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THERMOPYLAE
GREATBATTLES THERMOPYLAE
CHRISCAREY
3
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ToPauline,Chrys,Nick,andLaura
withlove,admiration,andgratitudetohaveyouinmylife
FOREWORD
Forthosewhopractisewarinthetwenty-firstcenturytheideaofa ‘greatbattle’ canseemnomorethantheechoofaremotepast.The namesonregimentalcoloursortheeventscommemoratedatmess dinnersbearlittlerelationshiptopatrollingindustyvillagesorwaging ‘warsamongstthepeople’.Contemporarymilitarydoctrinedownplaystheideaofvictory,arguingthatwarsendbynegotiationnotby thesmashingofanenemyarmyornavy.Indeediterodesthevery divisionbetweenwarandpeace,andwithittheaspirationto fighta culminating ‘greatbattle’ .
Andyettotakebattleoutofwaristoredefinewar,possiblytothe pointwheresomewouldarguethatitceasestobewar.Carlvon Clausewitz,whoexperiencedtwo ‘greatbattles’ at firsthand Jenain andBorodinoin wroteinOnWarthatmajorbattleis ‘concentratedwar’,and ‘thecentreofgravityoftheentirecampaign’ . Clausewitz’sremarksrelatedtothetheoryofstrategy.Herecognized thatinpracticearmiesmightavoidbattles,buteventhentheefficacy oftheiractionsreliedonthelatentthreatof fighting.WinstonChurchill sawtheimportanceofbattlesindifferentterms,notfortheirplace withinwarbutfortheirimpactonhistoricalandnationalnarratives.His forebear,theDukeofMarlborough,commandedinfourmajorbattles andnamedhispalaceafterthemostfamousofthem,Blenheim,fought in .Battles,ChurchillwroteinhisbiographyofMarlborough,are ‘theprincipalmilestonesinsecularhistory’.Forhim ‘Greatbattles,won orlost,changetheentirecourseofevents,createnewstandardsof values,newmoods,newatmospheres,inarmiesandnations,towhich allmustconform’ .
Clausewitz’sexperienceofwarwasshapedbyNapoleon.Like Marlborough,theFrenchemperorsoughttobringhisenemiesto battle.However,eachlivedwithinacenturyoftheother,andthey foughttheirwarsinthesamecontinentandevenonoccasionon adjacentground.WinstonChurchill’sownexperienceofwar,which spannedthelatenineteenth-centurycolonialcon flictsoftheBritish Empireaswellastwoworldwars,becameincreasinglydistancedfrom thesortsofbattleheandClausewitzdescribed.In Churchillrode inacavalrychargeinabattlewhichcrushedtheMadhistforcesofthe Sudaninasingleday.FouryearslatertheBritishcommanderat Omdurman,LordKitchener,broughttheSouthAfricanWartoa conclusionafteratwo-yearguerrillaconflictinwhichnoclimactic battleoccurred.BothChurchillandKitchenerservedasBritishcabinet ministersintheFirstWorldWar,acon flictinwhichbattleslasted weeks,andevenmonths,andwhich,despitetheirscaleandduration, didnotproduceclear-cutoutcomes.The ‘Battle’ ofVerdunranforall butonemonthof andthatoftheSommefor fivemonths.The potentiallydecisivenavalactionatJutlandspannedamoretraditional twenty-four-hourtimetablebutwasnotconclusiveandwasnot replicatedduringthewar.IntheSecondWorldWar,themajor struggleinwatersadjacenttoEurope,the ‘Battle’ oftheAtlantic,was foughtfrom toearly .
Clausewitzwouldhavecalledthesetwentieth-century ‘battles’ campaigns,orevenseenthemaswarsintheirownright.Thedeterminationtoseekbattleandtovenerateitseffectsmaythereforebe culturallydetermined,theproductoftimeandplace,ratherthanan inherentattributeofwar.TheancienthistorianVictorDavisHanson hasarguedthatseekingbattleisa ‘westernwayofwar’ derivedfrom classicalGreece.SeeminglysupportiveofhisargumentarethewritingsofSunTzu,who flourishedinwarringstatesinChinabetween twoand fivecenturiesbeforethebirthofChrist,andwhopointedout thatthemosteffectivewayofwagingwarwastoavoidtherisksand dangersofactual fighting.Hansonhasprovokedstrongcriticism: thosewhoarguethatwarscanbewonwithoutbattlesarenotonly
tobefoundinAsia.Eighteenth-centuryEuropeancommanders, deployingarmiesinclose-orderformationsinordertodeliverconcentrated fires,realizedthatthedestructiveconsequencesofbattlefor theirowntroopscouldbeself-defeating.AftertheFirstWorldWar, BasilLiddellHartdevelopedatheoryofstrategywhichhecalled ‘theindirectapproach’,andsuggestedthatmanoeuvremightsubstituteforhard fighting,evenifitssuccessstillreliedontheinherent threatofbattle.
Thewinnersofbattleshavebeencelebratedasheroes,andnations haveusedtheirtriumphstoestablishtheirfoundingmyths.Itis preciselyforthesereasonsthattheirlegacieshaveoutlivedtheirdirect politicalconsequences.Commemoratedinpainting,verse,andmusic, markedbymonumentalmemorials,andusedasthewaypointsfor theperiodizationofhistory,theyhaveenjoyedculturalafterlives. Theseareevidentinmanycapitals,inplacenamesandstatues,not leastinParisandLondon.TheFrenchtouristwho findshimselfina LondontaxitravellingfromTrafalgarSquaretoWaterlooStation shouldreflectonhisorherowndomesticperegrinationsfromthe RuedeRivolitotheGared’Austerlitz.Today’sMongoliavenerates thememoryofGenghisKhanwhileGreeceandMacedoniascrapover therightstoAlexandertheGreat.
