groups 30 minutes to analyze the primary sources online and complete both worksheets. 5. Have each group present its position and arguments. Keep the gallery of case study artifacts on NewseumED.org open so students can refer to them as they explain their reasoning.

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Case Study Scenario: Can a religious group proselytize and criticize another religion when seeking new followers?

The Cantwells were arrested and charged with violating a local law that requires a permit to solicit for religious causes and with causing a breach of the peace by offending their listeners and provoking an angry response. This street corner confrontation sparked a lawsuit that rose all the way to the Supreme Court. Debate Positions 1. Hayden Covington, lawyer representing the Cantwells: The First Amendment allows the Cantwells to share all their beliefs, including their distrust of Roman Catholicism. Those who are not interested do not have to stop and listen, and they can walk away at any time.

Jehovah’s Witnesses began widely using portable phonographs in their door-to-door preaching in 1937, around the same time they stopped commercial radio broadcasts. Courtesy of Newseum Collection.

On a Sunday in April in 1938, Jehovah’s Witnesses Newton Cantwell and his sons, Jesse and Russell, traveled to a largely Catholic neighborhood in New Haven, Connecticut. They took pamphlets, books, and portable record players to spread the word about their religion. A group of men on the street agreed to listen to one of the records. In the recording, the leader of the Jehovah’s Witnesses harshly criticized Roman Catholicism. He called the Catholic Church an “instrument of Satan” and said that it “robbed the people of their money and destroyed their peace of mind and freedom of action.” The listeners, who were Catholic, were offended. They told the Cantwells to leave, and they later testified that they might have punched the Cantwells if the police had not arrived. To learn more and find additional resources, visit nhd.org/themebook.

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2. Men listening to the Cantwell record: Jehovah’s Witnesses such as the Cantwells should not be allowed to broadcast a message that accuses another religion of being evil. The message is insulting and should never have been brought into our neighborhood. They are lucky we did not respond violently to their attack on our faith. 3. Francis Pallotti, lawyer representing the state of Connecticut: The controversial messages that the Cantwells shared on the streets of New Haven have the potential to cause conflicts between our citizens, possibly even sparking violent confrontations. It is our duty as a state to keep the peace, and therefore we must regulate the types of messages being shared on our streets. 4. Supreme Court Justice Owen Roberts: Although the Cantwells’ message was offensive to some individuals, it did not cause any actual harm, and these types of conflicts of beliefs will always arise in our diverse nation. States as well as the federal government have a duty to uphold the First Amendment by limiting their regulation of religious freedom to the bare minimum.

To find additional lessons that connect to historical and current events, visit newseumed. org/ed-tools. Use the blue filter tool to search by grade level, topic, century, and more.

WORKSHEET: Cantwell v. Connecticut—Organizing Evidence Summarize the historical controversy you are debating.

What do people disagree about?

Which person/people are you representing? In your own words, explain the person’s position on this issue. What does s/he think should be done, and why?

Look through the evidence gallery for your case study on NewseumED.org. For each source, answer the questions below on your own paper or in your own spreadsheet. 1. Name of source 2. What is it? (newspaper, photograph, etc.) 3. Is this a primary or secondary source, or a combination? Explain.

4. Does this source contain any information that supports your position? YES/NO (Keep in mind that some sources may be used to support multiple positions based on which parts are used or how they are interpreted.)

5. If no, move on to the next source. If yes, explain how this source supports your position.

BONUS—Choose two sources that do not support your position. 1. 2.

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How could these sources be used to support another position?

Source one could be used to support the position that:

Because:

Source two could be used to support the position that:

Because:

How would you counter the arguments above with your own sources/evidence?

