better buildings designing for water efficiency
“green alliance...
better buildings: designing for water efficiency by Caroline Read Published by Green Alliance, March 2005, £20 Artwork and printing by Calverts Printed on Revive matt – 75 per cent post-consumer waste. ISBN 0-9549757-0-7 © Green Alliance 2005 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Green Alliance. Within the UK, exceptions are allowed in respect of any fair dealing for the purposes of private research or study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Design and Patents Act, 1988, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. This book is sold subject to condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it was published and without a similar condition including the condition being imposed on subsequent purchaser. Green Alliance 40 Buckingham Palace Road, London SW1W 0RE tel: 020 7233 7433 fax: 020 7233 9033 email: ga@green-alliance.org.uk website: www.green-alliance.org.uk Green Alliance is a registered charity number 1045395. Company Limited by guarantee, registered number 3037633
acknowledgements We would like to thank Thames Water for supporting the project. I am grateful to all the interviewees and consultees, who gave me the benefit of their experience. Particular thanks go to the project Steering Group for their valuable input. And thanks to those at Green Alliance who contributed to the project, especially Peter Lockley, Joanna Collins and Rebecca Willis. The recommendations presented in this report are put forward by Green Alliance and do not necessarily represent the position of project partners or the steering group members.
steering group Steff Wright, Gusto Homes George Martin, BRE Peter Spillett/Esther Thompson, Thames Water Jacob Tompkins, Water UK Peter Jiggins, Defra Elliot Robertson/David Calderbank, Environment Agency
green alliance Green Alliance is one of the UK’s foremost environmental groups. An independent charity, its mission is to promote sustainable development by ensuring that the environment is at the heart of decision-making. It works with senior people in government, parliament, business and the environment movement to encourage new ideas, dialogue and constructive solutions.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
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contents
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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the case for water efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . about this project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . government action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
perspectives on water efficiency: interview findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the water supply industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the development industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the construction industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . manufacturers of water-efficient technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . local government and planning sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . policy makers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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can buildings perform better? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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getting the policy right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . planning for water efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . regulating for water efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . using price signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . labelling and consumer awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a better business case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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list of interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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notes and references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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executive summary
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This report offers a template for water efficiency in housing developments, as a contribution to the sustainability of the proposed growth under the Sustainable Communities Plan.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
the case for water efficiency Water resources in the south east of England are not sufficient to cope with increasing demand. The introduction of substantial housing targets over current growth and the impacts of climate change exacerbate the problem. Leakage and the potential for flooding, particularly in the Thames Gateway, are also factors that need to be considered in planning. Leakage reduction impacts significantly on demand management. Flooding impacts on the potential structure of developments and the use of brownfield areas.
about this project This study has consulted key players from the many different groups that have a role in the creation of new communities. It is based on research interviews with stakeholders in the construction, development, water, planning, academic, government and NGO sectors. Stakeholders were asked for their perceptions of how water efficiency could be included in new build, planning and the development within the Sustainable Communities Plan growth areas. Particular focus went to the opportunities for water efficiency in the development areas, how best practice can be standardised and what policy mechanisms would help achieve this. There is also a clear need to tackle water efficiency in the existing building stock, but this is beyond the scope of the report.
government action The Government has several policies that cover water efficiency, including Planning Policy Statement 1 – Delivering Sustainable Development, Changing Patterns: UK framework for sustainable consumption and production and Directing the flow, the Government’s statement on the future of water policy. The EU Water Framework Directive is another policy area where water supply/demand balance issues are to be addressed. The Government has also been active in response to stakeholder concerns about housing targets in the south east and east of England under the Sustainable Communities Plan (SCP). Several reviews and reports have been commissioned into the SCP, with the Sustainable Buildings Task Group specifically focussing on environmental sustainability issues. In support of the Building Act 1984, the introduction of the Sustainable and Secure Building Act last year, has highlighted the need to include water efficiency within the building regulations to support sustainable construction policy.
stakeholder perspectives All the stakeholders who provided input into this study make a contribution to development and consider water issues to some extent as part of their business. The
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variation in perceptions of water efficiency and water conservation was marked, demonstrating an inconsistency in the importance placed on water as a resource. The water industry recognises the serious water supply and water treatment costs that will arise from the increase in development. Developers asked for a clear business case to be made to include water this report recommends a efficiency mechanisms and manufacturers concluded there was little market yet for the combined, comprehensive technology. The construction industry is divided approach to water efficiency ” into the minority of those that can and the majority of those that don’t. Local Authorities in the growth areas recognised the need to consider water resources, but stressed that water, being excluded from of the planning process, was a major barrier to dealing with development issues. Policy makers and experts outlined the need to drive this forward.
can buildings perform better? The technology to increase water efficiency in new build is available. From the smallest changes in flow rates of taps and showerheads, to installing an integrated rainwater harvesting and grey-water recycling system, the technology exists to significantly reduce domestic consumption. Case studies such as BedZed and the Kingsmead Primary School demonstrate state-of-the-art integrated water efficiency technology, while the slightly more mundane dual flush toilet can still save a significant amount of water.
getting the policy right Getting the policy right is an important step to creating sustainable communities. This report recommends a combined, comprehensive approach to water efficiency, to share the responsibility between sectors, encourage cross-fertilisation of ideas, and promote practical, profitable changes. Four area’s have been identified as key to the success of introducing water efficiency into new housing developments: planning for water; supporting planning and providing benchmark standards through regulations; improving consumer awareness through financial and community drivers; and presenting a strong business case for water efficiency in the construction and technology market. Within these areas we have developed a series of recommendations that will contribute to the uptake of water efficiency in new build.
recommendations planning for water efficiency ●
Government should provide a clear policy for water as a material consideration in planning. ● Planning Authorities need to be empowered to request water efficiency standards. ● The Code for Sustainable Buildings needs to be comprehensively underpinned by regulation.
Water companies need to become statutory consultees to provide advice on the resource constraints during the development of Regional Plans.
regulating for water efficiency ●
There needs to be a substantial efficiency improvement in the minimum standards set in the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (1999) applying to washing machines and dishwashers and the addition of minimum standards for other fittings, including hand basin taps and showerheads. ● The Building Regulations should include water efficiency. ● Enforcement of building regulations needs to be improved and resourced. using price signals ●
There needs to be a stronger push for universal metering. There is a need for progressive charging structures, to support low-income households and provide a scaled system of tariffs for high users. ● Reduced VAT should be provided for water efficient products, alternative supply products and their installation. ● Stamp duty reductions need to be applied to resource efficient homes. ● Expansion of the Green Landlords Scheme to cover water efficient products. ●
labelling and consumer awareness ● The proposed national voluntary water consumption labelling scheme for water-using appliances, fittings and fixtures should be mandatory. ● Public awareness could be encouraged by a Water Saving Trust. a better business case ● There needs to be a clear definition of the business case to include water efficiency measures in development. ● More effective communication is a must between the different industries involved to breach the knowledge gaps and support change ● The Government needs to set a progressive procurement agenda for the growth areas that accounts for the resource limitations.
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introduction
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
Resources such as water and energy play a major role in the life of a building. If buildings operate efficiently, this lowers the stress on the natural environment – both through reducing the amount of resource needed, and through reducing pollution. There has been a good deal of debate about energy efficiency in buildings, and policy put forward to achieve it. But water resources need to be considered too. The more we build, the more our water resources are stretched. Water consumption is influenced in part by the occupant’s behaviour. Much can be done, however, through the design and structure of the building and its fixtures, fittings and appliances. The Government is now embarking on a major new house building initiative, the Sustainable Communities Plan. This plan will have major implications for water resources in the south east of England, where the bulk of the housing growth is proposed. But it also provides an excellent opportunity to stimulate the market for more water-efficient housing. Sustainable Communities presents an opportunity to investigate the role of water in planning and the development process.
the case for water efficiency “The forefront of demand management is water efficiency.” Water industry representative
Water is a vital resource for both economy and environment. Water abstraction for use in homes, buildings and industry is vital to our economy and quality of life – yet, if not managed carefully, can have negative impacts on wetland environments and biodiversity. Global water consumption has risen almost tenfold since 1900 i. As cities grow bigger, we rely more on a centralised supply of water which is so removed from the inhabitants’ own life experience that most people do not stop to contemplate where the water comes from as it pours out of their taps, or less still, where it goes. This has resulted in a massive increase in per capita domestic water consumption, with serious consequences for the environment. Increasing consumption has been seen across the developed world as wealth increases and technology develops. It is now normal to have hot water available on demand and thus shower times can be lengthened and they can be used more frequently. This changing pattern of water use has also been coupled with the widespread uptake of high-water usage fittings, such as increased bath sizes and pumps used to increase shower pressure, for example. Even with the increasing uptake of energy efficient appliances, that by definition use less water, the domestic consumption of water continues to rise. Houses are now fitted with high-water usage devices as standard and the increase in popularity of home gardening contributes to high-demand through the summer months.
