2 INTEGRATING INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Within countries, the degree of computer use during mathematics instruction seems only weakly related to the existence of such school policies. Indeed, most of the variation in computer use during mathematics instruction lies within schools, as opposed to between schools (Table 2.14). The use of computers in mathematics lessons, it appears, depends on teacher and (perhaps) student-level factors, rather than on school-level policies, to a greater extent than for more general uses of computers at school (such as browsing the Internet for schoolwork). In fact, only 11 countries/economies show a significant difference in the index of computer use in mathematics lessons between schools where a policy on ICT use for mathematics exists, and schools where there is no such policy. It may be that school policies are more concerned with qualitative aspects, such as how to use existing software, rather than quantitative aspects, such as whether to use computers at all. It may also be that school policies are occasionally introduced to limit the use of ICT during mathematics instruction, rather than to support it. The only country where school policies on how to use computers in mathematics classes make a large difference in students’ use of computers is Denmark. Interestingly, in Denmark the large between-schools variation in computer use during mathematics instruction also indicates the existence of coordinated practices among teachers in the same school (Table 2.14). Other policies not directly related to ICT, such as the national curriculum, may play a more important role in supporting or discouraging the integration of ICT into teaching. Figure 2.18 shows whether using ICT in mathematics classes is related to the content to which students are exposed during lessons. This is determined using students’ answers about how often, during their mathematics lessons, they have encountered four types of tasks: word problems, formal mathematics problems, applied tasks set in a mathematical context, and applied tasks where – as in most PISA problems – students have to apply their knowledge of mathematics to real-world contexts (see Box 2.1). Box 2.1. PISA measures of exposure to different mathematics tasks Four questions from the PISA student questionnaire were used to measure students’ exposure to different types of content during mathematics lessons. Each question presented students with two examples of mathematics tasks and asked students not to solve them, but to report whether they had encountered similar types of problems “frequently”, “sometimes”, “rarely” or “never” during their mathematics lessons. The example tasks are shown below. Question 1 – Word problems Below are examples of tasks that require you to understand a problem written in text and perform the appropriate calculations. Usually the problem talks about practical situations, but the numbers and people and places mentioned are made up. All the information you need is given. 1. is two years older than and is four times as old as . When is 30, how old is ? 2. Mr bought a television and a bed. The television cost <$625> but he got a 10% discount. The bed cost <$200>. He paid <$20> for delivery. How much money did Mr spend? … 70 © OECD 2015 STUDENTS, COMPUTERS AND LEARNING: MAKING THE CONNECTION