Counterargument for source one:

Counterargument for source two:

52 | Conflict & Compromise in History

WORKSHEET: Cantwell v. Connecticut—Presenting Your Position Case study title: Your position:

Using the evidence you have gathered, prepare three arguments that you think will persuade other people to support your position. Example position: The Cantwell family (Jehovah’s Witnesses) should be allowed to spread their religious message even if it offends others. Example argument: The Jehovah’s Witnesses are not hurting anyone — if anything, they are the victims of violence and discrimination. A mob attacked Jehovah’s Witnesses in Illinois, but the Cantwells and other Jehovah’s Witnesses were nonviolent and did not damage any property. Source(s) of evidence: Aftermath of an Attack on Jehovah’s Witnesses (photograph) and Jehovah’s Witnesses Proselytize on a New England Street (photograph) How does this evidence support your argument? The Jehovah’s Witnesses are walking peacefully on a sidewalk as they seek new followers. The destroyed cars show that people who didn’t like Jehovah’s Witnesses could be violent and destructive. Argument One:

Source(s) of evidence:

How does this evidence support your argument?

Argument Two:

Source(s) of evidence:

How does this evidence support your argument?

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Argument Three:

Source(s) of evidence:

How does this evidence support your argument?

Rank your arguments from strongest to weakest and plan how you will present them to the class. Will you open with your strongest argument, or will you save it for last? What order will be the most persuasive? Who will present each argument? Be prepared to show the sources and evidence that support each argument to make your presentation more persuasive. 1st argument: Presented by: 2nd argument: Presented by: 3rd argument: Presented by:

54 | Conflict & Compromise in History

1963

The Struggle for Civil Rights Featuring more than 200 documents, images, video and audio from the Kennedy Library Archives, 1963: The Struggle for Civil Rights brings to life one of the most tumultuous years in civil rights history. Featured topics include: • The Right to Vote in Mississippi • Project C • The Integration of the University of Alabama • The Address to the American People on Civil Rights • The Civil Rights Bill • The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom • The Bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church

Complementary lesson plans meet Common Core Standards and make this turbulent year accessible to students in grades 4-12.

Visit civilrights.jfklibrary.org.

Outstanding History Resources OAH Membership Expert Historians on Audio Journal of American History podcasts r e c e n t i n s ta l l m e n t s

“Sovereign Lords” and “Dependent Administrators”: Artigan Privateers, Atlantic Borderwaters, and State Building in the Early Nineteenth Century — December 2016 With Tyson Reeder, volume coeditor for The Joseph Smith Papers in Salt Lake City, Utah Setting the Table: Historians, Popular Writers, and Food History — September 2016 With Matt Garcia, director of the School of Historical, Philosophical, and Religious Studies at Arizona State University Reunion and Reconciliation, Reviewed and Reconsidered —June 2016 With Nina Silber, Professor of History at Boston University History and Presence — May 2016 With Robert Orsi, the first holder of the Grace Craddock Nagle Chair in Catholic Studies at Northwestern University.

jah.oah.org/podcast

Research Made Easier OAH members can sign up for Recent Scholarship Online alerts and receive monthly emails with citations of the most recent history-related books, articles, and dissertations published in your areas of interest.

r ecent s cholarship o nline

Become an OAH member to access the most recent and exciting scholarship in U.S. history. Starting at $60, yearly memberships inlcude both the Journal of American History and The American Historian, as well as access to many other valulable benefits. Learn more and join at oah.org.

oah.org

Teaching Resource

t e ac h i n g t h e Journal of American History

A special project designed to guide teachers and professors on how to incorporate a featured topic from the Journal of American History in their classroom, “Teaching the JAH” bridges the gap between the latest scholarly research in U.S. history and the practice of classroom teaching. r e c e n t i n s ta l l m e n t s

The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia Tippling Ladies and the Making of Consumer Culture: Gender and Public Space in Fin-de-Siècle Chicago The Urbanization of the Eastern Gray Squirrel in the United States

jah.oah.org/rs/

jah.oah.org/teaching-the-jah

TEACHING HISTORICAL THINKING SKILLS USING HISTORIC NEWSPAPERS FROM CHRONICLING AMERICA Lynne O’Hara, Director of Programs, National History Day