“ increasing consumption has been seen across the developed world as wealth increases and technology develops ”
“There is already a 10 per cent over abstraction in the south east.” Government representative
“Water resource use in the south east is affecting biodiversity now…snipe are down to two breeding pairs in Hertfordshire.” Environmentalist
The south east of England, where the Government plans to build an extra 200,000 homes above current growth targets by 2016 as part of the Sustainable Communities Planii has less annual rainfall per head of population than Istanbul. The previous Regional Planning Guidance target of 900,000 new homes brings the total new homes in the area to over a million. Although the average annual rainfall for England and Wales is around 900mm, in a dry year the south east may receive only around 260mm. The summer months are predicted to get drier as climate change accelerates. Much of the water available in the south east has already been allocated under abstraction licences. Licences are a requirement under the Water Resources Act 1991, for almost everyone who wants to take water from a river, stream, canal or underground sourceiii. The Environment Agency provide licences to applicants, who are then entitled to abstract water from the stated source annually for a set period of time. The licences are determined for the water available. However, water flows are variable and high abstraction generally coincides with hot weather. Particularly in dry years, the lack of natural water flows remaining after abstraction cause detrimental impacts on the health and biodiversity of waterways. The limited water resources for the south east are stretched across a highly concentrated population. With the exception of London, the south east consumes more water per head of population than anywhere in the UK, and the figures continue to riseiv. While drinking and cooking account for only a fraction (four per cent) of household water consumption, combined with personal, kitchen and clothes washing this still leaves approximately 40 per cent of household water use for purposes that do not require the water to meet the stringent standards required for drinking water. The supply system is currently set up so that all water comes into properties from the mains pipe, which is from one retriculated source, and the used water leaves via the sewer system. Increasing water consumption puts a massive stress on the water supply and treatment system. Increasing wastewater volumes require more processing, which is resource and cost intensive, contributing to cumulative environmental impacts from the industry. There is also an issue of where and how the sewerage that will be generated from the proposed developments in the south east will be treated. There has been no mention of wastewater treatment plants within the growth areas. Leakage is also another issue that poses a challenge for the London area. Ageing pipes and acidic soils are a major cause of leakage. Leakage reduction has been a major factor in demand management strategies of water companies in the recent
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water availability in the south east and east of England
past. Companies worst affected by the ageing infrastructure, have extensive budgets to replace mains and install monitoring systems, however the predicted losses remain high. Monitoring of the abstraction system is a condition of licencing, but leakage has yet to be adequately addressed universally.
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Flooding is also a major issue in south east England and must be addressed as part of the entire water-urban interaction. The Sustainable Communities Plan identifies the Thames Gateway as a major growth area. However, building density in the area is already greater wetlands are particularly than intended for flood defence purposes. The several vulnerable in the south flood defence gates, including the Thames Barrier, are being used more frequently now than ever before. The east, as climate change Environment Agency is concerned that increasing development on the Thames floodplain will worsen the brings drier summers” situation. It was noted at a Fabian Policy Network meeting in January 2005 that 12 per cent of Local Authorities currently allow development on flood plains contrary to the Environment Agency’s advice. The drive to regenerate brownfield land, which is important in sustaining communities socially and aesthetically and protecting the green belt, can be hampered by flood risk. There are cases, such as in Ashford, where development on high flood risk brownfield is continuing in a style that is designed to allow for periodic flooding events. Design solutions will need to be extremely well researched and supported to allow development to the degree proposed in the Sustainable Communities Plan. adapting to climate change Climate change is predicted to reduce summer rainfall by 15 to 60 per cent by 2080vi, with shorter more intense rainfall activity in the winter. Planning for water supply, flooding and sewage therefore needs to take account of climate change predictions. The Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Commons Select Committee’s report Climate Change,Water Security and Flooding vii describes the lack of attention the Government has paid to water shortages as a result of climate change in their development plans, and highlights the need for society to manage water demand. Climate change scenarios also present serious wastewater treatment and river water quality challengesviii. Wetlands are particularly vulnerable in the south east, as climate change brings drier summers. The peak in demand for water at these times increases the concentration of pollutants released into the environment, due to the low natural flows. This is already a reality in the south east, but will become a lot worse with rising summer temperatures. It is clear that there is a need to focus on reducing water demand if more development is to occur in the south east of England. One obvious way to address this is moving water efficiency beyond a niche market to bring it to the mainstream. This report puts forward recommendations for policy that will lead to greater consideration of water efficiency, and greater use of water-saving technologies.
This study has consulted key players from the many different groups that have a role in the creation of new communities. Stakeholders were asked for their perceptions of how water efficiency could be included in new build, planning and development within the Sustainable Communities Plan growth areas. Particular focus went to the opportunities for water efficiency in the development areas, how best practice can be standardised and what policy mechanisms would help achieve this. Initial desk research was undertaken in consultation with the project Steering Group comprising senior members of the water and construction industries, the Buildings Research Establishment, ODPM, Defra and the Environment Agency, to provide a framework for consultation. To identify how different industries and skill-sets can operate collectively, we consulted broadly across the water, construction, manufacturing and development industries; local, regional and national government; regulators, the academic community, and NGO’s. We held 16 interviews with water industry representatives, technology specialists, developers, designers, construction industry representatives, government regulators, planning community representatives and manufacturers. In addition to this, a series of informal meetings were held with local authorities, regional planners, government officials, eco-homes assessors, green groups and the project steering group (see list on page 34). Stakeholders were asked to specify what opportunities and barriers they perceived to including water efficiency and flood mitigation measures within the planning process and through building and water regulations. We also looked at perceptions in the market place, where water efficiency currently sits within building and development design, and the potential for change.
government action “The 25 per cent reduction [in per capita water consumption] figure [in the document Creating Sustainable Communities: Making it happen] is aspirational.” Government Planner
The Government is already committed to action on water efficiency. There are several relevant initiatives underway: Planning Policy Statement 1: Delivering Sustainable Development, the recently
revised planning guidance outlines the Government’s objectives for the planning systemix. It includes four aims for sustainable development comprising social progress, environmental protection, natural resource use and economic growth. Changing Patterns: UK framework for sustainable consumption and productionx
outlines the UK’s commitment to improve the ‘resource productivity’ of the economy – that is, to achieve greater economic output with less environmental impact. The Government acknowledges the need to intervene on market failure, identified as the inefficient use of resources in combination with the costs of
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
about this project
environmental degradation, but has no clear strategy for the very diffuse issues associated with consumption.
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
Directing the flow, the Government’s statement on the future of water policyxi,
recognises the need for more attention to go to reducing demand in addition to resource development. The twin track approach provides mechanisms to address water demand management. However, there is still no incentive to change existing development practices whilst the current approach, does not enforce changes in construction practices or support demand management programmes. Without more emphasis on sustainable demand management, companies will continue to invest predominantly in increasing supply. This needs to change to meet the goals within Directing the flow. The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) will shortly be implemented in the UK. The WFD calls for an integrated approach to water management with the objective of attaining ‘very good’ ecological status within whole river basin systems. In practice, this will mean that river basins are treated as one for management planning. This sets some real challenges for demand management within individual catchment systems that have high demand, such as those feeding the Greater London area. The WFD should be fully operational by 2012 and thus consideration of how sustainable water management is to be addressed in the growth areas should already be factored into the Sustainable Communities Plan and regional plans. The Environment Agency will have to consider whether the river basins will be able to support the projected abstraction in the water company resource plans without adverse impacts to ecological status (and also the associated effluent discharges to the river basin). But currently, there does not seem to be a link-up between implementation of the WFD and the planning for urban growth. The Sustainable Communities Planxii significantly increases the number of new
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homes planned in specified growth areas across the UK, with a commitment to 200,000 over the already agreed 900,000 in the greater south east of England. The decision to undertake such large-scale development provides a significant financial opportunity to the development and without more emphasis construction industries, and the communities in which expansion is planned. If directed towards environmental on sustainable demand sustainability outcomes, this increase in development management, companies could be harnessed to improve the long-term viability of housing design and thus change the way communities will continue to invest understand, value and use water. The ODPM report Creating Sustainable Communities: Making it happenxiii states that predominantly in ‘achieving water savings of 25-30 per cent in new housing is feasible and is crucial to achieving a increasing supply ” sustainable water supply and tackling climate change’. However, clear policy and action on this has yet to materialise. The House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committeexiv best summed up the sustainability progress of delivering sustainable communities as ‘the environmental impacts of the proposed increase in house building deserve much greater consideration than they have yet received from Government.’ The Sustainable Communities Plan provides £22 billion to drive housing growth in four key areas: the Thames Gateway, Ashford, the London-Stansted-Cambridge
In response to concerns about the Sustainable Communities Plan (SCP), several reviews have been commissioned into its economic, social and environmental sustainability.
