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YPRES
GREATBATTLES YPRES
MARKCONNELLY AND STEFANGOEBEL
3
GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford, OXDP, UnitedKingdom
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FOREWORD
Forthosewhopractisewarinthetwenty-firstcenturytheideaofa ‘greatbattle’ canseemnomorethantheechoofaremotepast.The namesonregimentalcoloursortheeventscommemoratedatmess dinnersbearlittlerelationshiptopatrollingindustyvillagesorwaging ‘warsamongstthepeople’.Contemporarymilitarydoctrinedownplaystheideaofvictory,arguingthatwarsendbynegotiationnotby thesmashingofanenemyarmyornavy.Indeediterodesthevery divisionbetweenwarandpeace,andwithittheaspirationto fighta culminating ‘greatbattle’ .
Andyettotakebattleoutofwaristorede fi newar,possiblytothe pointwheresomewouldarguethatitceasestobewar.Carlvon Clausewitz,whoexperiencedtwo ‘ greatbattles ’ at fi rsthand Jena in andBorodinoin wrotein OnWar thatmajorbattleis ‘ concentratedwar ’ ,and ‘ thecentreofgravityoftheentirecampaign ’ . Clausewitz ’ sremarksrelatedtothetheoryofstrategy.Herecognizedthatinpracticearmiesmightavoidbattles,buteventhen theef fi cacyoftheiractionsreliedonthelatentthreatof fi ghting. WinstonChurchillsawtheimportanceofbattlesindifferentterms, notfortheirplacewithinwarbutfortheirimpactonhistorical andnationalnarratives.Hisforebear,theDukeofMarlborough, commandedinfourmajorbattlesandnamedhispalaceafterthe mostfamousofthem,Blenheim,foughtin .Battles,Churchill wroteinhisbiographyofMarlborough,are ‘ theprincipalmilestonesinsecularhistory ’ .Forhim ‘ Greatbattles,wonorlost,change theentirecourseofevents,createnewstandardsofvalues,new moods,newatmospheres,inarmiesandnations,towhichall mustconform ’ .
Clausewitz’sexperienceofwarwasshapedbyNapoleon.Like Marlborough,theFrenchemperorsoughttobringhisenemiesto battle.However,eachlivedwithinacenturyoftheother,andthey foughttheirwarsinthesamecontinentandevenonoccasionon adjacentground.WinstonChurchill’sownexperienceofwar,which spannedthelatenineteenth-centurycolonialcon flictsoftheBritish Empireaswellastwoworldwars,becameincreasinglydistancedfrom thesortsofbattleheandClausewitzdescribed.In Churchillrode inacavalrychargeinabattlewhichcrushedtheMadhistforcesof theSudaninasingleday.FouryearslatertheBritishcommanderat Omdurman,LordKitchener,broughttheSouthAfricanWartoa conclusionafteratwo-yearguerrillaconflictinwhichnoclimactic battleoccurred.BothChurchillandKitchenerservedasBritishCabinet ministersintheFirstWorldWar,acon flictinwhichbattleslasted weeks,andevenmonths,andwhich,despitetheirscaleandduration, didnotproduceclear-cutoutcomes.The ‘Battle’ ofVerdunranforall butonemonthof andthatoftheSommefor fivemonths.The potentiallydecisivenavalactionatJutlandspannedamoretraditional twenty-four-hourtimetablebutwasnotconclusiveandwasnot replicatedduringthewar.IntheSecondWorldWar,themajor struggleinwatersadjacenttoEurope,the ‘Battle’ oftheAtlantic,was foughtfrom toearly
Clausewitzwouldhavecalledthesetwentieth-century ‘battles’ campaigns,orevenseenthemaswarsintheirownright.Thedeterminationtoseekbattleandtovenerateitseffectsmaythereforebe culturallydetermined,theproductoftimeandplace,ratherthanan inherentattributeofwar.TheancienthistorianVictorDavisHanson hasarguedthatseekingbattleisa ‘westernwayofwar’ derivedfrom classicalGreece.SeeminglysupportiveofhisargumentarethewritingsofSunTzu,who flourishedinwarringstatesinChinabetween twoand fivecenturiesbeforethebirthofChrist,andwhopointedout thatthemosteffectivewayofwagingwarwastoavoidtherisksand dangersofactual fighting.Hansonhasprovokedstrongcriticism: thosewhoarguethatwarscanbewonwithoutbattlesarenotonly
tobefoundinAsia.Eighteenth-centuryEuropeancommanders, deployingarmiesinclose-orderformationsinordertodeliverconcentrated fires,realizedthatthedestructiveconsequencesofbattle fortheirowntroopscouldbeself-defeating.AftertheFirstWorld War,BasilLiddellHartdevelopedatheoryofstrategywhichhecalled ‘theindirectapproach’,andsuggestedthatmanoeuvremightsubstituteforhard fighting,evenifitssuccessstillreliedontheinherent threatofbattle.
