«Weneedaparadigmshiftinthefieldofarchitecturethatgetsclosertotheneedsof people,thusfindingananswerforthe“Earth”withinthe“earth”».
-MarioCucinella
3D
The rapid development of three-dimensional printing technology (3D Printing – 3DP), combined with the growing demand for architectural solutions with an ecological character, has led to the exploration of new building materials and construction techniques. Within this context, the use of earth-based construction technologies seeks to bridge the gap, marking a contemporary re-approach to traditional building methods.
The aim of this research is to highlight 3DP technology with earth-based materials through data comparison and the extraction of conclusions that reflect the current state and level of development of this technology. The study is structured into three main parts: the first focuses on the review and analysis of current related scientific literature, presented through a range of comparative diagrams and case studies, the second examines realized projects constructed with 3DP using earth-based materials, showcasing different architectural and construction techniques; while the third part concerns the experimental application of printing small-scale clay-based prototypes, through which the potential as well as the limitations of the technology are explored.
Overall, the study demonstrates that 3DP with earthen materials constitutes an innovative and sustainable construction method. However, it remains at a transitional stage and requires further research in order to achieve its full implementation at an architectural scale.
Key words
3D printing, earthen architecture, additive manufacturing, robotic manufacturing, sustainable construction
1.5.1 Γερανογέφυρα
1.5.2 Γερανός
1.5.3 Τύπος Δ (δέλτα)
1.5.4
1.5.6
2.1
2.2 TOVA
2.3 TECLA
(Gyawali et al., 2024)(Gomaa et al., 2022).
(Gyawali et al., 2024)(Gomaa et al., 2022).
(Three-Dimensional Printing - 3DP)(2022)(Ming et al., 2022).
(Alhumayani et al., 2020). Ένας
(Asaf et al., 2023).
(Alhumayani et al., 2020).
(Alhumayani et al.,
et al.,
(Giacomobono et al.,
et al., 2022).
(Curth et al., 2024).
(Wu et al., 2024).
(Ji et al., 2023).
et al.,
(Rocha et al., 2023).
(Wu et al., 2024).
1.3.1
(2023).
et al., 2023) (Giacomobono et al., 2024).
(2023)(2024). Ωστόσο, απαιτείται προσοχή
(Faleschini et al., 2023).
(Giacomobono et al., 2024).
(Faleschini et al., 2023).
1.3.5 Τσιμέντο
et al.,
(Faleschini et al., 2023)(Curth et al., 2024).
(Arrigoni et al.,
(Faleschini et al., 2023).
(Arrigoni et al., 2017).
1.4 Έλεγχος μηχανικών / δομικών
(Additive Manufacture-AM)
(Hassan et al.,
et
Delta Printers
(Ferretti et al., 2022).
Liquid Deposition Modeling (LDM),
(2022).
Ferretti et al.,
Printing
Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH)(Ming et al., 2022)(βλ.
CAD (Computer-Aided Design), CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) και CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering) (βλ. Διάγραμμα 11).
(Ferretti et al.,
η KUKA (21%) και η ABB (11%),
παραγωγή
Stäubli (6%)
οι UNIVERSAL ROBOTS, aniwaa, COGIRO, StoneFlower
3DPOTTER
και της οροφής (2024). Συγκεκριμένα, για την κατασκευή της τοιχοποιίας εφαρμόζεται
2.1 Gaia
(2018).
2.2 TOVA
(IAAC, n.d.)(βλ. Εικόνα
3D Printing Architecture του Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia (IAAC), με τη συμμετοχή ομάδας δεκαοκτώ φοιτητών προπτυχιακού και μεταπτυχιακού επιπέδου, σε συνεργασία με την εταιρεία WASP, η οποία παρείχε τον εξοπλισμό
«TOVA» έχει
TOVA, Πηγή: IAAC, n.d.
Εικόνα 18. Τομή TOVA, Πηγή: IAAC, n.d.
2.3 TECLA
WASP (WASP, 2018).
(Giacomobono et al., 2024).
(Giacomobono et al., 2024).
(Paula Pintos, 2021).
Pintos,
et al.,
2.4 Hope Village Community Building
«Hope Village Community Building» (βλ.
Hassell Studio
ClarkeHopkinsClarke Studio, το Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia (IAAC), η
EOC Engineers,
(Hassell, n.d.).
(IAAC,
(EARTH ARCHITECTURE, 2024)(Hassell, n.d.).
(Hassell, n.d.)(EARTH ARCHITECTURE, 2024).