very National History Day (NHD) student is a researcher, but no one is a born researcher. NHD teachers are charged with scaffolding and building the skills needed for students to be successful. The first major hurdle is the acquisition of sources. After gathering these sources, however, many researchers still struggle to sort and analyze the information they contain. Students need specific strategies in order to analyze the sources they have acquired. They need to determine the reliability of a source, classify the source as primary or secondary, and most important, use the evidence contained within the source to support their thesis. NHD projects require students to think critically about the past and develop their own conclusions. A National History Day contest judges’ evaluation requires assessment in three components: historical quality (60%), relation to theme (20%) and clarity of presentation (20%). To help students understand historical quality in more depth, the evaluation divides the concept of historical quality into six sub-categories. • Shows Analysis and Interpretation: All NHD students establish a thesis statement, or claim, and provide supporting arguments. • Uses Available Primary Sources: Students find and use primary sources in order to provide evidence to support their argument. • Places Topic in Historical Context: Students demonstrate an understanding of how historical factors influenced the person or event that they are studying. • Entry is Historically Accurate: Students use accurate chronology and summary when describing events.

• Research is Balanced: Students analyze and provide multiple perspectives on an issue. • Shows Wide Research: Students present an annotated bibliography that shows a wide range of different types of sources appropriate to their particular project. Teachers are continually working to develop and refine their students’ historical research skills. As is the case with any skill, students need dedicated practice in order to develop proficiency. The best NHD teachers use examples that

NHD has developed a set of qualitative and quantitative rubrics for classroom use that can assist teachers in guiding and critiquing student research. These are downloadable and adaptable to the needs of a teacher. To learn more, go to nhd.org/teacher-resources.

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connect to their curriculum to allow students to practice those skills. The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is committed to helping teachers and students develop those skills while providing opportunities for students to practice using authentic primary documents and historical thinking strategies. Developed through a partnership between the NEH and the Library of Congress, Chronicling America is a searchable and ever-growing database of American newspapers, from small towns to large cities, published from 1789 to 1924. The collection currently includes newspapers from more than 44 states and territories; it will eventually include publications from all U.S. states and territories. The collection also includes foreign language newspapers, ethnic newspapers, and those from Native American tribes. Articles included in the Chronicling America database are invaluable primary sources for NHD students whose topics fall within the geographic and chronological parameters of the database. These stories from American history, written at the time it occurred, offer excellent opportunities for students to source, contextualize, corroborate, and closely read and understand these documents. In addition, they provide the opportunity for students to understand the similarities (or differences) between local and national reactions to an event. Editorials provide students unique insights into various points of view held by authors reacting to the events in real time.

Want to learn more? • Explore EDSITEment’s Chronicling America portal (edsitement.neh.gov/what-chronicling-america). • Watch a video about how to search Chronicling America effectively and download content from the site (edsitement.neh.gov/what-chronicling-america/using-chronicling-america). • Review an EDSITEment lesson that uses articles from Chronicling America to teach about conflict and compromise during WWI (edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/chronicling-america-uncovering-world-war). • Engage your students in the larger picture of the Spanish American War using another EDSITEment lesson (edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/spanish-american-war). • Turn your students into reporters to engage in a Webquest on the Spanish American War from EDSITEment (civclients.com/nehint/spanam/). • Discover how conflict between Teddy Roosevelt and Upton Sinclair led to passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act (edsitement.neh.gov/curriculum-unit/jungle-muckrakers-and-teddy-roosevelt). • Learn how to properly cite Chronicling America articles (and lots of other types of sources) in NHD’s Annotated Bibliography resource (nhd.org/bibresource). • To find a collection of vetted resources for Conflict and Compromise in History, use these suggested terms in the EDSITEment Searchbox (edsitement.neh.gov/search/content): American Revolution, sectionalism, Civil War, Reconstruction, WWI, WWII, and Cold War.

One example of a primary source that can be found on Chronicling America is the front page of The San Francisco Call from Sunday, November 28, 1897, which appears on the next page. On the right is a report about politicians who oppose statehood for Hawaii; on the left side is an article on those politicians who support statehood. The facing page contains specific prompts to help direct students to think critically and analyze the sources in front of them. You can download a copy of this poster for use in your classroom at nhd.org/themebook.

