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Building

Blocks

this is

your book

Reading and listening

f each unit

The opening Pages o

We read and listen about the topic of the unit, learning about key concepts and developments in technology.

Reading and listenin

3D printing and

design

What do home and at school? do you have at in technology, What kind of printer to developments with it? Thanks e. We can you usually print documents anymor use them to print make small we don't only or at school, to , maybe at home printer? now use 3D printers ever used a 3D you Have objects and pieces. than thirty years. ment for more been in develop introduction of 3D printing has the Internet, the ted to the popularity of e have all contribu During this time, e and open hardwar about open-source softwar changes have brought 3D printing. These as well as the evolution of and computers, t control boards 3D printers. an increase in low-cos build robots and to needed parts to other affordable , from personal for various projects tool to toys, valuable like a objects, 3D printing is to make simple is now possible for amputees, housing professional. It limbs tic things, like prosthe help us get more complex 3D printing can s, and even food. infrastructure, for the homeles to build resilient on. It g SDG 9 that aims and foster innovati closer to achievin lisation, ble industria and improve promote sustaina models to analyse to produce small allows designers them in full scale. manufacturing objects before

make Using 3D printers to food would be the best solution to help charities supply food to the poor…

In my community, it would be more helpful to build houses…

Writing

6 people? available to more make 3D printing 1 What has helped ? with 3D printing 2 What can we do from the text: 3 Find the words a synonym of size is that noun a) A of cheap word that is a synonym b) A compound or torso. is not the head body part that c) A noun for a

asked you to research Your teacher has Look at SDG 9. . which use 3D printing your teacher. three charity projects write a report for your the projects and Choose one of project could benefit outline how the 9. Your report should can help with SDG it how and community

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LANG

100

Writing We write a variety of different styles and types of text relating to the unit topic, sometimes relating them to the UN Sustainable Development Goals. By practising different styles of writing, we improve our writing skills we need.

CONTENT DEVELOPMENT 2

Highly structured content with important concepts highlighted in bold.

We speak about the different issues relating to the unit and the UN Sustainable Development Goals.

Speaking help achieve SGD How can 3D printing small groups, Look at SDG 9. a discussion in and 9.5? Have or disagree targets 9.1, 9.4 why you agree and explaining sharing your opinion ideas. with each other’s . In small charitable projects for useful very printing, which use 3D 5 3D printing is these three projects you. help to groups, research below s Use the question and compare them. amputees Making limbs for food Making for homeless people Making houses al for be more benefici do you think would a) Which project the wider your community? most helpful to would be the b) Which project world? to implement be the most difficult would c) Which project ? g the locally and globally towards achievin projects help d) How can these ment goals? sustainable develop

3D Printing

The audios of each unit’s content are available at www.anayaeducacion.es

Speaking

Wide variety of pictures grouped according to content to aid your understanding.

Unit 4

ã 2.1 Access the application

TINKERCAD

TinkerCAD is a web-based application that does not need to be installed on your computer, you only need Internet access and a browser to load the page https://www.tinkercad.com.

When you want to start designing your objects, you just need to drag one of the shapes onto the Workplane. The tools that you need to adjust this shape will appear in a new menu.

After opening the page, log in or create an account. The application offers different ways to do this and you should choose whichever way is best for you. If you have a Google or Apple account, the easiest way is to log in with one of those. When you do this, you have to enter the password for your account and allow TinkerCAD access to it.

SDG. Reflection on and analysis of SDGs, such as gender equality, climate action, reducing inequalities, etc.

Changing colour After selecting a shape, a menu appears and we can use it to change different parameters, including colour. You can also convert the object into a Hole, which is used to cut shapes out of your design.

Unit 4 Controls to adjust the dimensions

➜ Black squares are used to change any of the object's specific TINKERCAD CODEBLOCKS

ã 2.2 The user interface and basic blocks The interface is simple. Go to the design gallery, which will be empty when you open it for the first time. On the left side there are links to other applications (circuits and codeblocks) and lessons. You can do these lessons to get to know the application better and learn about its more advanced features.

Guided practices and Model examples to help you learn new processes.

Guided practice

dimensions (height, width or depth). When you click on them, you can see their current measurements. By dragging a black square Guided practice with the mouse you can modify the dimension of the line.

Build a spiral Part rotating on you an axis ➜ The four whitestaircase. squares at theII: bottom allow to change the two dimensions of the object (width and depth) at a the same time. In the previous example we saw a staircase; succession ofThey steps also show the corresponding measurements the object in these positioned one on top of the other. The of position of each step two dimensions. depends on the position of the previous one: its height (z-axis), and the white distance we want between steps. using loop you can ➜ The square at the top shows the By height ofathe object, and build we as many steps as you can click and drag it toneed. change it.

Build a spiral staircase. Part III Next, you need to reduce the number of steps, which requires the loop to advance with a larger increment. You also need to increase the height of each step with respect to the previous step. This requires using another variable and learning how to increase variables other than the control variable within a loop.

Keep in mind Each object must have a name, and TinkerCAD sets one by default. You can change the name by clicking on the drop-down menu.

To make a spiral ➜ Above the shape there is a black cone that changes the height

Clicking the Create a design button will show the following: User

Tinkercad button. Closes the current design and returns to the user’s home menu.

Basic editing buttons.

Recent designs menu. Lets you close the current design and create a new one or upload another one in its place, configure the free license assigned to your work, make it public or keep it private.

Random, editable title assigned by the application.

Object editing tools.

Miscellaneous menu: 3D design, bricks. Invite people to edit. User menu.

Tools: Import, export, send to, Workplane, ruler.

Object display tools.

staircase, we also at which the object rests on the Workplane. Clicking on it and need to rotate the dragging it up or down raises or lowers the figure. It can even go steps at a certain below the surface of the Workplane. angle on an axis or a point space. In Controls to in turn the object this second part The two small arcs with arrowheads at each end, which you can see in you are going to the screenshots below, allow us to rotate the figure on two imaginary create objects to axes. The third arc that would be needed to rotate the object on the define an item, missing axis is not shown in the default view. To see this arc, you need reuse it in your code to change the point of view or viewing angle. as many times as In the upper corner you want,left and makeare the visualization tools. Clicking on the cube, or clicking, holding and dragging it, allows us to choose which angle we the transformations want toneed view (rotations, the object at. Then the third rotation control will appear. you displacements, etc.) in an easier way.