Thewinnersofbattleshavebeencelebratedasheroes,andnations haveusedtheirtriumphstoestablishtheirfoundingmyths.Itis preciselyforthesereasonsthattheirlegacieshaveoutlivedtheirdirect politicalconsequences.Commemoratedinpainting,verse,andmusic, markedbymonumentalmemorials,andusedasthewaypointsfor theperiodizationofhistory,theyhaveenjoyedculturalafterlives. Theseareevidentinmanycapitals,inplacenamesandstatues,not leastinParisandLondon.TheFrenchtouristwho findshimselfina LondontaxitravellingfromTrafalgarSquaretoWaterlooStation shouldreflectonhisorherowndomesticperegrinationsfromthe RuedeRivolitotheGared’Austerlitz.Today’sMongoliavenerates thememoryofGenghisKhanwhileGreeceandMacedoniascrapover therightstoAlexandertheGreat.
Thisseriesofbookson ‘greatbattles’ tipsitshattobothClausewitz andChurchill.Eachofitsvolumessituatesthebattlewhichitdiscusses inthecontextofthewarinwhichitoccurred,buteachthengoeson todiscussitslegacy,itshistoricalinterpretationandreinterpretation, itsplaceinnationalmemoryandcommemoration,anditsmanifestationsinartandculture.Thesearenoteasybookstowrite.Thevictors weremoreoftencelebratedthanthedefeated;theeffectoflosson thebattle fieldcouldbeculturaloblivion.However,thatpointisnot universallytrue:theBritishhavedonemoreovertimetomarktheir defeatsatGallipoliin andDunkirkin thantheirconquerors onbothoccasions.Forthehistoryofwartothriveandbeproductive itneedstoembracetheviewfrom ‘theothersideofthehill’,tousethe DukeofWellington’swords.ThebattletheBritishcallOmdurmanis
fortheSudanesetheBattleofKerreri;theGermanscalledWaterloo ‘la BelleAlliance’ andJutlandSkagerrak.Indeedthenamingofbattles coulditselfbeasignnotonlyofgeographicalprecisionorimprecision (Kerreriismoreaccuratebutasahillratherthanatownisharderto findonasmall-scalemap),butalsoofculturalchoice.In the GermangeneralstaffoptedtonametheirdefeatoftheRussiansinEast PrussianotAllenstein(asgeographysuggested)butTannenberg,in ordertoclaimrevengeforthedefeatoftheTeutonicKnightsin . Militaryhistory,morethanmanyotherformsofhistory,isbound upwithnationalstories.Alltoofrequentlyitfailstobecomparative, torecognizethatwarisa ‘clashofwills’ (toquoteClausewitzonce more),andsoomitstoaddressbothpartiestothe fight.Cultural differenceand,evenmore,linguisticignorancecanpreventthehistorianconsideringabattleintheround;sotoocantheavailabilityof sources.Levelsofliteracymatterhere,butsodoesculturalsurvival. Oftenthesepressurescanbecongruentbuttheycanalsobedivergent. BritainenjoysmuchhigherlevelsofliteracythanAfghanistan,but in thememoryofthetwocountries’ threewars flourishedin thelatter,thankstoanoraltradition,muchmorerobustlythaninthe former,forwhomliteracyhadcreateddistance.Andthehistorianwho addressesculturallegacyislikelytofaceamuchmorechallengingtask thefurtherinthepastthebattleoccurred.Theopportunityforinventionandreinventionissimplygreaterthelongerthelapseoftime sincethekeyevent.