58 | Conflict & Compromise in History

The San Francisco Call, November 28, 1897. Courtesy of Chronicling America.

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SHOWS ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION How do Pettigrew and Dubois make their case? What arguments do they make? What evidence do they use to support their thesis statement? Who do you think makes a more convincing argument? Why?

USES AVAILABLE PRIMARY SOURCES What are the larger topics for which these articles can be primary sources? Are these primary sources reliable and credible? Why or why not?

PLACES TOPIC IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT What else is going on at the same time as this debate? How are these events impacting the stories at hand? Who are the authors? What may have influenced their perspectives on this issue? Who is the audience for this newspaper?

ENTRY IS HISTORICALLY ACCURATE To what extent is bias shown in these sources? What are the facts about Hawaiian annexation? What are opinions?

RESEARCH IS BALANCED What perspectives or points of view are offered? What factors influenced the different interpretations? What points of view or perspectives are not represented here?

SHOWS WIDE RESEARCH What clues can this document offer that can lead you to additional research?

To learn more and find additional resources, visit nhd.org/themebook.

60 | Conflict & Compromise in History

EDSITEment from the National Endowment for the Humanities at https://edsitement.neh.gov/ offers a treasure trove for teachers, students, and parents searching for high-quality digital materials in the subject areas of history and social studies, literature and language arts, art and culture, and world languages. The EDSITEment website includes: 

over 500 lesson plans built upon important primary source documents and authentic inquiry;



videos and student interactives;



over 400 vetted websites including NEH-funded projects of particular relevance to educators;



user-defined lesson-plan searches that can be customized and filtered by subject, grade, and state standards;



a rotating calendar feature with access to a full, yearly calendar;



a unique blog for and about the humanities in the classroom.

EDSITEment was selected as one of the top 25 websites for 2010 by the America Association of School Librarians. NEH Summer Seminars, Institutes, and Landmarks of American History and Culture Workshops https://www.neh.gov/divisions/education/summer-programs Join teachers from all over the country for the in-depth study of history and other humanities topics. These transformative professional development programs engage educators as thinkers and professionals who return to their classrooms re-energized, with new ideas, questions, and resources. All programs award stipends to help defray participation costs.

The Last Full Measure Liljenquist Family Colleccon of Civil War Photographs at the Library of Congress

UnidennďŹ ed soldier in Union uniform with four women, one holding photograph, and one man, probably family. Liljenquist Family Colleccon of Civil War Photographs, Library of Congress (LC-DIG-ppmsca-51645)

View the colleccon at loc.gov/pictures/colleccon/lilj

LOYALTY, ESPIONAGE, AND IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICT IN WORLD WAR I Stephen Wesson, The Library of Congress Cheryl Lederle, The Library of Congress When the United States finally entered World War I in April 1917 after years of bitter debate, the decision seemed to unite the country. Congress’ declaration of war on Germany passed by overwhelming majorities in the House of Representatives and Senate. Popular culture saw a surge in public declarations of patriotism. Songs, posters, cartoons, and newspaper editorials all proclaimed support for the nation’s troops as they prepared to go “Over There.” However, entry into the global struggle also exposed profound divisions within the United States. The declaration of war against a European enemy was shortly followed by legislation intended to subdue enemies within, as well as by a climate of public hostility against Americans suspected of planning sabotage or otherwise undermining the nation’s war effort. Even as it entered a war that, according to President Woodrow Wilson, would make the world “safe for democracy,” the U.S. found itself in the midst of a conflict over who should be considered a loyal American, and faced compromises on how best to balance the nation’s need for security with the democratic rights promised by the Constitution.