Pre-designed shapes menu

The first step is the simplest. The increase of the angle in the loop has been modified from 15 to 30. Now you have to make the steps increase in height. As you can see in the code, you only have to add three more blocks, one outside the loop and two inside it.

Dimension controls.

1 Use the Create New Object block in Modify to build the step, which you can then repeat to make the staircase.

2 Create as many Workplane.

The icons included with some activities indicate the keys to the project.

copies of the step as you need and rotate them around the coordinate origin (0, 0, 0).

Change the size of the Workplane (grid). Adjust the grid units.

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An example of using the three turning controls.

105

Understand, think, investigate... Understand, think, investigate...

9 Explain the function each of the three new blocks

7 Analyse the code that generates the step by

What improvements do you think it needs?

explaining in your notebook what each block of code does. What is the purpose of the Shift blocks for each of the shapes used?

2 Why does the control variable go from 0 to 180 in 15-unit increments?

8 Analyse the part of the code that generates the

4 Why do you think the step object is removed at the end of the stair object?

staircase and answer the following questions in your notebook:

3 What would happen if the final value was 360?

added to the code.

10 Add the blocks we need to include a column in the centre of the design to make it look similar to the screenshot on the right.

11 Modify the code so that the staircase turns around the column twice. What elements should you modify?

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KEYS

PROJECT

SDG

SDG Commitment Discover the Sustainable Development Goals and be an active part of our commitment to make a more equal and liveable world.

Developing thinking Work on strategies for thinking: reflect on the content you are learning, generate ideas, organise them, debate them, explain them…

Cooperative learning Get involved in your learning and participate in the group’s learning; you will find that cooperating improves performance and harmony in the class.

Emotional education Get to know yourself; identify the situations that bring up complicated emotions and manage them with constructive, self-affirming experiences.

NEW SECTIONS

Activities with different cognitive levels to check learning.

resources to choose . Remember for your portfolio from this unit

Unit

ndido apreTISE ANDloPRAC ajaEWcon REVI trab Drawing materials and tools

and write them down in your notebook. Try to draw a sketch of your arm with the measurements made. Use the auxiliary lines surrounding the sketch to help.

1 What characteristics should a piece of paper have if we want to draw on it using ink? What if we want to make a drawing with millimetric precision?

18 The following views are of a part which we want drawn in isometric perspective. Create a grid with the correct angles in order to draw it in that perspective.

2 What kind of characteristics do these types of

paper have?

Glossary

15 Draw the views of the object below

a) Paper for pencil drawings b) Paper for ink drawings c) Sketch paper

4. STRUCTURES AND MECHANISMS

4. TYPES OF STRUCTURES d) Greaseproof paper

1. STRUCTURES

exoskeletons

biomimicry

A strategy that learns from and copies nature to solve problems in design.

loads

The forces exerted on a surface or body.

static balance

When an object is in equilibrium, and does not move or fall over.

to hardest: beams, or beams connected in triangles. each one by 100 and draw it in your notebook, HB, 6H, F, the 2H, centre B, 6B of an arch, holding the other with stones the surface to scale. Take note of the The stone which is in in position. measurements of your bed, your wardrobe and A line drawn throughbetween a shape,awhich reflects each side. 4 What is the difference dip pen and the a same shape other furniture in your room, divide them by 100, fine-point pen? Describe them and sayor other construction Using triangle shapes toeach give of a building, bridge a strong structure. draw them on card and cut them out. Place the what their common uses are. cut outs in the drawing of your room in different arrangements, then choose the design you like 5 What are the angles on the different set squares? the most and draw it. Make a list of the angles that can be defined with a Open profiles combination of both elements. 13 What is the difference between a graduated ruler and a scale ruler? 6 What is the main function of an extension bar on a Projections and views of an object compass?

keystone symmetry axis

2. FORCES

triangulation

centre of gravity

An imaginary point in a body of matter where the total weight of the body is thought to be concentrated.

5. PROFILES

Glossary We learn the relevant terms that are underlined in the units with a clear definition.

spring scale

An instrument that measures the force exerted on an object, by pulling down on a spring with its weight.

stress

In physics, this is the physical force or pressure on an object.

7 The ceramic tiles found in Andalucía are well known

Freehand drawing

Long pieces of heavy wood or metal used in building structures such as housing.

braces

Steel cables that are used to strengthen and support a structure.

Perspective 16 Explain why a reduction coefficient is used in cavalier perspective.

17 Draw the object represented by the views below in isometric or cavalier perspective:

14 Look at the views of the shape and draw the

and are embedded in the local culture. Choose a geometric tile design from the region and copy it, techniques you have learnt. I, H or double-T profile using the drawing T profile L profile

3. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS beams

The hard, paper outer parts of structures which support them and hold them together. The e) Millimetre

Scales metal bodywork of a car, for example. 3 Order the following grades of pencils from softest The main supporting parts of a structure; often a combination of horizontal and vertical of your room in metres. Divide 12 Take measurements

framework

object in cavalier perspective. U profile

Digital graphics 19

Choose a famous painting such as The Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci; The Clothed Maja, by Goya, a landscape or a still life and make a freestyle copy using Inkscape. To do so, use an image of the painting in a lower layer and make polygons on top of it using the different tools. When you finish, combine all the polygons and remove the lower layer.

Closed profiles

8 Make a sketch of several objects you use in your school: the pen you normally use the pencil sharpener and scissors.

9 Make a diagram of the square and triangle you use. Remember to add the measurements and the value of the angles of each of them.

Rectangular cross-section

Square cross-section

Round cross-section

Triangular cross-section

10 Say what the differences are between an object drawn in a sketch and the same object drawn in a diagram. Which one offers more information about object? Thethe point on a lever which balances or turns or lifts something.

6. MECHANISMS fulcrum geometric centre

Braces

The gradual destruction of metal caused by external factors such as exposure to water or pollution. Rust is a well-known example of corrosion.

foundations

A solid layer of bricks, cement or stone that support a building from underneath it.

pillars

Tall posts, often in a cylinder shape, which support a building.

Make a list of the advantages, disadvantages and similarities between them. Think about how easy it is to use the drawing tools and the images you get.

(identified in the figure with the letters A, B, C) The relationship between the diameter of a gear and the number of teeth it has. 46

Beams

corrosion

20 Think about when you used Pinta and Inkscape.

11 Take following measurements body Thethe point that is in the middle of of theyour shape, according to its measurements.

module radius

The distance from the geometric centre of a circle, to any of its sides. You can find a printable isometric template to help you with your drawings at anayaeducacion.es.