Allhistoriansofwarmust,nonetheless,neverforgetthat,however richandsplendidtheculturallegacyofagreatbattle,itwaswonand lostby fighting,bykillingandbeingkilled.TheBattleofWaterloohas leftasabundantafootprintasany,butthegeneralwhoharvested mostofitsgloryreflectedonitintermswhichhavegeneralapplicability,andcarryacrosstimeintheircapacitytocaptureauniversal truth.WellingtonwrotetoLadyShelleyinitsimmediateaftermath: ‘IhopetoGodIhavefoughtmylastbattle.Itisabadthingtobe always fighting.WhileinthethickofitIammuchtoooccupiedtofeel anything;butitiswretchedjustafter.Itisquiteimpossibletothinkof
glory.Bothmindandfeelingsareexhausted.Iamwretchedevenat themomentofvictory,andIalwayssaythat,nexttoabattlelost,the greatestmiseryisabattlegained.’ Readersofthisseriesshouldnever forgettheimmediatesufferingcausedbybattle,aswellasthecourage requiredtoengageinit:thephysicalcourageofthesoldier,sailor,or warrior,andthemoralcourageofthecommander,readytohazardall onitsuncertainoutcomes.
HEWSTRACHAN
PREFACE
InAugust YpreswasasleepyBelgiancityadmiredbymanyfor itsremarkableGothicarchitecture.Bythatpointitwasalreadya palimpsestonwhichwritersandartistshadinscribedtheirown messagesandmeanings.Afewmonthslaterthearmiesarrived,and thedestructionofitsfabriccommenced.Atthesametime,each combatantnationpresentinandaroundthecitybegantoconstruct itsownparticulardefinitionofthemeaningoftheplace.Manysites alongtheWesternFrontachievedgreatness,ornotoriety,between and ,butinnootherplacedidthecombatantsoverlapeach othersocloselyandthusnootherplacegatheredsuchadisparate rangeofcompetingvisions.InterpretationsofYpres,itslandscape anditshinterland,byBelgium,BritainanditsEmpire,France,and Germanysoondevelopedarichvocabularyofsymbolismandiconography.Infact,thebattleforthespiritualmeaningofYpreswaseverybit asintenseandvigorousasthe fightingatthefront,andstartedapublic discoursethathascontinuedeversincethatFirstBattle.
Thisbookisthe firsttrulytransnationalinterpretationofthemeaningofYpresand,byextension,theWesternFront,placingcompeting visionsofitsmeaningandsignificancesidebysidethroughout. TransnationalapproachestotheFirstandSecondWorldWarshave proliferatedoverthelasttwodecades,butthislaudabletrendhasoften resultedinstudieswhichstillcompartmentalizedifferingnational standpointsindiscretechaptersorsections.Althoughmuchofthis comparativeworkisofexcellentqualityandprovidesmanyvaluable insightsthroughitsmultinationalapproach,itfallsshortoffull integration.Inthisstudywehavedeliberatelyjuxtaposedthevariationsandnuancesofinterpretationcreatedbydifferentnational
perspectivescontinually.1 Thisisnotsomethingalonescholarcould accomplish.Theresearchforthisbookitselfhasbeenaprojectin transnationalhistory:allchaptersinthis ‘duo-graph’ aretheresultof collaborationbetweenaBritishandaGermanhistorian.