- Πηλός: 2000 gr - Νερό: 800 gr - Ρευστοποιητής SIKA: 20 ml - Τροποποιητής ιξώδους:
-
Συμπεράσματα
Alhumayani, H., Gomaa, M., Soebarto, V., & Jabi, W. (2020). Environmental assessment of large-scale 3D printing in construction: A comparative study between cob and concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production, 270, 122463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122463
Arrigoni, A., Beckett, C., Ciancio, D., & Dotelli, G. (2017). Life cycle analysis of environmental impact vs. durability of stabilised rammed earth. Construction and Building Materials, 142, 128–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. conbuildmat.2017.03.066
Asaf, O., Bentur, A., Larianovsky, P., & Sprecher, A. (2023). From soil to printed structures: A systematic approach to designing clay-based materials for 3D printing in construction and architecture. Construction and Building Materials, 408, 133783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133783
Curth, A., Pearl, N., Castro-Salazar, A., Mueller, C., & Sass, L. (2024). 3D printing earth: Local, circular material processing, fabrication methods, and Life Cycle Assessment. Construction and Building Materials, 421, 135714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135714
EARTH ARCHITECTURE. (2024, October 8). Hope Village Community Center: Tanzania. Https://Eartharchitecture.Org/?P=1460. https://eartharchitecture. org/?p=1460
Faleschini, F., Trento, D., Masoomi, M., Pellegrino, C., & Zanini, M. A. (2023). Sustainable mixes for 3D printing of earth-based constructions. Construction and Building Materials, 398, 132496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. conbuildmat.2023.132496
Ferretti, E., Moretti, M., Chiusoli, A., Naldoni, L., De Fabritiis, F., & Visonà, M. (2022). Mechanical Properties of a 3D-Printed Wall Segment Made with an Earthen Mixture. Materials, 15(2), 438. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020438
Giacomobono, L., Argenti, M., Ferretti, E., & Paparella, G. (2024). ThreeDimensional Printing with Earthen Materials: A Settlement-Scale Design Experience. Buildings, 14(9), 2721. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092721
Gomaa, M., Jabi, W., Soebarto, V., & Xie, Y. M. (2022). Digital manufacturing for earth construction: A critical review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 338, 130630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130630
Gyawali, B., Haghnazar, R., Akula, P., Alba, K., & Nasir, V. (2024). A review on 3D printing with clay and sawdust/natural fibers: Printability, rheology, properties, and applications. Results in Engineering, 24, 103024. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103024
Hassan, H., Rodriguez-Ubinas, E., Al Tamimi, A., Trepci, E., Mansouri, A., & Almehairbi, K. (2024). Towards innovative and sustainable buildings: A comprehensive review of 3D printing in construction. Automation in Construction, 163, 105417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105417
Hassell. (n.d.). Hope Village Community Building, One Heart Tanzania. Https://Www.Hassellstudio.Com/Project/Community-Building-HopeVillage-One-Heart-Tanzania. Retrieved August 27, 2025, from https://www. hassellstudio.com/project/community-building-hope-village-one-hearttanzania
IAAC. (n.d.). TOVA. Https://Iaac.Net/Projects/Tova/. Retrieved August 27, 2025, from https://iaac.net/projects/tova/
Ji, Y., Poullain, P., & Leklou, N. (2023). The selection and design of earthen materials for 3D printing. Construction and Building Materials, 404, 133114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133114
Juak, J. (2024). Advancing 3D Printing of Clay in Architecture [Technical University in Graz]. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378822643_ Advancing_3D_Printing_of_Clay_in_Architecture
Ming, C., Mirjan, A., Medina Ibáñez, J., Gramazio, F., & Kohler, M. (2022). Impact Printing. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 9(3), 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2021.0068
Paula Pintos. (2021, April 27). TECLA Technology and Clay 3D Printed House / Mario Cucinella Architects. Https://Www.Archdaily.
Paula Pintos. (2021, April 27). TECLA Technology and Clay 3D Printed House / Mario Cucinella Architects. Https://Www.Archdaily.Com/960714/ Tecla-Technology-and-Clay-3d-Printed-House-Mario-Cucinella-Architects. https://www.archdaily.com/960714/tecla-technology-and-clay-3dprinted-house-mario-cucinella-architects
Rocha, D., Faria, P., & Lucas, S. S. (2023). Additive Manufacturing of EarthBased Materials: A Literature Review on Mortar Composition, Extrusion, and Processing Earth. Materials, 17(1), 202. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17010202
Sangiorgio, V., Parisi, F., Fieni, F., & Parisi, N. (2022). The New Boundaries of 3D-Printed Clay Bricks Design: Printability of Complex Internal Geometries. Sustainability, 14(2), 598. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020598
Tohidi, A., Gomaa, M., Haeusler, M. H., & Shiel, J. (2024). 3D Printing SelfShading Wall Structure With Earth. Enhancing Thermal Properties in Earthen Architecture Through Computational Tool Path Design, Inspired by Nature & Vernacular Architecture. The 29th International Conference of the Association for ComputerAided Architectural Design Research in Asia (CAADRIA), 121–130. https://doi.org/10.52842/conf.caadria.2024.3.121 WASP. (n.d.). TECLA, a 3D printed global habitat for sustainable living. WASP. (2018). The 3d printed house Gaia. Https://Www.3dwasp.Com/ En/3d-Printed-House-Gaia/. https://www.3dwasp.com/en/3d-printedhouse-gaia/
Wu, X., Shi, Q., Huo, J., Zhao, Y., Zhu, L., & Tao, Y. (2024). Experimental study on buildability and mechanical properties of 3D printing cob. Construction and Building Materials, 453, 139082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. conbuildmat.2024.139082
Ten questions concerning the potential of digital production and new technologies for contemporary earthen constructions
A review on 3D printing with clay and sawdust/natural fibers: Printability, rheology, properties, and applications
Towards innovative and sustainable buildings: A comprehensive review of 3D printing in construction
Michael Hansmeyer's Algorithmic Architecture: The Transformative Impact of 3D Printing on Architectural Design and Education
3D Printing in Architecture
3D Printing for Housing. Recurring
Earth construction: Lessons from the past for future eco-efficient construction
Environmental assessment of large-scale 3D printing in construction: A comparative study between cob and concrete
Building Methods and materials, repair and conservation
Digital manufacturing for earth
A Review of Rammed Earth Construction for ‘Developing Rammed Earth for UK Housing’