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Focus on English

Remember to check out the learn by playing and Study: Mind Map activities available at anayaeducacion.es.

References to any extra resources that can be found in your digital resources.

Expand your English vocabulary by learning new words, phrases and grammar structures which we use when talking about technology. Unit

2 TINKERCAD

ä 6.3 The isometric perspective

Aligning objects Now that you have acquired some basic skills in TinkerCAD, you can tool to align two objects with each other in any of the use the Align three dimensions. In the case of the die, where we want the numbers to be centred on its faces, we need to select the box and, pressing the Shift key, select a number. When you click on the Align tool, or press the L key, three points will appear in each of the three dimensions of the box to align the selected number with the centre or with either of the two ends.

In this perspective, the three reference axes have an angle of 120° between them. We can use paper with a template of equilateral triangles to make drawing in this perspective easier.

C REATE

Technology Workshop

History

These workshops put the ideas you have learnt in the unit into practice. You will be making things, using different computer programmes and practising your new skills.

Z axis X axis

Choose a monument from your favourite period in history and try to draw it in either cavalier or isometric perspective.

Symmetry The last shape editing tool, which appears next to the alignment tool, is Mirror . When you select an object and press the Mirror button, or the M key, three double arrows appear. These show the axis which the transformation can be applied to. When you hold the cursor over these arrows, they turn red. A preview of how the object will look if you apply symmetry is then superimposed* over the original shape. Just click on the double arrow to apply the transformation. Y axis

sink: move something downwards so it is at a lower level

120°

120° 120°

superimposed: when one image is placed over the other, but both can be seen

Understand, think, investigate... 2 Design a keyring with your name on it. You can use the Text shape or individual letters, and add decorations, such as a heart, a star, or other predefined designs. Decide if you want the letters to be embossed or hollowed out on the surface and remember to make a hole for the ring.

DESIGN A SKATEPARK

First, drag a pyramid onto the Workplane.

PROJECT PRESENTATION

Next, click on the Workplane button. Move the cursor over the faces of the pyramid to see where the plane will be located if we click the mouse button.

4. Carefully adjust the width so that the cut-out of the cylinder coincides with the cut-out of the flattened sphere.

3 Design a plant pot. You can use a box or cone for the body. You will have to modify the width of the bases and the height. To hollow it out you can duplicate (CTRL+D) the shape, move it up and narrow the bases a bit. Use a cylinder at the bottom to make the hole, and remember to use the Align tool to centre it. Once you have obtained the basic shape, you can add details to the surface for a more personalised design.

Unit 4

KSHOP TECHNOLOGY WOR

We do not usually apply any reduction when drawing in isometric perspective, and the proportions on the three axes stay the same. However, the rule says a 0.82 reduction should be applied to all axes. This way it looks like the real object and keeps the proportions between the axes the same.

Most of the pieces you build will have the box as a base. You will have to adjust its dimensions and make cut-outs by adding other parts, maybe another box, a sphere or a cylinder. When it has been positioned, the plane changes from blue to brown. Choose any other shape, place it on the plane and reduce it to the size you want. You can position it using the Align tool or the cursors. You can also sink* it into the surface of the pyramid using the cone that appears on the object. The cone control is aligned with the current workplane. If you go back to the original plane, you will see that the basic object controls change orientation.

PROJECT STEPS

Understand, think, investigate… 24 Think about drawing in isometric perspective. What length line would you have to draw for each side of a cube if each of its edges measured

10cm in reality? Remember what you learnt about the reduction coefficient of the isometric axes. What if it were in cavalier perspective?

108

1. To begin with, we add a box and make it flat. Then, we superimpose a flattened sphere over it, to hollow it out. You can see this below.

5. Add a few steps and a railing.

6. We haven’t changed the colour of the boxes yet so that it is easier to identify each one and get a better idea of what they should look like. You could use grey for the railing. Also, modifying the radius of the box will make the corners rounded. You can use the same idea with the boxes for the cut-outs. To make the cut-outs clearly visible, the height of the boxes must be two millimetres higher than the railing and one millimetre below the Workplane. This picture shows two different sections of the railing.

2. We group the objects, duplicate them, and use the Mirror button to get something similar to what you see in the picture below.

Create In this section we create a cross-curricular project that joins Technology, Programming and Robotics with other subjects.

Trust in your skills and knowledge, develop creativity, adapt to changing situations and have a proactive and responsible attitude.

rotate it 90° To position the railing, then rotate to place it upright and it follows the it again 8° so that angle of the staircase.

Have you ever thought about how Technology, Programming and Robotics can be useful in Science?

Enterprising culture

You could also build a quarter pipe. 3. Add a halfpipe. This time, we use a cylinder instead of the sphere to cut out of the box.

To create the skate park, simply put together the pieces you have built. 120

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Academic and professional

ICT

orientation

Assessment

Linguistic Plan

Learn how to obtain information, select it and apply it; to plan, manage and work on projects; to collaborate online in an ethical and safe manner.

Evaluate your personal skills, discover and awaken your calling, train yourself to make decisions and learn to choose between different options.

Discover different strategies to analyse what you have learnt and how you learnt it; train yourself to take responsibility or overcome difficulties.

Use your communication skills in the different types of text that you will see. Language is always present, communicate!

RESOURCE BANK www.anayaeducacion.es digital book resource bank

Register at www.anayaeducacion.es to access your resource bank or download your digital book. You just need an email address, the code from the inside cover this book and permission from your parent or legal guardian.

A digital version of your book to be used online or offline. It offers access to your digital resources which are grouped by type or linked to unit content.

A space with resources, techniques and activities, designed to strengthen your knowledge. More about the keys

Resources related to THE project keys SDG

SDG Commitment with short videos that will help you understand the targets for reaching the Sustainable Development Goals worked on in this project.

Linguistic Plan with infographics that will give you models to work with the four linguistic skills, using different text types (descriptive, narrative, explanatory, etc.). Cooperative learning Preparing for the task In small groups, of four or five members: 1 All the members of the team will review how the assigned task can be accomplished. 2 To do this, the steps can be shared out to each team member who then in turn will explain how each part of the process can be done to the others. The others listen and participate if they think they can contribute something.

Authorship / adaptation : Variant of the Educational Innovation Laboratory of the colegio Ártica - David and Roger Johnson.