Ahighlyimportantpractical,historicalproblemwasamajordriver ofthistransnational,multivocalapproach:determiningwhateach combatantnationdefined,orperhapsmoreproperlyfailedtodefine, asitsYpresfront,sector,orsalientrevealedtheextremehaziness ofterms.Oftenusedinterchangeablywiththeequallyhazytermof ‘Flanders’,Ypresasanimaginedgeographydifferedfromnationto nation.FortheFrench,aftertheFirstBattlein ,Ypreswasa componentofafrontrunningfromDixmudeinthenorththrough SteenstraatdowntoaboutPilckem.FortheBelgians,towhomthe citymeantsomuch,Ypreswaspartofthelastlineofnationaldefence, inwhichitsarmyheldthenorthernmostsectorfromDixmudetothe coast.TheGermansoftenusedtheterm Flandern tomeanthewhole sectorfromtheFranco-Belgianbordertothesea,butitwasalsoused todescribethelinerunningfromthesalientitselfnorthwardstothe sea.Britainanditsimperialcontingentswereequallyidiosyncraticin definitions.Dependingoncontext, ‘Flanders’ meanteithertheentire lineinBelgium,orasectorrunningfromPloegsteert–LeGheeratthe bordertoroughlyPilckem.Thisgeographicalcategorizationcould alsobelabelled ‘Ypres’,whereas ‘thesalient’ wasthelinearcingout fromroughlySaint-Éloiinthesouththroughacentralapexaround HoogebeforebendingbacktoahingepointinthePilckem–Boesinghe district.ThethickFlandersfogenvelopingthe ‘namingofparts’,to useHenryReed’spoetryfromthelaterworldwar,resultedinthe disaggregationofhistories,visions,andinterpretations,andmade assignmentofasimplegeographicaldefinitionofYpresimpossible. 2 Atoneandthesametime,itmadeanexplorationofthemeaningof Ypresmuchmorecomplicatedandmuchmoreinteresting.Ypres provedbiggerthanwehadimaginedatthestartoftheresearch.
Inconsideringthegeography,theglobalperspectivecameinto play.OverrecentyearsmuchFirstWorldWarhistoriographyhas,
quiterightly,emphasizedthewayinwhichthewarstretchedbeyond Europe,affectingpeopleacrosstheglobe.Movingtocentrestagewhat wereonceconceivedashistoriessubordinatetothetrulyimportant narrativeshasprovidedavaluablecorrective,andhasconsiderably deepenedunderstandingsofthecon flict.3 Here,thefocusisvery muchbackontheWesternFront,andaverysmallsectionofthat front.However,itsharesthevisionoftheInFlandersFieldsMuseum inIeper(Ypres),encapsulatedinits exhibitionandaccompanyingbook, FiveContinentsinFlanders. 4 TheworldcametoYpresbetween and ,andmanypeoplefromacrosstheglobehavebeen comingeversince.
Elasticityofplaceandspacewasdrivenbytwoelements.First, thereisthequestionofthesheernumberofbattlesaroundYpres. Technically,therewere fivegreatengagements,whichmakesYpres verydifferenttoothermajorbattlefieldssuchastheSomme,which wasfoughtoverin ,hadabrief flurryofactivityinthespringof ,andthen initssouthernsection becameafocalpointforan equallybriefperiodinthesummerof .Ypresandtheregion arounditwasfoughtfor,andover,ineveryyearofthewar,making itaspreading,moltenslickofviolence.Secondly,theelasticitywas drivenbythepracticalrealitiesofcommemorationandremembrance, whichareaveryimportantpartofthisstudy.Amancouldbe killedandburiedinoneplace,butbeexhumedandreburiedsomewherequitedifferent.Alternatively,ifhisbodywaslost,hemightbe formallycommemoratedonamemorialalongwayfromwhere heactuallymethisdeath.Suchfactorsinfluencedthewayveterans andbereavedinterpretedthespacesandvisitedandrevisitedthem afterthewar.Thishasmadethe ‘spatialturn’—meaninganunderstandingofthewayspaceissociallyconstructedandreconstructed, usedandreused animplicitapproachinthisbook.5 Buildingon theideasandresearchofPierreNora,conceptsofmemoryinscription andreinscriptiononplaces andoccasionallythings(althougha fullculturalhistoryofthematerialculturerelatingtoYpresrequires abook-lengthstudyinitsownright) areimportantbecause
theytakethestudyawayfromtoonarrowafocusonmemorialsand cemeteries.6
Inthisstudytheemphasishasbeenonproducinga ‘media’ history, orperhaps ‘mediation’ historyisabetterterm.Bythat,wemeana studyofmanydifferenttypesofevidencefromofficialdocuments throughbooksandjournalstophotographs, films,andmusicwiththe intentionofrevealingthatremembranceoftheGreatWarstretched waybeyondformalcommemorativeactivity.Italsorevealsthatthe ‘wartouch’,touseMichaelWilliams’shighlyusefulandinsightful phrase,couldbediscernedacrossculturalexpressions,particularly inthe sand s.7 Asourstudyshows,this ‘touch’ meantthat althoughYpresmayhavebeenreified,itexistedinanumberof differentregistersinpopularcultureandwasquotidianaswellas ethereal.YpreswasthehomeoftheMeninGatememorial and providedthenameforagreyhound, ‘YpresMist’,aswellasaWest Londongarage,justasLangemarckwasa ‘sacredsite’ and thename ofstreetsandbusstopsacrossGermany.