“ the environmental impacts The Barker Reviewxv was jointly commissioned by the ODPM and Treasury following the launch of of the proposed increase in the SCP. The review aimed to identify the response house building deserve much of the housing market to the SCP. At the same time, the ODPM also commissioned the Egan Reviewxvi to greater consideration than identify what skills and training would be necessary to deliver sustainable communities. Sir they have yet received from John Egan made the first definition of ‘sustainable communities’ in his review. Similarly to Kate Government ” Barker, he found a serious shortage of skills, particularly in the construction industry, to maintain the growth targets of the SCP. A key recommendation from the Egan Review was the need for a National Centre for Sustainable Construction to bridge the knowledge gaps identified between construction and sustainable development. The ODPM has announced the development of an Academy in Leeds to fill this role. The Sustainable Buildings Task Group was set up as a joint government initiative, by Defra, ODPM and the DTI, following the Better Buildings Summit in October 2003. Better Lives, Better Buildings, was published in May 2004 and identifies how Government and industry could improve the sustainability of new and refurbished housing. The report identified the urgent need to make changes to the building regulations and one of the main recommendations was to set up a Code for Sustainable Buildings based on the eco-homes standard. A voluntary code is currently being investigated by the ODPM. Water consumption was identified as a key issue for the first time and a target of 25 per cent savings was recommended for building regulation standards. The issue of a Water Saving Trust, having been debated since 1997, was also considered and supported by the Sustainable Buildings Task Group. A study into the feasibility of a Trust has been commissioned by the Environment Agency and is proposed to promote public awareness of water supply issues, in the same vein as the Energy Saving Trust. There have been some positive steps forward on regulation as well. On 16 September 2004 Andrew Stunell MP’s Sustainable and Secure Buildings Act was given Royal Assent and now enables building regulations to include environmental sustainability and social priorities. Although there was always the opportunity presented within the Building Act 1984 to include water conservation in construction it was never empowered with regulations. The challenge is to make full use of this enabling act by addressing sustainability issues within the Building Regulations. In October 2004 Part L of the Building Regulations (conservation of fuel and power) was revised to include requirements for improved energy efficiency.
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
corridor and Milton Keynes-South Midlands. The rationale of the plan is to meet the housing needs in the regions of high demand. £350 million of this is earmarked to speed up planning, while £5 billion will go into affordable housing and £2.8 billion to bring council homes up to a decent standard.
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With the Building Regulation Part G (Hygiene) now under its periodic review there is the potential to incorporate water efficiency as an aspect of these regulations.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
The challenge for reaching a sustainable supply/demand balance in the growth areas is to link government initiatives and to get them to work for water efficiency. This report sets out the opportunities to achieve more water-sensitive planning frameworks, and to link any new policy incentives with practical measures to reduce water consumption.
Through this project, we have consulted the key players in the planning and construction of developments, and those that hold technical knowledge about supply and demand of water and water-related technologies. Their perspectives provide an overview of how water is addressed in the design and planning for developments; what best practice technologies are available and how they operate; water supply and demand; water as a function of communities; and the regulatory and planning framework under which water is provided to communities. Although all the stakeholders make a contribution to development and must consider water issues to some extent, the variation in perceptions of water efficiency and water conservation was marked. Below we outline the key issues raised for each group.
the water supply industry ●
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Companies within the proposed growth areas, particularly in the south east of England and the London-Stansted-Cambridge Corridor, are facing serious water supply and water treatment costs, where lack of available water will require major investment. The industry cites a need to raise awareness of the realities of water scarcity – that the UK has the lowest proportion of water per head of population in the EU. Concerns were raised about wastewater treatment not being considered in planning within the SCP growth areas. Companies feel they are under increased pressure to reduce demand and promote water efficiency without financial support for broader-scale programmes. Water companies see value in addressing water efficiency through the planning process, to factor in issues of supply and demand for water. Metering of new connections is now standard for most water companies. However there were concerns that metering would not provide a reduction in use though poor quality metering and low public profile. The issue of the current housing stock was also raised, and that retrofitting is the biggest challenge for metering and demand management.
the development industry ●
Developers asked for a clear business case to include water efficiency mechanisms in development. They feel that a level playing field is required, so that progressive developers are not hit with a premium for providing efficiency. ● There is a perception that there are too many different guidelines and schemes from the different local and regional authorities. Developers would prefer one national, high profile scheme that could be used as an incentive to investors. In addition to this, large variation in the attitudes within planning departments causes an uneven playing field for development across local boundaries.
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perspectives on water efficiency: interview findings
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
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Because the consumer is separate from the investor, there is no push to deliver on the running costs or whole life value of buildings, and thus resource efficiency is not a priority. ● Brownfield sites offer lower returns, as more investment is needed to develop.
the construction industry ●
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Sustainable construction methods are proven, and could be cost-effective if the market is stimulated. However, the lack of demand for sustainable buildings provides no stimulation in the mainstream industry to acquire the skills to deliver. Construction contractors need to be consulted early on in the design process to deliver the more advanced technologies, such as greywater recycling and rainwater harvesting, which is a change in traditional contractor arrangements. Changes to regulations are seen by the construction industry as the most effective way to raise the bar for minimum water efficiency standards, as this is what they use to deliver the mainstream least-cost building options. However, there is little desire to include environmental requirements within the many other regulated requirements that are already not rigorously monitored and enforced. The construction sector is dominated by small to medium sized enterprises with little resources or desire to include water efficiency in their ‘standard’ product.
manufacturers of water-efficient technologies ●
The manufacturing industry cited the lack of a sufficient market in the UK as the reason for under-investment in water efficient technologies. ● The lack of UK development of this technology also affects uptake, reinforcing the self-fulfilling cycle of investment and demand. ● The industry identified a need to educate consumers and put basic regulations in place to stimulate the market.
local government and planning sector ●
Some planners consider all water issues the realm of the water utilities, whilst others see the need to address water supply, demand and flood management. However, the lack of capacity and technical knowledge of water issues was identified as a major drawback to change in the planning community. ● Planners see the need for clear leadership from central Government and a clear national best practice standard for Planning Authorities as the way to address the lack of resources. ● Authorities identified their lack of statutory authority to require water efficiency in planning applications as a major constraint to delivering desired efficiency standards. They also identified difficulties in enforcement, particularly in the climate of urgent development under the SCP.
Enforcement was also identified as an issue for under-resourced building inspectors and it was suggested that Building Control Officers have other priorities, such as health and safety. ● Traditionally there has been poor communication between environmental organisations and experts in the planning process, though this is now starting to change very slowly. ● It was highlighted that there is a need for planners to account for the impact of climate change, and that this has predominantly not been the case to date.
policy makers ●
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Government regulators identified the lengthy time it takes to change regulations and how the specific details of more complex technologies can be incorporated. There is an urgent need to update existing water fittings regulations and to develop minimum efficiency standards within the building regulations to support planning. The inclusion of water efficiency in building regulations is currently being considered in the review of Part G, Hygiene. More effective communication is needed between the different industries involved to bridge the knowledge gaps and support change, and will be a focus of the National Academy for Sustainable Construction. Raising public awareness of water use and water supply is very important and could be addressed through the proposed Water Saving Trust. Links should be made between flooding and water efficiency, both in a technological context and through broader water cycle considerations for planning.