Developing thinking with explanations on how to apply the different thinking techniques proposed in the project.

3 Once everyone is in agreement on how to do each part, you will all complete the tasks and, finally, verify, among everyone, that you have solved it correctly.

Cooperative learning which includes descriptions of the cooperative learning techniques proposed in the project. Thinking techniques

Emotional education with resources to help you overcome any worries that may arise in different situations at school (beginning the school year, taking a test, etc.).

Logic Wheel This thinking technique will help you to establish phases when analysing specific content that you have to study.

Identify What is it? What is it like? Are there different types?

By following a logical sequence (the logic wheel), and by asking yourself a series of questions in each phase, you can:

• Identify content by asking yourself: What is it? What is it like? Are there different types? • Compare the content by formulating questions such as: In what way is it similar to ...? In what way is it different from ...? • Establish cause-effect relationships by asking yourself questions such as: Why? What impact does it have ...? • Argue, assess and ask yourself questions such as: What conclusions can be drawn after the analysis? What can be assessed or scored about it? Doing a data dump of these questions into a graphic organiser will help you. Authorship: Hernández, P., and García, L. A.; adapted by Escamilla, A.

Compare

Argue, assess What can we conclude?

Logic wheel

3 Establish cause-effect relationships Why? What impact does it have ...?

In what way is it similar to ...? In what way is it different from ...?

ICT resources to help you use information and communication technology in a healthy, correct and safe way.

Academic and professional orientation with information on different professions linked to the subject content.

Assessment which includes resources for your portfolio, as well as rubrics and targets that will help with your self-assessment.

Resources

Subject key concepts Additional content What you need to know Simulations Learn by playing Videos and tutorials Language bank

Resources classified

by unit

All the resources are classified by unit so that you can find them more easily.

COURSE CONTENTS

STRUCTURES AND MECHANISMS

Page 8

1. Structures............................................................................................................................ 10 2. Forces....................................................................................................................................

3. Structural components................................................................................................ 16 4. Types of structures........................................................................................................

5. Profiles and trusses....................................................................................................... 20 6. Mechanisms and simple machines....................................................................... 22 7. Rotary mechanisms....................................................................................................... 26 8. Mechanisms that transform motion.................................................................... 30 9. Machines and engines.................................................................................................. 32 Technology workshop. A manual battery charger................................................ 38 Review and practise........................................................................................................... 39

ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS

Page 42

1. Electric current and circuits............................................................................ 44 2. Electrical quantities and Ohm’s law............................................................. 47 3. Electrical resistance........................................................................................... 48 4. Measuring electrical quantities...................................................................... 50 5. Analysing electric circuits................................................................................ 53 6. Other components............................................................................................. 59 7. Breadboards......................................................................................................... 63 8. TinkerCAD: Circuit simulator.......................................................................... 64 Technology workshop. Build an electric motor..................................................... 66 Review and practise........................................................................................................... 68

PROGRAMMING AND ROBOTICS

Page 70

1. Automatic machines and robots................................................................... 72 2. Robot architecture............................................................................................. 74 3. Control systems and sensors.......................................................................... 76 4. Programming robots: Crumble...................................................................... 78 5. Programming robots: Arduino....................................................................... 84 6. Robotics starter kits........................................................................................... 88 Technology workshop. Build and program a line follower robot.

Program a traffic light with pedestrian pushbutton.................................................... 94

Review and practise............................................................................................... 98

3D PRINTING

Page 100

1. An introduction to 3D printing technology.............................................. 102 2. TinkerCAD.............................................................................................................. 104 3. TinkerCAD Codeblocks.................................................................................... 112 4. Exporting files for 3D printing....................................................................... 117 Technology workshop. Design a skatepark............................................................. 120 Review and practise............................................................................................... 123

COMMUNICATIONS AND THE INTERNET

Page 124

1. Electromagnetic signals................................................................................... 126 2. Radio and television transmission................................................................ 129 3. Mobile communication..................................................................................... 132 4. Communications over the Internet.............................................................. 136 5. Network architecture........................................................................................ 138 6. Security in online communications.............................................................. 142 Technology workshop. Build an AM receiver.................................................... 146 Review and practise............................................................................................... 148

APPLICATIONS AND INTERNET SERVICES. WEB PAGES

Page 150

1. The Web................................................................................................................. 152 2. How the Web works........................................................................................... 153 3. Publishing on the Web .................................................................................... 159 4. Trends in the evolution of the Internet....................................................... 166 Technology workshop. Make a website with WordPress..................................... 170 Review and practise............................................................................................... 174

3D Printing Reading and listening

3D printing and design What kind of printer do you have at home and at school? What do you usually print with it? Thanks to developments in technology, we don't only use them to print documents anymore. We can now use 3D printers, maybe at home or at school, to make small objects and pieces. Have you ever used a 3D printer? 3D printing has been in development for more than thirty years. During this time, the popularity of the Internet, the introduction of open-source software and open hardware have all contributed to the evolution of 3D printing. These changes have brought about an increase in low-cost control boards and computers, as well as other affordable parts needed to build robots and 3D printers. 3D printing is a valuable tool for various projects, from personal to professional. It is now possible to make simple objects, like toys, to more complex things, like prosthetic limbs for amputees, housing for the homeless, and even food. 3D printing can help us get closer to achieving SDG 9 that aims to build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialisation, and foster innovation. It allows designers to produce small models to analyse and improve objects before manufacturing them in full scale.

1 What has helped make 3D printing available to more people? 2 What can we do with 3D printing? 3 Find the words from the text: a) A noun that is a synonym of size b) A compound word that is a synonym of cheap c) A noun for a body part that is not the head or torso.

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Speaking

Look at SDG 9. How can 3D printing help achieve SGD targets 9.1, 9.4 and 9.5? Have a discussion in small groups, sharing your opinion and explaining why you agree or disagree with each other’s ideas.

5 3D printing is very useful for charitable projects. In small groups, research these three projects which use 3D printing, and compare them. Use the questions below to help you. Making limbs for amputees Making houses for homeless people

Making food

a) Which project do you think would be more beneficial for your community? b) Which project would be the most helpful to the wider world? c) Which project would be the most difficult to implement locally and globally? d) How can these projects help towards achieving the sustainable development goals?

Using 3D printers to make food would be the best solution to help charities supply food to the poor…

In my community, it would be more helpful to build houses…

Writing

Look at SDG 9. Your teacher has asked you to research three charity projects which use 3D printing.