Realizingthisquotidianaspectalsomadeclearthemultivocal elementofthememoryofYpres:manytriedto ‘ own ’ Ypresoutright andsomeweremoresuccessfulthanothersatputtingtheirown stampontheplace notablytheImperialWarGravesCommission (IWGC) butitwasnoone’ssolepossession.Thesheerbreadthof meaningsandinterpretationsrevealsmuchaboutagencyandauthorityoverYpres.Vastnumbersofindividualsandgroupsfeltthatthey hadaspecialclaimoverYpres(indeedthiscanstillbedetectedtoday). Thiscreatedasituationinwhichgroupsandpeoplejostledforspace andinfluence,workinghardtoenlistothersintheircauseandtogain therighttoactasspokespersonforthatcause.Somegroupings provedinfluentialoveraconsiderablespan,othershadgadfly-like existences,butthecrucialthingwastheircommonagreementthat Ypreswasspecialandneededrememberingandcommemorating. Whatpreciselyneededrememberingandcommemoratingwas,of course,amatterkeenlycontested.8 Historiographically,thisissignificantforitscomplicatingofthestory.Muchoftheliteratureon
Germany’srelationshipwithYpresandFlandershasfocusedonthe rightwing’sdominationofwarmemory.9 Butourresearchledusto theconclusionthatwarcommemorationwasnotsimplyarehearsal forfascisminGermany.AndevenwhentheNazisappropriated Langemarcktheyoftencontradictedthemselves.Thereisnotasimple Germanmetanarrativeassomehistorianshavesuggested.10 Bythe sametoken,theworkoftheIWGCmayhavelaudedtheeffortsofthe BritishEmpire,butformenlikeSirFabianWare,itsvicechairmanand guidinglight,theMeninGatecouldalsobeasiteofreconciliationfor theveteransoftheopposingarmies.Muchoftheliteratureoncommemorationis,naturallyenough,centredonthekeyexpressionsof corporateremembranceandindividualmemoryintheformofstudies ofwarmemorials.Moreover,thevastmajorityofthisliterature concentratesonmemorialserectedonthehomefrontandhow peoplesoughttodealwithmassdeathalongwayfromthe fighting zone. 11 Here,thefocusisonthe fieldsofbattleandtheextenttowhich publicattentionremained fixatedonthesitesofcombat.
However,thememoriallandscapeofYpreswasmuchmorethan theconsciously-constructed.Indeed,thechainofeventsandcausality needtobeemphasized:aplacehasthingsbuiltonitbecausetheplace itselfisdeemedsignificant.Thismaysoundanextremelyobvious point,butitneedstobestatednonetheless.Ypres,anditshinterland, isalandscapesaturatedwithdiscretelocationswhichhavebeen investedwithspecialsignificance.ThismakesYpresaworldof ‘microgeographies’ andcircuitsofremembrancecriss-crossedwithleylines, ofwhichsomeremaineasilytraceableinthelandscape,somehave disappeared,whileothersareemergingasnewinterestsandpreoccupationsenterthesceneofpublicandprivatecommemoration.12
Asmanyhistoriansandcommentatorsoncommemorationand memoryhavenoted,seeminglywell-establishedtraditionsandmodes ofexpressionareinfactconstantlybeingreorientedandreworked.By thesametoken,muchoftheliteratureonFirstWorldWarcommemorationadoptsrelativelynarrowtimeframesandinsertsconvenient andjustifiablestartandstopdateswith – averycommonperiod
ofstudy.Thankstotheabilitytoconcentrateonaparticularaspect andsite,wehavehadtheopportunitytocoveramuchbroader chronologicalsweepincludingthe ‘prehistory’ ofYpres,whichneeds tobeexploredifitssubsequentreificationistobefullyunderstood.At thesametime,theresearchrevealedtousthatinthecaseofYpresthe footprintoftheFirstWorldWarcanbedetectedinthesecondglobal conflict.TheimaginedYpresloomedlargeespeciallyin and . TherewasnoforgettingintheSecondWorldWar;ratherYpreswas incorporatedintoanew(hi)story.