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
can buildings perform better? “The technical solutions are there; it is the framework holding us back.” Sustainable developer
Technical solutions to water efficiency already exist. Even without changing consumer behaviour, construction standards have been shown to play a significant role in reducing the environmental impacts of urban development. WWF’s ecological footprint analysisxvii demonstrates that resource-efficient housing, without concerted efforts by inhabitants to reduce their consumption, still makes a positive impact. An eco-home ‘very good’ standard house can reduce water demand by 39 per cent of an average home, without consumer activities needing to change. Actively changing behaviour and installing more advanced technologies reduces the overall ecological footprint, by also reducing the amount of energy required to provide potable water and treat waste. The more commonly quoted theoretical savings from water efficient buildings indicate 20-30 per cent is achievable. This is predominantly taken up through reductions in the flush volumes of toilets, and secondly through efficiency gains in white goods such as dishwashers and washing machines. Very little empirical data is available on efficiency gains through fixtures and fittings such as taps and toilets. A programme funded by Essex and Suffolk Water three years ago installed the simplest technological changes for taps, toilets and showers in a new housing development at Haybridge, near Maldon. This resulted in a five per cent water saving above ‘regular’ products. In addition to providing some empirical data, this study highlighted the limited interest in water efficiency, as the initiative was not taken up by any other developer, even though the option was available to them at no cost. Another examples is the Greenwich Millennium Village, which achieved a 20 per cent reduction in water consumption simply through specification of water efficient taps, showers, toilets and white goods.
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Up to 50 per cent of the water used in homes does not need to be treated to the standards required for potable water. Rainwater harvesting or greywater recycling supply to the toilet would reduce internal domestic demand by approximately 30 per cent. Rainwater harvesting involves capturing rain water that lands on the roof and storing it in a tank for later use, while rainwater harvesting or greywater greywater recycling involves treating and water from the shower, bath and recycling supply to the toilet would re-using sinks. Water use in the garden can also now be provided by underground drip reduce internal domestic demand feeds that are more efficient and can use by approximately 30 per cent ” greywater or non-potable water supply. Rainwater harvesting systems, along with the other water recycling systems, need to be designed into development plans from the outset, as their installation requires burial of large tanks and dual-pipe plumbing into dwellings. The Rainwater Harvesting Association (UKRHA) reports that rainwater harvesting reduces mainswater usage by around 50 per cent in a typical domestic application. Given the low cost of water, though, this still incurs long payback times. However, for commercial
Box 1 – Kingsmead Primary School, Leftwich, was completed in July 2004. Cheshire County Council recognised the need to provide a new school with 150 places with the potential for expansion, in response to major housing developments in the area. In collaboration with White Design and Willmott Dixon they developed a plan to produce an exemplar sustainable construction project which could deliver a learning and teaching environment and stimulate options for future developments in Cheshire. The design includes provision for rainwater harvesting from the roof surface, supplying toilet flushing and irrigation, water efficient fittings and sustainable drainage landscaping. The school cost £2.4M, but running costs were reduced by 50 per cent.
The public perception of greywater recycling tends to be negative. However, the technology is now so advanced that accelerated combined wastewater and sludge treatment units are designed to even recycle black water (sewerage)xviii. A successful example of recycling is the BedZED 100 unit development in Sutton, which set up a water company to supply and treat wastewater onsite. The treatment plant operates as a ‘living machine’ with an extended aeration activated sludge producing nonpotable supply for toilet flushing and irrigation. This process has demonstrated that technology can include community participation and build awareness. Because substances and objects harmful to the wastewater treatment process must be kept out of the drainage system, the onsite Green Water Treatment Plant required behavioural change. Residents responded well to this and the plant has been successfully operating for two years. The average per capita consumption of the residents is 108 litres per day, 28 per cent lower than the average in England and Walesxix. It is true, of course, that someone who lives in an environmental development like this one is more likely to be willing to change their behaviour. However, long waiting lists for BedZED indicate that there is a market for more. Green roofs are another technology that have been proven internationally, and have potential in the UK. Green roofs act as excellent water capture surfaces that can retain up to 75 per cent of run-off in the short termxx. Storm water capture is becoming increasingly important as rain events become heavier and more concentrated as a result of the changing climate. The impermeable surfaces that predominate in urban environments provide little room for rain to be absorbed into the ground, and so the storm water drains act as the only mechanism to remove excess water. The increasing intensity of storm events can result in localised flooding where the drains cannot cope with the quantity of water. Planning requirements in Germany have led to 14 per cent of flat roofs having green roof systemsxxi. Interest in green roofs grew out of biodiversity concerns, but their use for storm water capture is now becoming a driving factor. Other benefits of green roofs include extended roof life through protection of the waterproofing membrane, thermal insulation, reduction in the albedo effect (reflected heat from hard surfaces leading to increase in smog and air-bourne particles), improved air quality, reduction in costs of drainage, noise and sound insulation, and improved aesthetics. However, in addition to the obstacle of minor increase in capital cost for installation, product warranty is identified as a significant barrier to the increased uptake. According to Trevor Butler of BDP,
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
applications where there is a large roof area and high water usage, harvesting provides a capital cost payback period in as little as two to three years.
technologically green roofs should outlast traditional roofs, providing increased warranties would give a market advantage to manufacturersxxii.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
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the links between flooding and water efficiency: Many experts recognise there is a need to change the way we deal with storm water to alleviate the effects of flooding. Traditional pipe drainage removes water and wastewater from areas of high-use. The water is then deposited downstream, affecting the environment with pollutants and silt, and potentially disrupting salinity levels and natural water flows. The channelling operation of the pipes also means that, during storm events, water flow is rapid with the potential to cause serious damage once pipe capacity is breached. Some urban planning and development designs are considering better use of rain as a resource. An example is the BedZED development, where porous car parking surfaces and green roofs minimise runoff. To capture the remaining runoff a previously dry ditch has been enhanced into an attractive and biodiverse water feature at the front of the site. However these types of landscape designs are not yet standard features of developments. Climate change will add an extra dimension to this with more intense and less frequent storm events predicted. We need to adapt to the changes in climate and utilise our winter water capacity to counter the summer shortages. We also need to do this within an environmental framework that supports the natural habitat within and surrounding the cities.
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Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDs) are techniques of water management that mimic natural drainage processes where water is dispersed through the ground slowly into a watercourse without serious impact on the environment. The CITB Future Skills online directory best describes the three key objectives of SUDS as ‘reducing the amount of water runoff from a site, slowing the runoff to prevent flooding, and treating and cleansing surface water before it enters natural watercourses. A variety of techniques are used, on their own or in combination, to achieve these objectives.’ The methods include permeable pavement (for example in car parks), gravel beds, slips, swales, grass lined depressions and retention ponds (as part of the green landscape within urban areas). These features, from the small-scale swales (often in the form of depressions along the edges of roads) to large retention ponds, can be landscaped into the environment as many experts recognise there aesthetic and practical green infrastructure at the design stage of developments, such as is is a need to change the way demonstrated at BedZED. Together, rainwater harvesting, grey-water recycling, green roofs and we deal with storm water ” SUDs slow-drainage infrastructure can provide an integrated approach to aquifer recharge, storm water storage and additional nonpotable water supply. There are already industries providing for niche markets with permeable surfaces combined with water storage systems that provide slow drainage and non-potable supply. Because SUDs use the natural environment as part of the drainage system, technical knowledge and an understanding of the geology and hydrology of the location are essential to achieve the desired results. This means that all SUDs systems need to be tailored to each location, which limits their desirability to developers, as costs are unknown until thorough investigations can be made. As a way of bridging
the gap in technical knowledge, the Construction Industry Research and Information Association runs a campaign to promote good practice in the use of SUDs.
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The Government has acknowledged the need to consider SUDs in sustainable communities. The ODPM’s Greening the Gateway publication acknowledges the importance of green spaces as functional and attractive aspects of the urban environment. To promote better drainage and storm water management in the Thames Gateway, Greening the Gateway outlines an approach integrating Regional Planning Guidance for the South East (RPG 9) and Planning Policy Guidance 25 Development and Flood Risk. However, there is still little evidence of SUDs being integrated into development plans on any significant scale. To add to this, the debate over who would have the responsibility for maintenance and ownership continues.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
Box 2 – Wessex Water Operations Centre, Bath. The Wessex Water Operations Centre at Bath is a three winged office block, The large roof area is used to collect rainwater in three 80m3 tanks for toilet flushing. There is an integrated water management system onsite to manage discharge of stormwater. Porous paving is used to drain water into soakaways or a 600m3 storage tank to feed an irrigation system and water features. The initial cost of the rainwater harvesting and SUDs integrated system was higher than installing a traditional drainage system, but it has reduced mains water demand by 95 per cent and deals with runoff on site. The development won ‘Building of the Year’ award from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors in 2002.