Choose one of the projects and write a report for your teacher. Your report should outline how the project could benefit your community and how it can help with SDG 9.

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1 3D printing is a way of manufacturing solid objects with processes which involve adding and curing materials. The objects are made using digital models which are designed using CAD programmes.

AN INTRODUCTION TO 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY

There are many different 3D printing technologies. The one that many schools use is polymer extrusion printing, because it provides reasonable results at affordable prices. The machines have a polymer reel* that is heated and extruded through a head on the tray, or bed. Depending on the polymer used, this tray might need to be heated. The more sophisticated models have a double head which means they can print in two colours. The maximum volume that can be printed varies according to the model. The machines that are capable of printing the largest pieces are the most expensive. Some household extrusion 3D printers have printing volumes ranging from 100 x 100 x 100 mm to 250 x 210 x 210 mm. However, industrial printers can print pieces of more than one cubic meter. The most commonly used plastics are ABS and PLA, which are sold in reels of filament. Other printing technologies use powder, gel or liquid polymers. But these are not used very much in homes or at schools because the materials and printers are very expensive. In the table below, you can see some important characteristics of the polymers that are most commonly used in 3D printing:

Material

ABS

PLA

PVA

Full name

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

Polylactic or polylactide acid

Polyvinyl alcohol

Melting point, °C

215-250 °C

160-230 °C

180-200 °C

Bed temperature °C

90-103 °C

Room temperature to 60 °C

50 °C

Recommendations for the first layer

Hairspray or Kapton tape on the bed

Hairspray or blue masking tape

Blue masking tape

Biodegradable

Yes

Recyclable

Yes

Notes

When melted, it produces gases that are harmful in high concentrations. Print in wellventilated areas. Easy to bond. Available in a number of matte finish colours. Once cured, it is hard, rigid and highly impactresistant. It can be sanded and polished to improve the final appearance. Because of this, it is often used in engineering, industry and 3D prototyping. Lego pieces are made of this type of plastic. Resistant to abrasion and chemical elements. Soluble in acetone. Affected by exposure to UV rays.

Produced from cornflour or potato starch, which is why it smells a little like caramel when it melts. Degrades over time (100 years). Available in a variety of gloss finishes, as well as transparent and fluorescent finishes. Suitable for printing food and water packaging. Similar to PET (Polyethylene terephthalate). The final texture is not as smooth or resistant as ABS.

Soluble in water. In printers with several extruders, it can be used to construct the support.

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You can find a video about 3D printing at anayaeducacion.es.

Unit 4

ãã1.1 3D Printing software In order to get our own 3D object ready for printing, we need to use at least two applications: a 3D CAD program and a laminator, or slicer.

The additive manufacturing process in 3D printing involves depositing the molten material in layers. It then cools and solidifies.

CAD programs We use CAD programs to model our piece in 3D. However, they also have another important function; they should be able to save our files in vector format. It’s important that the program we use can transform our creation into a file format that can be recognised by the laminator program we are using. Not all CAD programs have these file options, so not all of them will be suitable for 3D printing design.

reel: a round object that looks a bit like a wheel, which threads or filaments of materials can be wound around

There are 2D and 3D CAD programs, and some that can make 2D pieces that we then print and use to make 3D objects. CAD programs work with files that have images in vector format. To print in 3D, we need to export the file in mesh format, which is the file type that laminator programs use. Laminator programs The design has to be divided into thin layers, or sheets, to enable us to print the object. This is what we use laminator software for.

3D Modelling 3D modelling is a technique used to create three-dimensional shapes using specialist programs. The virtual 3D models can be viewed on a computer monitor and it is possible to rotate them in all directions to see all their faces. We can then use a 3D printer to print these models.

The laminator program reads a file in mesh format and then produces a G-code file that will be loaded onto the printer by using a memory card or USB port. A G-code file contains all the instructions which the 3D printer or CNC machine needs to follow to create a physical copy of the 3D model. G-code instructions establish the printer’s initial working conditions such as the temperature of the extruder and the speed of the head movements. They also indicate the amount of material that should be extruded, the direction of movement of the print head and everything the machine needs to know to print our object. Go to anayaeducacion.es to find a presentation on the 3D printing process and the document 'Polymers for 3D Printing'.

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2 TINKERCAD

ãã2.1 Access the application TinkerCAD is a web-based application that does not need to be installed on your computer, you only need Internet access and a browser to load the page https://www.tinkercad.com. After opening the page, log in or create an account. The application offers different ways to do this and you should choose whichever way is best for you. If you have a Google or Apple account, the easiest way is to log in with one of those. When you do this, you have to enter the password for your account and allow TinkerCAD access to it.

ãã2.2 The user interface and basic blocks The interface is simple. Go to the design gallery, which will be empty when you open it for the first time. On the left side there are links to other applications (circuits and codeblocks) and lessons. You can do these lessons to get to know the application better and learn about its more advanced features.

Clicking the Create a design button will show the following: User

Tinkercad button. Closes the current design and returns to the user’s home menu.

Basic editing buttons.

Recent designs menu. Lets you close the current design and create a new one or upload another one in its place, configure the free license assigned to your work, make it public or keep it private.

Random, editable title assigned by the application.

Object editing tools.

Miscellaneous menu: 3D design, bricks. Invite people to edit. User menu.

Tools: Import, export, send to, Workplane, ruler.

Object display tools.

Pre-designed shapes menu

Workplane.

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Change the size of the Workplane (grid). Adjust the grid units.

Unit 4

When you want to start designing your objects, you just need to drag one of the shapes onto the Workplane. The tools that you need to adjust this shape will appear in a new menu.

Controls to adjust the dimensions

➜➜Black squares are used to change any of the object's specific dimensions (height, width or depth). When you click on them, you can see their current measurements. By dragging a black square with the mouse you can modify the dimension of the line.

➜➜The four white squares at the bottom allow you to change the two dimensions of the object (width and depth) at the same time. They also show the corresponding measurements of the object in these two dimensions.

➜➜The white square at the top shows the height of the object, and we can click and drag it to change it.