InvestigatingthisrichlydetailedFlemishtapestryofahistoryhas requiredagreatdealofresearchinanextensiverangeofarchives. MaterialhasbeenaccessedfromthestatearchivesofAustralia,Britain, Canada,France,Germany,andNewZealand;localandregional archiveshavebeenexploredacrosstheUnitedKingdomandNorthern Ireland,inBelgiumandGermany, aswellasmuseumarchivesand collectionsinBritainandBelgium,andweareparticularlygratefulto theassistancewehavereceivedfromthestaffoftheInFlanders FieldsMuseum.Yetthespatialturnrequireshistorianstorethink andenhancetheirresearchmethods.Thus,inadditiontoclassical historicalresearchinarchivesandlibraries,wehaveundertaken fi eldworkinandaroundYpres,walkingtheformerbattle fi eldsand visitingthewarcemeteries.Allthishelpedustounderstandthe fascinatinghistoryofYpresand itsloomingpresenceintheremembranceoftheGreatWar.
NoteonPlaceNames
Thespellingofplacenameshasalteredgreatlyovertheyears.Asa generalrule,wehaveusedthecommonspellingsineachtimeperiod andthemodernDutch/Flemishonlywheresemanticsbecameimportanttothedebateoverthemeaningandownershipofwarmemoriesand commemorativepractices.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Therearemanypeopleandinstitutionstowhichweowethanks forassistance,encouragement,andsupport.SirHewStrachan invitedustowritethisbookfortheGreatBattlesseries,andhealso offeredperceptivecommentsonthemanuscript.SophieDeSchaepdrijver,selflesslygenerouswithherexpertiseandtime,undertook toreadtheentire firstdraft.Forvaluablesuggestionsonearlierdrafts ofchapters,wearealsogratefultomembersofthereadinggroupof theCentrefortheHistoryofWar,MediaandSocietyattheUniversity ofKent,notablyWilliamButlerandMarkLawrence.Foradviceon speci fi cpoints,wewishtothankwarmlyDominiekDendooven, SergeDur fl inger,MalcolmGaskill,TimGodden,MarkusKöster,Ulf Schmidt,GerhardSchneider,BerndThier,BrunoDeWever,andNico Wouters.
TheBritishAcademyandtheLeverhulmeTrustfacilitatedthe researchforthisbookthroughaSmallResearchGrantwhich madeabigdifference.AdditionalsupportwasprovidedbytheSchool ofHistoryatKentandtheAHRC-funded ‘GatewaystotheFirst WorldWar’ project.WearegratefultoourresearchassistantsAoife O’Gorman,PhilippaGregory,KatiaGünther,JanineRischke-Neß, FemkeSoetaert,andChristinaTheodosiou.Weshouldliketorecord ourappreciationtothestaffofthearchives,libraries,andmuseums thatwevisitedinthecourseofourresearch,especiallyPietChielens andhiscolleaguesattheInFlandersFieldsMuseum,AndrewFetherstonandthearchivesteamattheCommonwealthWarGravesCommission,DebbieManhaeveatthePasschendaeleMemorialMuseum, andPeterPäßleroftheVolksbundDeutscheKriegsgräberfürsorge. Finally,weareindebtedtotwochildrenofIWGCgardeners,George
GoddenandMarySetchfield,forsharingtheirmemoriesandphotographsofYpres.
AtOxfordUniversityPress,LucianaO’Flaherty,MatthewCotton, andMarthaCunneenprovidedexpertguidance.Everyefforthasbeen madetosecurenecessarypermissionstoreproducecopyrightmaterialinthisbook,thoughinsomecasesithasprovedimpossibleto tracecopyrightholders.Ifanyomissionsarebroughttoourattention, weshallbehappytoincludeappropriateacknowledgementson reprinting.
Thisbookisanexerciseincomparativeandtransnationalhistory, andaproductofcollectiveresearch.Allchaptersinthisbookwere jointlywrittenbytheauthors.