This brief review suggests that the technology required to achieve significant improvements in water efficiency already exists.Yet its inclusion in building design and construction is extremely rare. Mainstream construction tends towards meeting the building regulations at lowest cost and greatest efficiency. Most house builders do not get involved in the long term service contracts needed to support the more complex technologies such as rainwater harvesting and grey-water recycling systems. Where builders do not wish to diversify their skills, there are other options available to developers, such as at BedZED where water-recycling contractors operate onsite processing, but any such scheme needs to be planned into a development at the outset. Currently water efficiency design in buildings is provided as a niche market because there is little demand for the technology. Developers are reluctant to add it to standard dwellings as it is not widespread and it requires an up-front expense. Consequently there is little knowledge about it in the market place and thus little demand for it. To break this cycle, there needs to be a strong business case for changing the context of water use in the community. Water should be seen not as a commodity delivered on demand, but as a valuable local resource. Local and regional authorities need to consider water in planning; the developers need to be incentivised to extend their designs to include water efficiency, dual purpose supply and onsite treatment considerations; and builders need to develop their knowledge and work closely with technological experts through development projects. The following section puts forward a framework that would provide the stimulus to make this step-change in the development of more water efficient communities.
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getting the policy right
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
To make significant and long lasting changes to the way buildings and their occupants consume water there needs to be a widespread change in attitude to the value of water. Clear leadership from Government in planning, legislative support, stimulation of the market and consumer awareness are necessary to support a genuine increase in the water efficiency of our homes and buildings. The following sections identify areas where positive changes can be made to deliver water efficiency as part of sustainable communities.
planning for water efficiency “The planning system plays an important role in encouraging developers…Planning needs to set firm criteria and conditions and design briefs to include water efficiency.” Government representative
Part of the process of privatising the water industry placed statutory responsibility for water supply and wastewater treatment on water companies. The capital investment plans and water pricing scales proposed by water companies to maintain supply and demand are reviewed and monitored by the Office of Water Regulation on a five yearly cycle. In view of this, the current planning system does not require planners to consider resource issues provided by utilities. However, planners have a public duty to provide regional plans that will enhance communities. Traditionally this has been regarded as economic growth, but with the public swing to greater consideration of quality of life issues governments have had to adopt a different approach. The Sustainable Communities Plan has opened the way for social and environmental considerations to be included in the planning system from the top down. The Challenge is to make this happen.
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Government should provide a clear policy for water as a material consideration in planning. Traditionally, water has not been a factor in planning decisions. With the impact of climate change and increasing population, water can no longer be considered an unlimited resource. This is starting to be acknowledged by Government and progressive Local Authorities. To drive this forward there needs to be clear policy on a there is scope within planning national level that water is a material guidance for the operation of consideration in planning. This will not only provide a clear signal that water is an important buildings and the operation of aspect of development, but will require the less progressive Local Authorities who chose not to the areas around buildings to consider water as part of their planning process be considered ” to change practices. There is also a need to factor in the lifecycle of the development, so that changes in water availability into the future, due to climate change, for example, are part of the decision-making process. There is scope within planning guidance for the operation of buildings and the operation of the areas around buildings to be
This could be achieved through provision of a clear policy statement from the Government that would lead to better understanding of expectations and better planning for the future. PPS23 covering Planning and Pollution Control could be the most appropriate place to include water efficiency. This will require a broader skill set for planning departments and will inevitably involve more communication with other technical experts. Planning Authorities need to be empowered to request water efficiency standards. It is a real concern that the drive for rapid development in the growth areas will have serious effects on the ability for Local Authorities to consider and implement the type of development that will meet sustainable targets. Even with the establishment of local delivery agencies, such as Cambridgeshire Horizons, and urban development corporations, such as Thurrock Development Corporation, to drive the delivery of additional housing and regeneration, there is still an issue of legal empowerment to demand water efficiency through planning. Finding a balance between guidance and regulation is a key factor in successful governance. The establishment of local delivery agencies has provided much needed support for the increased housing targets, including responsibility for guidance on sustainable development. Cambridgeshire Horizons, for instance, has written a sustainability guidance document that includes water efficiency and sustainable drainage. But without underpinning legislation or a clear mandate, the guidance reads like a wish list. This lack of statutory authority means that Local Authorities are at the mercy of developers who are not legally required to deliver on requests for water efficiency. It is also a route out for those authorities who do not have the desire or capacity to deal with resource issues. There is an obvious opportunity to introduce water efficiency into the building regulations. This will provide Local Authorities with the regulatory support they need to demand resource efficiency in development designs prior to planning approval. With clear policy from Government and regulatory support through the building regulations, Local Authorities will be better empowered to request water efficiency standards in development. The Code for Sustainable Buildings needs to be comprehensively underpinned by regulation. Developers acknowledge that the planning process is moving towards more consideration of sustainability. An issue identified by developers is that when applying for planning permission, each authority has a different set of guidelines for sustainability, meaning that the recognition and profile of each scheme is limited. Developers, as for-profit organisations, would prefer that any additional items required for sustainability be saleable, that is, used to increase the value of investment. As such, a nationally recognised, quality assured and high profile efficiency standard as a benchmark for sustainability would be preferred. Many recognised the high profile and flexibility of the BREEAM and eco-homes system as a good example of a saleable
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
considered. This means that planning guidance could, for example, include the provision for storage of water over the winter, to use in the drier summers expected as climate change takes hold.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
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standard. Local Authorities also expressed the desire to avoid ‘reinventing the wheel’ on sustainability guidance. Some feel that a national code with implementation support in terms of knowledge resources would make the job of including water efficiency in local planning much more attractive and practical. The Sustainable Buildings Task Group recommended the development of a unified Code for Sustainable Buildings, to include minimum standards for water efficiency. The Code would be based on the BREEAM eco-homes system. A review by the Environment Agency on the BRE eco-homes standardsxxiii indicates that the approach to water is sound and flexible enough to suit different use. We support the ODPM’s development of such a Code by the end of 2005 and recommend that it is underpinned by regulations setting real targets that are practical and achievable, rather than the aspirational reduction target of 25 per cent. This would pull all the regulations and planning policy together to provide a nationally applicable set of standards, as well as make the transition to sustainability in construction and develop a more marketable commodity. The underpinning regulations will also lead to increased coverage of the Code, as support for regulatory compliance. Water companies need to become statutory consultees to provide advice on the resource constraints during the development of Regional Plans. It is a consequence of some irony that the major growth area identified by the Government for economic success is also the driest area in the UK. It is astonishing, then, that water utilities were not consulted as part of the initial development of the SCP. This has consequently been addressed with water companies providing their input through the National Planning Forum and Water UK membership of the Sustainable Buildings Task Group. The water industry has the knowledge and expertise of local water supply issues and water-efficiency measures available. The inclusion of water companies as statutory consultees during the formulation of regional plans would make use of their expertise and formalise their role in planning. But equally as important, this would support the consideration of water as a fundamental part of the planning process.
regulating for water efficiency “Regulation provides a level playing field for industry.” Sustainable developer
In order to provide the benchmark to raise the standard of water efficiency in new build, regulations need to support planning. Historically, the regulations governing water provision in buildings are borne of the need to address health and safety and infrastructure issues. These issues remain important. However, with the projected increase in housing numbers and effects of climate change, there is now also a need to address water efficiency in water provision regulations. Regulations would provide underpinning efficiency standards and provide the room for regions to operate their policy expectations as a practical tool. The legal
There needs to be a substantial efficiency improvement in the minimum standards set in the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (1999) applying to washing machines and dishwashers and the addition of minimum standards for other fittings, including sink taps and showerheads. Water efficient products are currently perceived as higher in price than their conventional alternatives because they are niche. Increasing the standards for water efficiency of household appliances, fixtures and fittings would help overcome this. It would provide a market for more efficient designs, leading to reductions in water consumption regardless of consumer behaviour. Leading manufacturers could meanwhile continue to improve their technology, to lead the market and maintain their competitive edge. As identified by the Sustainable Buildings Task Group, the minimum standards regulations could be applied to products through the 1999 Water Fittings Regulations. The potential for increased resource efficiency through raising minimum standards for water-using appliances is that they will cover both new build installations and retrofitting of the existing housing stock. With consumption rates rising more rapidly than new housing growth, it is extremely important to provide resource efficient products for retrofit. On their own, the water fittings regulations do not apply directly to manufacturers. The regulations were developed to prevent undue water consumption and the prevention of contamination of the water distribution system. The regulations apply at the point of installation of the fitting rather than their sale or manufacture, thus, the onus is on the person who installs the product to comply with the regulations. Improving the standards within these regulations to address water efficiency would not directly affect manufacturing standards. For example, you could still sell a high-water use washing machine but it would be illegal to install it. Therefore, these regulations would need to be incorporated into new building regulations that enforce design specifications. The efficiency standards would then provide the technical information that is to be applied through the building design. This would influence the uptake of more water efficient appliances and provide manufacturers with benchmarks for design. Building Regulations should include water efficiency. In addition to the inclusion of minimum water efficiency standards outlined above, identification of water efficiency in the construction and whole lifecycle of buildings should be included within the Building Regulations. It has been suggested that water efficiency could be considered in the current review of Part G (Hygiene) of the Building Regulations. We strongly recommend that water conservation becomes a fundamental part of the Building Regulations, with the potential for derogation only where water supply is abundant. This would drive a step change in the construction industry and the manufacture of water efficient products through a massive increase in demand, at the same time as increasing the water efficiency of new buildings.