“The Poison of Disloyalty” The U.S. had remained neutral during the conflict’s first years, but attacks on Atlantic shipping and suspected acts of sabotage left many Americans feeling anxious. German submarines, called U-boats, sank vessels carrying American passengers. Fires and explosions broke out at munitions factories and transportation links, including the destruction of a New Jersey shipping

depot in a massive explosion that was felt hundreds of miles away and damaged the Statue of Liberty.1 Although many of these episodes were later found to have been the work of German agents, at the time the mysterious nature of these incidents fed a general mood of suspicion. Some of those suspicions were directed toward naturalized Americans. In his annual message to Congress in 1915, President Woodrow Wilson warned that “there are citizens of the United States, I blush to admit, born under other flags but welcomed under our generous naturalization laws to the full freedom and opportunity of America, who have poured the poison of disloyalty into the very arteries of our national life” and declared “such creatures of passion, disloyalty, and anarchy must be crushed out.”2 Former president Theodore Roosevelt echoed this sentiment, saying: “There is no room in this country for the hyphenated American. You can’t hoist two flags on the same flagpole and not have one underneath!”3 After the April 1917 declaration of war on Germany, Congress moved quickly to provide tools to combat disloyalty. The Espionage Act, signed into law in June 1917, included provisions that outlawed making or conveying statements that might “promote the success of” the nation’s enemies or “cause insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, refusal of duty, in the military or naval forces.” It was followed in 1918 by a set of amendments known as the Sedition Act that went further, banning “any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government of the United States” and

“War Munitions Explode in New York Harbor,” Catoctin Clarion, August 3, 1916, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84026688/1916-08-03/ed-1/seq-3/. 2 “Asks Adequate Defense for U.S.,” The Tulsa Star, December 11, 1915, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn86064118/1915-12-11/ed-1/seq-2/. 3 “America Wants Americans First and All the Time,” The Clayton News, December 4, 1915, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn93061573/1915-12-04/ed-1/seq-1/. 1

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At the same time, vigilante groups, some with hundreds of thousands of members, carried on their own campaigns against disloyalty by intimidating, beating, tarring and feathering, and sometimes lynching Americans who they claimed held suspect views. German-Americans, adherents to pacifist religions, and members of the International Workers of the World labor union were targets, as were individuals who did not buy Liberty bonds or fly a U.S. flag at their home. In the spring of 1918, one newspaper described a particularly troubled region of the country as “The Land of Loyalty Riots.”4

Provoke Student Research With Primary Sources

“The Land of Loyalty Riots” The Bismarck Tribune, April 12, 1918. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers.

calling for imprisonment or a fine for anyone who might “by word or act oppose the cause of the United States” in a time of war. The terms of these two acts were enforced by a number of government agencies, including the U.S. Post Office, which banned from the mail not only anti-American materials but also dozens of pacifist publications and German-language newspapers. Germans living in the U.S. who were not citizens were also expected to register as “Enemy Aliens” with the U.S. Department of Justice. Americans were prosecuted and jailed for questioning the purposes of the war, for advocating resistance to the draft, and for criticizing the president.

This struggle to balance individual rights against national security concerns offers many avenues for research exploring conflicts and compromises during that tension-filled period. Primary-source analysis provides an excellent opportunity for students to examine the ways in which different perspectives on these issues were expressed during World War I. Because the public debates of the early twentieth century were often conducted in print, there is a rich record of primary-source documentation preserving the arguments on questions of loyalty and security, from newspaper articles and cartoons to speeches, posters, and government publications. Select a single, intriguing primary source to draw in students and provoke questions. Primary sources that are rich in detail but do not require substantial background knowledge can serve as springboards for introducing a topic. For example, Don’t talk, the web is spun for you with invisible threads, which appears on the following page, includes both visual and textual elements to engage students and spark their curiosity about this topic. Allow time for close study and discussion, recording observations, reflections, and questions, using the Library’s Primary Source Analysis Tool, available online at loc.gov/teachers/primary-source-analysis-tool.

“The Land of Loyalty Riots,” The Bismarck Tribune, April 12, 1918, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042243/1918-04-12/ed-1/seq-1/.

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To help students focus their observations and deepen their thinking on this topic, select prompts from the Teacher’s Guide: Analyzing Political Cartoons (see below).