MARKCONNELLY and STEFANGOEBEL Canterbury,October
ListofFigures
ListofMaps
ListofAbbreviations
.Prologue:TheSalientFacts
.YpresbeforeYpres,
.YpresduringYpres,
.TheNewBattleforYpres,
.NewBattlesforLangemarck,
.IeperinPeace,
.Conclusion:WipersattheCentenary
Notes
Bibliography
PictureAcknowledgements
Index
LISTOFFIGURES
. ‘TheRampartsofYpres’ byWilliamStrang.Engraving,
.TheClothHallaroundtheturnofthetwentiethcentury, andimmediateaftertheconflict.TheClothHallwasnot completelyrestoreduntilaftertheSecondWorldWar
.Victimsofgasattackof April .Germanphotograph, April
.BookcoveroftheGerman-languageeditionof TheStoryofYpres by HughB.C.Pollard,
.TemporaryhousinginYpres.Postcardseries ‘TheRuinsof Ypres’ , c.
.TomboftheUnknownWarriorinWestminsterAbbeyin London.Postcard, c.October
.HHPrinceMauriceofBattenberg’sgraveatYpresTown cemetery.Photograph,May
.StMartin’sCathedralandthelawcourts.Postcardseries ‘TheRuinsatYpres’ withhandwrittennote(‘Thisisaghastly city’),
‘NoMan’sLandCanteen’ atHill .Photograph,
.Hotel ‘Ypriana’ and ‘WarSouvenirs’ shopinYpres.Postcard, c
.Hotel ‘Excelsior’ inYpres.Postcard, c.
. ‘RedCars’ battlefieldtoursitinerary.Advertisement, c.
. ‘RedCars’ battle fieldtoursmap.Advertisement, c.
. ‘London’ garageandtearoomsneartheMeninGatememorial. Postcard, c.
.IrishMunstercrossandtheruinsofthecathedral.Postcard,
.PartofthewarpanoramabyAlfredBastien.Postcard, c.
.TheMeninGatememorialduringtheBritishLegionpilgrimagein August .Pressphotograph,
‘FieldofHonour’ andmoatwithredpoppiesatLangemarckwar cemetery.Commemorativevolume,
.KätheandKarlKollwitzwithworkersand GrievingParents (father)sculptureatEsenwarcemetery.Photograph,July
.YserToweratDixmude.Postcard, c
.FrenchgasmemorialatSteenstraat.Postcard, c
.FrenchmemorialatMountKemmel.Germansoldier’s snapshots,
.LangemarckHallinthebelltoweroftheOlympicstadium inBerlinbuiltin .Photograph,April
.StreetsignforLangemarckstraßeinFreiburg’s ‘heroes’ quarter’ openedin .Photograph,August
.HitlervisitingtheLangemarckwarcemetery.Photographby HeinrichHoffmann,June
.MeninGatememorial.Postagestamp,
.Twenty-fifthYserPilgrimage.Postagestamp,
.YserToweratDixmude.Postagestamp,
.BusstopatLangemarckplatzinKoblenznamedduring s. Photograph,August
.IslandofIrelandPeaceParkatMessinesopenedinNovember .Photograph,May
LISTOFMAPS
.Ypresanditssurroundingbattle fields,
.TheFlandersFront,
.Portionofamapproducedby C.A.T.A.Tours,Brussels, c.
.Ieper,
LISTOFABBREVIATIONS
BArchBundesarchiv
BArch-MABundesarchiv–Militärarchiv
BArch-SAPMOBundesarchiv–StiftungArchivderParteienund MassenorganisationenderDDR
BayHStABayerischesHauptstaatsarchiv
BBCBritishBroadcastingCorporation
BEFBritishExpeditionaryForce
BRTBelgischRadio-enTelevisieomroep
CWGCCommonwealthWarGravesCommission(since )
GHQGeneralHeadquarters
HStASHauptstaatsarchivStuttgart
IRAIrishRepublicanArmy
IWGCImperialWarGravesCommission(–)
LACLibraryandArchivesCanada
NCOnon-commissionedofficer
PAAAPolitischesArchivdesAuswärtigenAmts
RTBRadio-TélévisionBelge
StdAStadtarchiv
TLSTimesLiterarySupplement
TNATheNationalArchives
VADVoluntaryAidDetachment
VDKVolksbundDeutscheKriegsgräberfürsorge
YMCAYoungMen’sChristianAssociation