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
instruments that govern water in the built environment include the Water Industry Act 1991, the Water Act 2003, Water Supply and Fittings Regulations 1999, the Water Supply (Water Quality Regulations 2000 and 2001, and the Building Regulations (Part G Hygiene).
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
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An example of how Building Regulations could be used to drive change in the construction industry is in the State of Victoria in Australia. From July 2005, Victoria will require all new build to include water saving measures and 5 star-rated (energy efficient) standards, including the option of rainwater harvesting or solar hot water heating. This will provide an estimated 25 per cent saving for water. Enforcement of Building Regulations needs to be improved and resourced. For the regulatory framework to be effective it needs to be complied with. There is a degree of non-compliance with the current Building Regulations that was attributed by stakeholders to various systemic issues. These included the growing gap between the broad range of requirements and the resources within Building Control, the lack of skills and poor practices during construction and the lack of enforcement, perpetuating the cycle of non-compliance. Research from ODPM suggests two thirds of houses tested failed Part L of the Building Regulations. The Government is currently looking into how Building Control could be made more effective and this will be a key factor in improving the efficiency of buildings through regulations. In addition to monitoring during construction, a fundamental component of Building Control, measures need to be put in place to verify claims made at initial stages of development with the actual running of buildings. Plumbing has a significant effect on the water consumption of appliances. If the plumbing is not installed to the design specification or poor practices are used, the water efficiency standards can be compromised. If the enforcement of water efficiency regulations is to work there will need to be clear responsibility for delivery. This may involve changes to the way contracts work between developers and builders. For example, building contractors may need to be involved in long-term service contracts to support the more complex technologies, such as rainwater harvesting and grey-water recycling systems. Some developers, like Gusto Homes, do offer these services, but most builders’ just aim to meet the Building Regulations at lowest cost and greatest efficiency.
using price signals “There are no fiscal incentives for sustainable homes or for consumers to demand them.” WWF – One Million Sustainable Homes
Using price signals is a good way to stimulate the public into purchasing water efficient buildings and appliances. The key areas where pricing signals can be created are through providing consumers with the ability to reduce their costs through reduced consumption. This involves the widespread use of meters, creating effective and innovative pricing structures and incentivising water efficient products through price reductions for efficiency and price premiums for inefficiency. Pricing signals have been used effectively for energy efficiency. Intensive energy users have improved their energy efficiency significantly as a result of tax allowances supported by regulatory changes. VAT reductions on energy efficiency have also been successful in the Government’s drive to meet emission reduction targets. Water, as a commodity, can be incentivised along the same lines.
“There is a strong environmental case for universal water metering, particularly in south and east England.” Policy Studies Institute research discussion paper 21xxiv
Metering is an important step towards stimulating public awareness. Although it does not necessarily lead to massive reductions in consumption, particularly in more affluent areas, it does raise awareness of water as a quantifiable resource. Universal metering provides consumers with the means to manage their use. It facilitates usage-based pricing that can safeguard low-income customers and deter high-use. Metering has been shown to reduce consumption and stimulate the uptake of water efficient technologies. Metering also provides water companies with a more accurate record of household consumption and helps detect the location of leaks in the system. The UK and Ireland are the only countries in the OECD not to have universal meteringxxv. However, the Water Industry Act 2000 gives all household customers with individual supply the right to a water meter fitted free of charge. Some water companies, notably Anglian, promote metering to customers and most provide an installation programme, though some are difficult to find on their websites. In 2002, only 21 per cent of households in England and Wales were metered. There is significant “ universal metering provides regional variation, with the highest level (53 per cent) consumers with the means in Anglia and the lowest in Portsmouth. Water companies aim to meter 55 per cent of homes in the to manage their use ” south east by 2020, within their water resources plans. However water companies and the Environment Agency doubt that this will be met without significant extra effort. Achieving an increase in the rate of fitting meters to existing homes will require a firmer commitment from water utilities and Government. Achieving universal metering would then provide a level playing field for the introduction of consumption-based charging. There is a need for progressive charging structures based on use, to support low-income households and provide a scaled system to deter high users. Current water charges in the UK are predominantly based on a mixture of the rateable value of the house and a flat standing charge. This means that water charging, unlike all other utilities (gas, electricity and phone) is not based on usage. Of the OECD countries, the UK was judged to be second only to Mexico on regressive water charging that is burdensome on the poor. If the housing stock is metered, there is an opportunity to bring in more innovative charging mechanisms that can have dramatic effects on consumption. The Water Services Association of Australia found a 17 per cent reduction in per capita consumption for a selection of major Australian water utilities following the introduction of consumption-based pricing. Studies in the UK estimate an initial reduction of 10 per cent following meteringxxvi.
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
There should be a stronger push for universal metering.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
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Careful consideration of the effects on low-income households, and safeguards to protect resource poverty, need to be considered as part of the solution. However, progressive tariff charging and more appropriately costed pricing provides households with the ability to manage their water and water bills more effectively. It also provides the financial incentive to install water saving technologies. It has been argued that metering is not as cost effective as retrofitting toilets, but as Simon Dresner and Paul Etkins argue how are the public going to be persuaded to do so without the incentive of reduced costsxxvii. The important role played by metering in encouraging water conservation and addressing demand issues should be supported by a fair and equitable charging structure. WaterVoice identify four principlesxxviii that metered charging need to follow: ●
Helping promote awareness of consumption; ● Providing incentive to conserve water; ● Ensuring charges reflect costs of providing water and sewerage services and; ● Keeping cross subsidies to a minimum and transparent. Innovation in water charging can also be used to provide an economic stimulus to address flooding and encourage the property-owning public to be responsible for their property’s impact within the local community. A good example is the system of water charging in Germany where charges are based on the impermeable surface space of a property. This is to address run-off and encourage rainwater harvesting, to reduce the local impacts of flooding. The charges do not greatly affect residential housing, but provide an economic stimulus to large commercial areas to consider sustainable urban drainage and rainwater harvesting as a means to reduce their costs. The growth area development planned for the south east and east England will also have an affect on the cost to current residents. New infrastructure and treatment facilities will be needed to support the population growth. How this will effect all customers will need to be addressed by Ofwat and the water companies. Reduced VAT should be provided for water efficient products, alternative supply products and their installation. Reducing VAT on accredited supplies, such as has been effectively introduced for energy efficient products, provides not only reduced costs for new build but impacts on the retrofitting market. Even with the proposed housing increase in the south east, the existing housing stock will still be the major problem for demand management. Reducing VAT on water efficient appliances will provide financial incentive for consumers when replacing products. It also provides builders with an incentive to use water efficient products in the original design. For the more substantial water efficiency technologies, VAT reductions will be an incentive to developers, who view the up-front costs of these features as a major barrier to their inclusion. The Water Technology List, developed by Defra and the Inland Revenue in partnership with Envirowise, provides businesses with an incentive to promote reduced water consumption through product purchases. The benefits are that
The Government will have to convince the EU that VAT reductions on water efficiency products are within the competitiveness agreement. Reduced VAT on repair and maintenance would also have an impact on the existing housing stock, but may be more difficult to convince on competitiveness grounds. WWF also suggest reduced VAT could be applied to new homes meeting ‘very good’ water efficiency standard. Stamp duty reductions should be applied to resource efficient homes. “Recent research shows that almost nine out of ten consumers are dissatisfied with the present [real estate] system.” The Home Information Pack
There is a 70 per cent owner-occupier rate in the UK (according to RICS). The housing market could therefore have a great influence on the uptake of water efficiency measures. This is also an area where consumers are dissatisfied with the amount of information available prior to sale. The running costs of a house are generally one of the last things on a buyer’s mind in the stressful and often rushed process of buying a home. They do, however, significantly contribute to domestic costs over time. As such with the addition of all the legal “ reducing VAT on water efficient fees and survey charges associated with appliances will provide financial purchase, small differences in house price tend to play a major factor in decisions, rather than incentive for consumers when potential savings.