➜➜Above the shape there is a black cone that changes the height at which the object rests on the Workplane. Clicking on it and dragging it up or down raises or lowers the figure. It can even go below the surface of the Workplane. Controls to turn the object The two small arcs with arrowheads at each end, which you can see in the screenshots below, allow us to rotate the figure on two imaginary axes. The third arc that would be needed to rotate the object on the missing axis is not shown in the default view. To see this arc, you need to change the point of view or viewing angle. In the upper left corner are the visualization tools. Clicking on the cube, or clicking, holding and dragging it, allows us to choose which angle we want to view the object at. Then the third rotation control will appear. Dimension controls.

An example of using the three turning controls.

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2 TINKERCAD

Display controls As you may have already noticed, the display controls can be very useful. In the top right corner, as well as the visualization cube, we can fit the view to selected shapes, zoom in and out, switch to orthographic view (flat) and switch back to the original view by clicking Home view. The quickest way to change the point of view is to right-click while scrolling or press the CTRL key while left-clicking and scrolling. The mouse wheel zooms in and out of the Workplane.

Guided practice Make a die with numbers on its faces. Move and rotate objects Drag a box and the numbers 1 to 6 onto the Workplane. The box is included in the basic shapes. Find the numbers by clicking the drop down arrow by the shapes menu and select Text and Numbers, scroll down and click on the second page. The box has 20 mm sides and the numbers are 4 mm in height. Place the numbers so that they only protrude 1 mm above the faces of the box and try to centre them as much as possible. The numbers on opposite faces should add up to 7. Place the number 1 on the top face. Select it and drag the black cone until it is at a height of 17 mm. You can position it more precisely on the cube by using the mouse and the cursor keys. To position the number 2, you will have to change the point of view to be able to rotate it easily and place it on the front face. Locking an object CTRL + L → Locks an object in place, preventing it from accidentally moving.

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Unit 4

To position the number 3, you need to turn the die twice. The first turn you can do from the general view; for the vertical turn you will have to change the point of view.

The numbers 4 and 5 require two turns to be positioned correctly. The number 6 only needs a 180° turn that leaves it upside down.

To see the final result with all the numbers in their positions, you can select the cube and make it Hole (transparent) by clicking Hole on its menu. If you have locked each object in its position, you will have a set of seven fixed objects, but they do not yet form one solid object. To convert them into a single object, unlock them, select them all and click on Group . You will see that all of them change to the colour of the first object you placed on the work plane.

Understand, think, investigate... 1 Use the end result of the guided practice to create a die where the numbers are hollow rather than protruding over the faces of the cube. Remember that the holes and cut-outs appear when you group the objects, some of them as a hole instead of a solid shape. Find out how to give your die rounded corners.

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2 TINKERCAD

Aligning objects Now that you have acquired some basic skills in TinkerCAD, you can use the Align tool to align two objects with each other in any of the three dimensions. In the case of the die, where we want the numbers to be centred on its faces, we need to select the box and, pressing the Shift key, select a number. When you click on the Align tool, or press the L key, three points will appear in each of the three dimensions of the box to align the selected number with the centre or with either of the two ends. Symmetry The last shape editing tool, which appears next to the alignment tool, is Mirror . When you select an object and press the Mirror button, or the M key, three double arrows appear. These show the axis which the transformation can be applied to. When you hold the cursor over these arrows, they turn red. A preview of how the object will look if you apply symmetry is then superimposed* over the original shape. Just click on the double arrow to apply the transformation.

sink: move something downwards so it is at a lower level superimposed: when one image is placed over the other, but both can be seen

Workplanes TinkerCAD allows us to modify the plane which we are working on and transfer it onto another surface. This can be helpful if we want to place objects on another shape. Let’s see this by placing several objects over the faces of a pyramid. First, drag a pyramid onto the Workplane. Next, click on the Workplane button. Move the cursor over the faces of the pyramid to see where the plane will be located if we click the mouse button.

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When it has been positioned, the plane changes from blue to brown. Choose any other shape, place it on the plane and reduce it to the size you want. You can position it using the Align tool or the cursors. You can also sink* it into the surface of the pyramid using the cone that appears on the object. The cone control is aligned with the current workplane. If you go back to the original plane, you will see that the basic object controls change orientation.

Unit 4

We can also move directly to another surface without having to go through the original plane.

To return to the initial plane, click on the Workplane button by placing the mouse pointer on the original surface, which turns blue.

Keep changing the working plane and placing more objects on the pyramid until the design is complete.

To see how your objects look once they are positioned on the pyramid, click Hole on the pyramid and you can see the result. Adding text to a curved surface There are several ways to place text on a curved surface. Let's look at one of the simplest ways of doing this. In the shapes menu, select SHAPE GENERATORS > Featured. Scroll down and you can see a text ring that can fit any word or phrase on a cylinder. Let’s use these two shapes (text ring and cylinder) to build a simple pen holder. Drag a cylinder onto the Workplane. Adjust the diameter to 100 mm and the height to 150 mm. Duplicate it by pressing CTRL+D to make the hole and use SHIFT+ALT+left click to reduce the diameter of the new cylinder to 6 mm. You should make it taller (use the upper white box) and move it upwards (use the upper black cone) to keep the base of the object solid when making the hole. In SHAPE GENERATORS > Featured, find the custom text ring and enter the text that you want on your pen holder in the Text field. Then, adjust it with shape controls to position it where you want. By changing Arc, the text can be made to go all the way around the cylinder. Thickness can be changed too, which raises the letters from the surface of the pen holder. Before you finally group the shapes, select the three objects and use the Align button to make sure they are well centred. 109

2 TINKERCAD

Keyboard shortcuts The usual Windows keyboard shortcuts can be used. Keyboard shortcut

comprehensive: This adjective may be a false friend. It means something has all the necessary elements, details or information that we need. If we want to describe a person who is sympathetic to others' problems, we use the word understanding.

Function

CTRL+C

copy objects.

CTRL+V

paste objects.

CTRL+A

select all objects.

CTRL+Z

undo

CTRL+Y or CTRL+SHIFT+Z

redo

Del

delete objects.

CTRL+D

duplicates an object in the same place and selects the new one.

CTRL+L

lock/unlock an object in a place.

CTRL+G

group objects.

CTRL+SHIFT+G CTRL+H SHIFT+Left click SHIFT+Right click SHIFT+ ←↑↓→ (cursor arrows)

ungroup objects. hide objects. select multiple objects. change the point of view. move the object by 10 units on the X or Y axis.

CTRL+SHIFT+↑/↓ (cursor arrows)

move the object by 10 units in the Z axis.

SHIFT+white knob

scale the object evenly.