Teacher’s Guide: Analyzing Political Cartoons. Available at loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/resources/Analyzing_Political_Cartoons.pdf. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Looking at this poster, students might notice the head of a person on a spider’s body, the spiked helmet on the head, or the words “Don’t talk” in large type across the top and “Intelligence Officer Northeastern Dept. U.S. Army” in small type at the bottom. Support students in generating questions from these observations. Some might wonder who the spider represents, and others might be curious about what was happening to warrant such strong warnings. The label at the bottom right of the image might prompt them to consider the role of the “Intelligence Officer” at that time, which could lead to questions about intelligence organizations in that era. Still others may speculate about who created this poster. Invite students to list ways in which the rise of domestic intelligence organizations at that time might have conflicted with, or represented compromises with, some Americans’ ideas of the limits of individual rights or importance of national security. Encourage students to focus on generating researchable questions to help them learn more about the context in which the cartoon was created. Students who find out how to develop research questions will think more flexibly about and research more deeply into a topic. Developing their own questions will also

& Don’t talk, the web is spun for you… war poster showing the head of Wilhelm II on a spider, published by Walker Lith. & Pub. Co, c. 1918. Available at loc.gov/item/93515950. Courtesy of the Library of Congress (93515950).

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increase their investment in learning and retaining content knowledge. To deepen the students’ thinking and help them develop content knowledge, present additional items reflecting differing perspectives. For example, Now for a round-up, a political cartoon published in the New York Herald in May 1918, and Must liberty’s light go out?, an engraving that appeared on the editorial page of the New York American in May 1917, both comment on legislation of the time, using similar visual techniques. Both feature familiar national symbols as central figures, but they take opposing positions on the legislation. Knowing their source may also prompt students to ask more questions. Allow time for students to analyze these primary sources, recording their thinking on the primary source analysis tool, and then revisit the questions for further investigation that they generated while analyzing the poster Don’t talk, the web is spun for you... Support students as they gather evidence to form answers to their initial questions. What new questions have been generated? They might comment on the persuasive techniques of labeling and using familiar national symbols such as Uncle Sam and the Statue of Liberty. Some may notice the labels “Espionage Bill” on the sleeve and “Sedition Law” on the flag flying from the Capitol, and wonder about the details of each piece of legislation. Careful observers of the Sedition Law cartoon may also note the labels such as “IWW” and “Sinn Fein,” which could suggest ideas for further research into the context and events that prompted the legislation represented by each cartoon.

Now for a round-up, political cartoon, 1918. Available at loc.gov/ resource/cai.2a14550/. Courtesy of the Library of Congress (2010717793).

As students learn more, encourage them to consider which of their questions have been answered and what new questions arise. Support them in forming a thesis—for example, taking a stand on balancing individual rights against national security concerns. Remind them to consider the theme of conflict and compromise as they draft their thesis. The thesis and their questions should direct additional research into social, political, economic, or cultural implications and effects. Must liberty’s lights go out?, engraving, May 3, 1917. Available at loc.gov/resource/cph.3b36807/. Courtesy of the Library of Congress (96519622).

66 | Conflict & Compromise in History

To make local connections, students could explore the Chronicling America Historic American Newspapers database available at chroniclingamerica.loc.gov as well as research in local historical societies and archives. Possible search terms include “disloyal,” “alien,” “sabotage,” or “tarred and feathered.” The advanced search tab includes the option to limit by state, or by particular newspaper, as well as date range. Although the Sedition Act was repealed after World War I ended, the Espionage Act, much altered, is still in effect today, and debates over the appropriate balance between constitutional liberties and national security

have arisen many times during the century since the original legislation was passed. Search congress.gov for “Espionage Act” to display some of the changes that have been made to the Act over the years, and to discover opportunities to explore the reasons behind those changes. To learn more and find additional resources, visit nhd.org/themebook.

Want to Learn More? For more primary sources and information on World War I, visit the Library of Congress World War I topic page at loc.gov/topics/world-war-i. The Library of Congress Primary Source Set on World War I provides many opportunities to explore the conflicts and compromises that emerged during the war. Visit loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/ primarysourcesets/world-war-i.

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