replacing products ” The desire for more background information about properties by buyers has been taken seriously by Government. The provision of more information on the energy efficiency of houses through the Home Information Pack is a major advancement in the ability of homebuyers to take advantage of reduced running costs. The massive response (87 per cent in favour of sustainable construction) to the home buyers’ survey run by WWF as part of their One Million Sustainable Homes Campaign, also demonstrates that the market is changing and consumers are becoming more aware of the whole life cycle costs of houses. However, to reach those who cannot afford the higher initial costs, reduced stamp duty – coupled with standardised provision of information to consumers for all housing sales – would bring about greater understanding of running costs as a major consideration when buying. This also follows the principle of ‘polluter pays’, and provides the incentive for efficiency gains to be seen as value adding investment. As suggested by WWF, the Code for Sustainable Buildings could provide a standard for compliance.
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
businesses can expect to gain an initial cash boost through an Enhanced Capital Allowance, as well as an ongoing cost saving on water bills. For this to be effective above retrofitting, water efficient specifications must be included in the initial building design, which will require a change in focus from end-user to investor.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
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Expansion of the Green Landlords Scheme to cover water efficient products. Private landlords have no incentive to reduce the running costs of housing. To address this, Budget 2004 announced a landlord’s energy saving allowance to provide individual private landlords with up-front relief on capital expenditure to a value of £1,500 for specific energy saving installations in rented accommodation. This needs to be extended to the installation of water efficiency technologies. The Government is also considering introducing a green landlord scheme, to look at incentives for landlords – possibly through recognition of properties that achieve a sufficient level of energy efficiency. Again, this needs to include water efficiency in water scarce areas. Landlords could be persuaded by providing tax incentives, such as Enhanced Capital Allowances (like those that apply to energy efficiency technologies) to offset the cost of installation or Domestic Business Allowances to offset the cost of installation.
labelling and consumer awareness Consumer awareness needs to be taken seriously by all those involved in water supply. At present, the public in the UK have an astonishingly low sense of the value of water. For a water efficient housing market to prosper, the consumer will be one of the fundamental drivers. In general, builders provide the lowest-cost houses and manufacturers provide the lowest-cost appliances. Once the consumer starts demanding water efficiency, the market will provide. However, the vicious circle is that the consumer will not start demanding something that they cannot comprehend. The proposed national voluntary water consumption labelling scheme for water-using appliances, fittings and fixtures should be mandatory. “Labelling and information to consumers can drive changes in spending decisions and increase the market or water efficient products.” Environmentalist
The Energy Label has transformed the white goods market in favour of higher energy and water efficiencyxxix. Manufacturers have tended towards designing products to meet label requirements. The degree of water efficiency in electronic goods therefore is not currently related to cost. Public awareness of energy efficiency has also increased as a response to labelling. There is a wide range in the water efficiency of different household products. However, the more water efficient options may be overlooked by customers due to low awareness of water issues and water prices, poor access to water efficiency information during product selection and because products are often chosen by builders or plumbers, rather than by the party who will bear the ultimate running costsxxx. Labelling has been shown to be an effective means of communicating to consumers at point of purchase. For example, energy efficiency ratings of appliances are quoted as standard in advertising.
In Australia, water issues have been in the public realm for some time, particularly since the droughts in the early 1990s. There has been a voluntary water efficiency label in Australia since 1988, run by the Water Services Association. Although it was set up as a “ labelling has been shown comparative scale system underpinned by standards, the to be an effective means voluntary nature of the programme meant that it operated more as an endorsement labelxxxi. This was due to the fact of communicating to that the label had limited coverage and was predominantly used by water companies to promote rebate schemes. After consumers ” cost-benefit analysis was applied to the potential for a mandatory scheme to increase the uptake of water efficient appliances, the Australian Government has enacted legislation to support mandatory labelling. The Government is currently investigating the potential to introduce a voluntary labelling scheme for water efficiency in the UK. Although the transition may eventually lead to a mandatory system, the proposed increase in development means that influencing the market in the short term is paramount. Manufacturers at the forefront of design would benefit from the introduction of increased standards, while it would act as a benchmark for the least efficient designs. Public awareness could be encouraged by a Water Saving Trust. The Government is currently investigating the potential of a Water Saving Trust, through a feasibility study commissioned by the Environment Agency. The Energy Saving Trust co-ordinates campaigns and initiatives to educate the public on sustainable energy solutions. Its remit includes policy analysis, awareness raising, provision of advice and support for innovation grants, information provision, accreditation and technical advice. In order to make a concerted effort to get water conservation messages across to the public, we support the development of a Water Saving Trust. The trust’s main objectives should include information programmes, providing funds to co-ordinate initiatives, research and publicity.
a better business case “Manufacturers have the capability to vastly improve the efficiency of all water using appliances, fixtures and fittings, but need the market stimulation to do this.” Sustainable developer
“The economics will need to be convincing to change behaviour.” Manufacturer
Increasing the demand for water efficient buildings is the route from a niche industry to mainstream. Good planning and regulatory frameworks are necessary to support and encourage uptake of water efficiency, but the financial drivers will
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
Voluntary labelling can be effective if consumer demand already exists. However, as the energy efficiency labelling scheme demonstrates, there is good evidence to support compulsory labelling as a way of influencing the market.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
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determine the longevity of the industry. There are many ways of addressing demand issues and a combined approach will be most successful. Providing a better business case is going to be fundamental to stimulating increased water efficiency in new build. There needs to be a clear definition of the business case to include water efficiency measures in development. “Construction industry sits in between planners and consumers – so both planners and consumers are needed to set the right framework.” Industry expert
“Perceived Barrier to Sustainable Homes: Investors aren’t interested in sustainability, they want a quick return and maximum profits.” WWF One Million Sustainable Homes
Developers will not engage until they are convinced that water efficiency technologies in housing design will provide a financial incentive to investors. Designers specialising in sustainable construction are niche and the reality is that the upfront costs of rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling are greater than a standard design. In the eyes of developers, this puts their creations into the realm of public sector projects and high-cost homes, rather than mainstream. However, that is not the end of the story. The Government commissioned an investigation into the cost-effectiveness of water efficient products in households. The study found that a significant level of water efficiency can be achieved with little or no over-cost to constructionxxxii. The decoupling of cost and efficiency was attributed to energy efficiency labelling. It was found that in appliances that use electricity and water, such as washing machines and dishwashers, reducing the amount of water that needs heating reduces the energy requirements. Thus, energy efficient appliances are, by default, water efficient. Manufacturers now produce appliances to energy standards across the spectrum of quality and price levels, resulting from the increase in demand for energy efficient products across the consumer spectrum. For the more technical measures that require up-front investment, the returns can still be cost-effective. The more substantial systems such as rainwater harvesting and grey-water recycling come with increased up-front costs. However, these systems provide reduced running costs over the life cycle of the building. The stumbling block is that the initial investment in the property is typically unrelated to the person paying the water bill. The long waiting lists for BedZED units demonstrates that there is a market for sustainable housing and that consumers recognise that running costs and environmental impacts can be catered for in design. Investors are also becoming increasingly interested in demonstrating their corporate social responsibility. A report by WWF on the top 13 FTSE-listed house builders indicates that the majority of building companies are not addressing sustainability issuesxxxiii. This demonstrates that, far from being a market issue, the mainstream construction industry is simply lagging behind as a sector. The example
One of the major lessons of the BedZED development is that lifetime service delivery agents need to be engaged in the project from the earliest stages to ensure that the communal systems can be operated effectively and at a profitxxxiv. These lessons can be picked up by developers and incorporated into design. Current payback on domestic rainwater harvesting systems can be up to 10-20 years which is ineffective for the short term investor or buy-to-let market. However, as water prices increase and with an increased level of metering, payback periods will reduce. Larger schemes can pay back in less than five years, which should provide a big incentive for commercial development. A recent study by Thames Water found that large-scale systems provide much better returns. There is considerable potential to encourage the market to move towards water efficient products, through a change in attitude to how our houses operate. With the support of legislation, leadership through planning and the increasing public awareness, not only of the environmental benefits, but the cost-efficiency of more sustainable homes, a clear business case can be made for improving housing operation. Communication between industries must be improved to bridge the knowledge gaps and support change “The sustainable housing agenda is stuck in a vicious circle of blame…with developers, builders, investors and users.” Industry expert
“The sustainable construction industry needs more people with the right skills and knowledge to deliver the technology.” Sustainable developer
Throughout this project, stakeholder repeatedly stressed the need to improve communication and cross-sector skills sharing. As Sir John Egan found in his review of sustainable communities, an increase in skills is needed in the construction industry to provide the technological delivery that developers will be requesting. In this research, it was perceived that most developers tack on efficiency, be it for energy or water, as an after-thought to their design plans. One example of this is insulation. When a house is designed poorly, insulation may have the reverse effect and require energy intensive air conditioning. This is a fault with many office buildings. Resource efficiency measures play an integral part in the operation of the building and need to be considered at the outset. With rainwater harvesting, greywater recycling, green roofs and onsite wastewater treatment, the technology requires major landscaping and installation, as well as dual supply plumbing. This requires developments to be a collaborative product between designers, builders, technology experts and landscapers from the outset. Although there are good
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
of the Essex and Suffolk Water funded water efficiency scheme in a new housing development at Haybridge concurs with this lack of interest in sustainability. The cost-effective initiative trailed by the scheme was not taken up by any developers.