SHIFT+ALT+Left click

scale the object evenly while keeping it centred on the point where the original is located. Very useful for making cut-outs.

Screenshots One way to share your designs is by using screenshots. There are several applications that allow us to take screenshots on a computer. Some depend on the operating system and others are installed as browser extensions. In Windows there is Greenshot, which is freeware, and the various Linux distributions usually incorporate one of the following by default: Shutter, Gnome Screenshot or Ksnapshot. In addition, Lightshot can be installed as an application on Windows or Mac and is also available as an extension for Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome and Microsoft Edge. It is very comprehensive*, as it allows you to draw on the captured area or make annotations. However, the browser extension only allows us to capture the content of the work area; it cannot capture the full screen or other application windows. To do this we need to install the desktop application. 110

Unit 4

Using Scribble Scribble is one of the basic shapes in TinkerCAD, but it is not just another shape. It is a tool that can be used to draw objects by hand. Dragging it over the Workplane opens a new frame in front view (to work in two dimensions) and a small window in the upper right corner that shows what you are drawing in perspective. It has two drawing tools: Draw and Draw shape. To make holes or erase part of the drawing it has a simple eraser and Erase with shape.

Once the design is finished, just click on the Done button (bottom right). This takes you back to the normal Workplane where you can manipulate the object you created just like any basic shape. If you want to change the object, just select it again and click Edit scribble on its menu on the right.

Understand, think, investigate... 4 Use Scribble to draw or write freehand. Then, integrate that object you have created into another one, such as a keyring or a container.

You can find two presentations about 3D modelling tools at anayaeducacion.es.

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3 TINKERCAD CODEBLOCKS

Autodesk has recently added a new tool to TinkerCAD: Codeblocks. The basic shapes are presented as code blocks and each shape has a drop-down menu which you can use to adjust its parameters, such as the measurements in the three dimensions or the number of faces and edges. As it is a block programming system, there are also instructions which can transform the objects, make loops, perform mathematical operations, generate random numbers or create variables that help in control operations. Every time you drag the block of a figure over the block editor and execute the code, the object appears centred in the 3D viewer. Notice that it appears centred in the three dimensions, rather than on the workplane. You have to use the Move block in the Modify group to move each shape to the position you want. You should put the blocks in the purple Modify group after the shape you want them to act on. They admit integers and decimal numbers (with the point as decimal separator) for their operations. In the example here you can see a box whose dimensions have been modified. The height field has an odd number in it, this means we need to enter a decimal number when we move it up to place it just on the working plane. Changing the dimensions of the objects Some of the basic shapes do not have a drop-down menu that allows us to change their dimensions. These are Round Roof, Wedge, Half Sphere and Heart. To change their dimensions, we have the Scale block, which we can use to adjust the size of any basic shape or group of shapes. This block allows us to modify any of the three dimensions: x, y, z independently. You can use whole numbers or decimals in any of these dimensions.

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You can find a videotutorial about TinkerCAD codeblocks at anayaeducacion.es.

Unit 4

Guided practice Build a spiral staircase. Part I: Loop First, you need to build the steps. To do this, add some Box blocks for your steps on the staircase. You need to add a Move block for each stair that positions it where you want.

You can drag all the blocks you need from the sidebar or, once you have placed the first Box and the Move block, right click on the Box block and choose the Duplicate option to add as many pairs of blocks as steps you want to build. These methods take longer and are tedious. To save work you can use a loop from the Control blocks that will do the job more quickly and easily, as you can see below. If you want to create more steps, simply change the final value of the control variable of the loop, in this case, i.

Understand, think, investigate... 5 Answer the following questions: a) Why does the Y variable in the Move block include the formula i*13 to calculate the position of the step? b) Calculating Z is a little more complicated: i*5 + 2.5. Explain what happens if you delete the sum of 2.5.

c) What happens if you modify the loop so that it starts at 1 instead of 0?

Think and share with a partner. In TinkerCAD there is another type of loop, Repeat. Try it out and explain what the difference is between this and the Count loop you used in the Guided practice.

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3 TINKERCAD CODEBLOCKS Guided practice Build a spiral staircase. Part II: rotating on an axis In the previous example we saw a staircase; a succession of steps positioned one on top of the other. The position of each step depends on the position of the previous one: its height (z-axis), and the distance we want between steps. By using a loop you can build as many steps as you need.

Keep in mind Each object must have a name, and TinkerCAD sets one by default. You can change the name by clicking on the drop-down menu.

To make a spiral staircase, we also need to rotate the steps at a certain angle on an axis or a point in space. In this second part you are going to create objects to define an item, reuse it in your code as many times as you want, and make the transformations you need (rotations, displacements, etc.) in an easier way.

1 Use the Create New Object block in Modify to build the step, which you can then repeat to make the staircase.

2 Create as many copies of the step as you need and rotate them around the coordinate origin (0, 0, 0).

Understand, think, investigate... 7 Analyse the code that generates the step by

2 Why does the control variable go from 0 to 180 in 15-unit increments?

8 Analyse the part of the code that generates the

4 Why do you think the step object is removed at the end of the stair object?

staircase and answer the following questions in your notebook:

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1 What improvements do you think it needs?

explaining in your notebook what each block of code does. What is the purpose of the Shift blocks for each of the shapes used?

3 What would happen if the final value was 360?

Unit 4

Guided practice Build a spiral staircase. Part III Next, you need to reduce the number of steps, which requires the loop to advance with a larger increment. You also need to increase the height of each step with respect to the previous step. This requires using another variable and learning how to increase variables other than the control variable within a loop. The first step is the simplest. The increase of the angle in the loop has been modified from 15 to 30. Now you have to make the steps increase in height. As you can see in the code, you only have to add three more blocks, one outside the loop and two inside it.

Understand, think, investigate... 9 Explain the function each of the three new blocks added to the code.

10 Add the blocks we need to include a column in the centre of the design to make it look similar to the screenshot on the right.

11 Modify the code so that the staircase turns around the column twice. What elements should you modify?

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3 TINKERCAD CODEBLOCKS Guided practice Buid an ornament with interlocking rings To control more than one variable at the same time, you can use nested loops.

In the screenshot you can see that two nested loops have been used, and that the basic shape used is the toroid, which is red. You can also see that in the Move block the x-coordinate is controlled by the outermost loop variable: i, while the y-coordinate is controlled by the inner loop variable: j.