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examples of building companies with all of these skills, communication will be essential for others.
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
A National Academy for Sustainable Communities Skills, to be established in Leeds, may provide an effective communication hub for the construction sector. This will be useful to bridge knowledge gaps and support more case studies of best practice. Careful attention to how the communication channels operate within the construction industry will be fundamental to the success of the Academy, as practical implementation is the key to changing practices. The Government needs to set a progressive procurement agenda for the growth areas that accounts for the resource limitations. “The Private Finance Initiative can and should be used as a lever to transform the construction sector in the UK towards greater sustainability of products and practices.” PFI: meeting the sustainability challenge, Green Alliance.
The Government can lead from the front by making the right procurement decisions. Procurement can be used to provide best practice examples of construction and design, and stimulates the market for environmental technologies. A recent European Commission reportxxxv points out that “If all European public authorities opted for efficient toilets and taps in their buildings, this would reduce water consumption by 200 million tonnes.” If UK public buildings had water efficiency targets, this would reduce demand significantly and provide a strong message to the commercial sector. The introduction of water efficient technologies in public facilities, such as the Kingsmead Primary School, also provides opportunities for learning and public awareness raising within the local community. This promotes the objectives of sustainable development through public procurement and links to the sustainable consumption agenda, providing a crosssectoral approach. Private Finance Units could set programme-specific water efficiency standards and targets in water scarce areas. Public buildings, school and hospitals could be required to collect data on the water efficiency performance that would provide an improved evidence base for whole-life value models in future. One of the key aims of the Code for Sustainable Buildings was for it to be a requirement of doing business with Government. This would bring water efficiency into the approvals process of public procurement and PFI, as well as into the minds of the public through their experiences with the public sector. Another key benefit to including water efficiency in public procurement is the boost it would provide to the technology and sustainable construction markets. This would result from the increased demand for water efficiency measures in new build and the resulting interest from the private sector and consumer through raised public awareness.
list of interviews
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Aquality Trading & Consulting Ltd – Lutz Johnen
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
BRE – Martin Shouler Cambridgeshire Horizons – Peter Studdert Countryside Agency – Joanna Russell Essex and Suffolk Water – Dr Clare Ridgeway Gusto Homes – Steff Wright Imperial College Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering – David Butler Newton Industrial Group Ltd – John Howarth Ofwat – Nicola Simpson Skanska – Robert Lambert Stanhope – Rob Watts Thames Gateway London Partnership – Alex Nickson Thurrock County Council – Clare Lambert Town and Country Planning Association – Robert Shaw Taylor Woodrow – Katherine Hyde Water UK – Jacob Tompkins White Design – Linda Farrow
consultation BRE – George Martin Cambridge City Council – Sally Pidgeon CIWEM – Nick Reeves and Ilana Cravitz DEFRA – Peter Jiggins and Robin Mynard Environment Agency – Elliot Robertson and David Calderbank Faber Maunsell – Tom Randall ODPM – Paul Williams and Claire Skipsey Thames Water – Dr Peter Spillett, James Page and Esther Thompson
i
The Gobal Water Crisis – Why Save Water? Savewater.com.au
ii
Sustainable communities: Building for the future, ODPM, February 2003.
iii
http://www.waterexchangeuk.com/index.htm
iv
State of the Environment 2004 South East England, Environment Agency, 2004.
vi
State of the Environment 2004 South East England, Environment Agency, 2004.
vii
Climate Change,Water Security and Flooding Environment Food and Rural Affairs Committee, September 2004.
viii
Quote from Graham Setterfield – Chairman of South East Water Resources Forum.
ix
PPS1 – Delivering Sustainable Development, ODPM, February 2005.
x
Changing Patterns: UK framework for sustainable consumption and production, Defra, September 2003.
xi
Directing the Flow – Priorities for Future Water Policy, Defra, November 2002.
xii
Launched by Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott in January 2003
xiii
Creating Sustainable Communities: Making it happen, ODPM, 2003.
xiv
Housing: Building a Sustainable Future, Environment Audit Committee, January 2005.
xv
The Barker Review of Housing Supply; Final Report, Kate Barker, March 2004.
xvi
The Egan Review: Skills for Sustainable Communities, Sir John Egan, April 2004.
xvii
One Planet Living in the Thames Gateway, A WWF-UK One Million Sustainable Homes Campaign report, 2002.
xviii
Can we keep the water flowing? Bob Foster, Aquarius Rainwater Systems, Building for the Future, Volume 14, No. 1, Summer 2004, page 17.
xix
Demand Management Bulletin, Environment Agency, Issue 64, April 2004.
xx
Creating Sustainable Communities: Greening the Gateway. A greenspace strategy for the Thames Gateway, ODPM, January 2004.
xxi
Demand Management Bulletin, Environment Agency, Issue 64, April 2004.
xxii
The growth of Green Roofs, Sustain’ Magazine, V05, i05, 2004, page 25.
xxiii
Environment Agency review of the BRE eco-homes standards.
xxiv
Towards the Design of an Environmentally and Socially conscious water metering tariff, Simon Dresner and Paul Etkins, Policy Studies Institute, 2004.
xxv
Improving water management: Recent OECD experience, 2003, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development – referenced in Towards the Design of an Environmentally and Socially conscious water metering tariff, Simon Dresner and Paul Etkins, Policy Studies Institute, 2004.
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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
notes and references
Better buildings: designing for water efficiency
36
xxvi
National Metering Trials Working Group 1993 referenced in Towards the Design of an Environmentally and Socially conscious water metering tariff, Simon Dresner and Paul Etkins, Policy Studies Institute 2004.
xxvii
Towards the Design of an Environmentally and Socially conscious water metering tariff, Simon Dresner and Paul Etkins, Policy Studies Institute, 2004.
xxviii
Metering:WaterVoice Policy Statement, November 2004.
xxix
The economics of water efficient products in the household. Prepared for the Environment Agency by Elemental Solutions, Author: Nick Grant, June 2003.
xxx
A Mandatory Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme for Australia – Final Report, Prepared for the Australian Government Department of Environment and Heritage, by George Wilkenfeld and Associates Pty Ltd with Artcraft Research, Energy Efficient Strategies and Tomorrow Today, June 2003.
xxxi
A Mandatory Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme for Australia – Final Report.
xxxii
The economics of water efficient products in the household. Prepared for the Environment Agency by Elemental Solutions, Author: Nick Grant, June 2003.
xxxiii
Building towards Sustainability: performance and progress among the UK’s leading house-builders. WWF.
xxxiv
Chris Shirley-Smith, Water Works UK, presentation at Planning for Water, 21 October, 2004.
xxxv
Buying Green! – A handbook on environmental public procurement – EU Commission, August 2004.
Green Alliance 40 Buckingham Palace Road, London SW1W 0RE tel: 020 7233 7433 fax: 020 7233 9033 email: ga@green-alliance.org.uk website: www.green-alliance.org.uk