Understand, think, investigate... 12 Write in your notebook the basic shapes that

14 Design a mobile phone

are available. Then, write the properties that you can modify (colour, dimensions, etc.) and a brief explanation of what they do next to each one.

stand. The picture on the right shows a simple example that uses only three basic shapes, Move and Scale blocks.

13 Design a simple rocket similar to the one below. You only need three basic shapes.

15 Practice using the Scale, Rotate and Move blocks. Design a decorated container with cut-outs similar to those in the example below.

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4 EXPORTING FILES FOR 3D PRINTING

Unit 4

ãã4.1 Managing files in TinkerCAD As TinkerCAD is an application that works in the cloud, we haven’t needed to worry about our design files yet because they are automatically saved after each modification. However, if you create a model for 3D printing or for a CNC machine or laser cutter, you have to download the files to be able to send them to the device. Use the Import button to import 2D or 3D designs made with other applications. It supports three common formats: .stl, .obj and .svg. The Export button shows a tab with different download options, both for 3D printing and laser cutting. In addition to the three formats supported by the Import option, you can export .glb files. There is also a second tab: 3D Print, which you can click to send the design directly to the printer. You will need to have an account with one of the services available: MakerBot, TreatStock, BuildBee, etc. The last button, Send To, is used to store (and share) designs in an online repository, such as Thingiverse. You will need to open an account with your chosen repository first.

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4 EXPORTING FILES FOR 3D PRINTING

ãã4.2 Importing a design as .svg We can import files in various formats into TinkerCAD. So, if you need a complex 2D shape for your design, it is a good idea to create it using another application that is easier to use and then import it. Inkscape is one of the best-known freeware programs for drawing and generating .svg files. It has versions for Windows, Linux and Mac, which makes it an ideal choice. In the main screen there is a large work area which is equivalent to an A4 sheet of paper, placed verifically (or portrait) by default. There are several toolbars and shortcuts to functions arranged around the sheet, to change colours etc., and there is a menu above it that provides access to all the program’s functions.

As an example, let's create and modify an eight-pointed star. Once it is imported into TinkerCAD, you can give it volume using the white handles that appear at the vertices. 1. Save the file making sure to keep the .svg extension that Inkscape uses as default. 2. In TinkerCAD simply click on the import button which is at the top of the screen on the right. Then drag the .svg file inside the Import 3D shape box and click on the bottom right corner of the Import 3D Shape window.

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Unit 4

Once the new shape is inserted, you can modify it like any other.

ãã4.3 Exporting designs from TinkerCAD All (or a selection) of the objects on the Workplane can be exported from TinkerCAD too.

➜➜If you want to print a figure, you can use a laminator program, like Slic3r, which is freeware and prepares the model for printing.

➜➜If you only want to preview the object, you can open it in Windows with 3D Builder, or in Linux with MeshLab.

The download window that allows you to select what you want to export and the type of file to create.

How the object looks if it is opened in 3D Builder.

Understand, think, investigate... 16 Create a design with TinkerCAD, export it as .stl and open the file in another application that allows you to print or view the object.

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ORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY W

DESIGN A SKATEPARK PROJECT PRESENTATION

For this project you can use either the conventional version of TinkerCAD or Codeblocks. We have chosen the first option to illustrate the process in this example. We will build several elements which are often found in skate parks, but you can include whatever you want. You could build the inclined planes that form a funbox using a combination of boxes and wedges, for example. Most of the pieces you build will have the box as a base. You will have to adjust its dimensions and make cut-outs by adding other parts, maybe another box, a sphere or a cylinder.

PROJECT STEPS

1. To begin with, we add a box and make it flat. Then, we superimpose a flattened sphere over it, to hollow it out. You can see this below.

2. We group the objects, duplicate them, and use the Mirror button to get something similar to what you see in the picture below.

3. Add a halfpipe. This time, we use a cylinder instead of the sphere to cut out of the box.

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Unit 4

4. Carefully adjust the width so that the cut-out of the cylinder coincides with the cut-out of the flattened sphere.

5. Add a few steps and a railing.

You could also build a quarter pipe.

To create the skate park, simply put together the pieces you have built.

g, rotate it 90° To position the railin d then rotate to place it upright an it follows the it again 8° so that e. angle of the staircas

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rt of the railing In the final result, pa kplane. If the is below the Wor 3D, that part design is printed in should be cut off.

Here are some suggestions if you want to add more to the skate park. You can build planes with different inclinations using the wedge shape. You can add one at each end, adjust it to the size you want or, if you prefer, build a funbox. You can also build a spine by duplicating the quarter pipe and applying Mirror. Remember to reduce the width at the top.

One final idea could be to build a wave using the box shape and several rotated cylinders. You should alternate solid cylinders with cut-out cylinders, and they have to be slightly raised above the Workplane before you group everything.

A staircase has been added to the wave and spine in this example.

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You can adjust the width of the figure to stretch or tighten the curves .

m resources fro r to choose . Remembe lio fo rt r your po this unit fo

actise r p d n a w ie v re 1 The European Space Agency, ESA, is planning to

Remember, in your resource bank you have: •

different workshops to deal with your

Unit 4

emotions and to evaluate them. •

worksheets to improve your digital citizenship.

4 Design a robot. The picture below is an example,

build a 3D-printed moon base. Search online for information about it and write a brief summary or report about the project. How do you think they will be able to construct the shelters without any people doing the work?

but you can be as creative as you want!

2 Build several objects by combining toroids or tubes; for example, a figure of eight, the Olympic rings or a pipe crossing similar to those in the pictures below. To make the pipes you will also need to use the cylinder to hollow out some parts.

5 Design a box for the Arduino UNO controller. You have the dimensions in the picture below, as well as a possible solution made up of three parts. Remember to hollow out or cut out some parts so that the pieces fit together and can be closed. The box has been made using only the box shape and the colour of the central part has been changed to help you distinguish the cut-out parts and holes. Remember to create slots for the USB and power connectors, as well as the sensor and actuator connection cables.

3 Design a toy vehicle, such as a submarine. Look at the picture below as inspiration. The basic shapes are all different colours to help you see what they are, but you can use any colours you want:

7,62 mm 7.62 mm 35,56 mm 35.56 mm

50.8 mm 50,8 mm

53.34 mm 53,34 mm

15.24 mm 15,24 mm

66 mm 66 mm 66.58 mm 68,58 mm

Remember to check out the Learn by playing, Test yourself, and Study: Mind Map activities available at anayaeducacion.es.

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