Thisseriesofbookson ‘greatbattles’ tipsitshattobothClausewitz andChurchill.Eachofitsvolumessituatesthebattlewhichitdiscusses inthecontextofthewarinwhichitoccurred,buteachthengoeson todiscussitslegacy,itshistoricalinterpretationandreinterpretation, itsplaceinnationalmemoryandcommemoration,anditsmanifestationsinartandculture.Thesearenoteasybookstowrite.Thevictors weremoreoftencelebratedthanthedefeated;theeffectoflossonthe battle fieldcouldbeculturaloblivion.However,thatpointisnot universallytrue:theBritishhavedonemoreovertimetomarktheir defeatsatGallipoliin andDunkirkin thantheirconquerors onbothoccasions.Forthehistoryofwartothriveandbeproductive itneedstoembracetheviewfrom ‘theothersideofthehill’,tousethe DukeofWellington’swords.ThebattletheBritishcallOmdurmanis
fortheSudanesethebattleofKerreri;theGermanscalledWaterloo ‘laBelleAlliance’ andJutlandSkagerrak.Indeedthenamingofbattles coulditselfbeasignnotonlyofgeographicalprecisionorimprecision (Kerreriismoreaccuratebutasahillratherthanatownisharderto findonasmall-scalemap),butalsoofculturalchoice.In the GermangeneralstaffoptedtonametheirdefeatoftheRussiansinEast PrussianotAllenstein(asgeographysuggested)butTannenberg,in ordertoclaimrevengeforthedefeatoftheTeutonicKnightsin . Militaryhistory,morethanmanyotherformsofhistory,isbound upwithnationalstories.Alltoofrequentlyitfailstobecomparative, torecognizethatwarisa ‘clashofwills’ (toquoteClausewitzonce more),andsoomitstoaddressbothpartiestothe fight.Cultural differenceand,evenmore,linguisticignorancecanpreventthehistorianconsideringabattleintheround;sotoocantheavailabilityof sources.Levelsofliteracymatterhere,butsodoesculturalsurvival. Oftenthesepressurescanbecongruentbuttheycanalsobedivergent. BritainenjoysmuchhigherlevelsofliteracythanAfghanistan,butin thememoryofthetwocountries’ threewars flourishedinthe latter,thankstoanoraltradition,muchmorerobustlythaninthe former,forwhomliteracyhadcreateddistance.Andthehistorianwho addressesculturallegacyislikelytofaceamuchmorechallengingtask thefurtherinthepastthebattleoccurred.Theopportunityforinventionandreinventionissimplygreaterthelongerthelapseoftime sincethekeyevent.
Allhistoriansofwarmust,nonetheless,neverforgetthat,however richandsplendidtheculturallegacyofagreatbattle,itwaswonand lostby fighting,bykillingandbeingkilled.ThebattleofWaterloohas leftasabundantafootprintasany,butthegeneralwhoharvested mostofitsgloryreflectedonitintermswhichhavegeneralapplicability,andcarryacrosstimeintheircapacitytocaptureauniversal truth.WellingtonwrotetoLadyShelleyinitsimmediateaftermath: ‘IhopetoGodIhavefoughtmylastbattle.Itisabadthingtobe always fighting.WhileinthethickofitIammuchtoooccupiedtofeel anything;butitiswretchedjustafter.Itisquiteimpossibletothinkof
glory.Bothmindandfeelingsareexhausted.Iamwretchedevenatthe momentofvictory,andIalwayssaythat,nexttoabattlelost,the greatestmiseryisabattlegained.’ Readersofthisseriesshouldnever forgettheimmediatesufferingcausedbybattle,aswellasthecourage requiredtoengageinit:thephysicalcourageofthesoldier,sailor,or warrior,andthemoralcourageofthecommander,readytohazardall onitsuncertainoutcomes.
HEWSTRACHAN
PREFACE
IhadforsometimebeencontemplatingabookonThermopylaein tandemwithaprojectonbook ofHerodotus,ourearliestsurvivingsourceforthebattle.SoIwasdelightedwhenHewStrachan invitedmetocontributetotheOxfordUniversityPress GreatBattles series.Iamverygratefultohimforhiscarefulreadingandannotation ofsuccessivedrafts;Ihaveinalmosteveryinstanceacceptedhis suggestions.ThanksareduetothePressreadersfortheircomments ontheinitialproposalandespeciallytotheanonymousreaderwho subjectedthe firstdrafttoaclosecriticalscrutinyandofferedrobust, detailed,andthoughtfulcomments.Ihaveinallcasessoughtto addressthereader’scriticisms,evenwhereIhaveallowedthethrust oftheargumenttostand.Iamhappy finallytobeabletoexpressmy thankstoanumberoffriendsandcolleagueswhohelpedmealong theway.RobertGarlandkindlyinvitedmetolectureonThermopylae atColgateCollege,NY,severalyearsagowhentheprojectwasstillits infancy,withsupportfromtheCenterforFreedomandWestern CivilizationunderitsDirector,ProfessorRobertP.Kraynak.This allowedmetobegintheprocessofturningvaguethoughtsinto hardquestions.Ihavefondmemoriesofwarmhospitalityandof livelydebateaboutancientGreeceandmodernAmerica(thesewere theheadydaysoftheriseoftheTeaParty)overalongandleisurely dinnerwithfacultyatColgate.IoweadeepdebtofthankstoGiorgos TeliosandhiswifeAlicefortheirgeneroushospitalityinAthensand AgiosKonstantinos.GiorgosandIwalkedtheAnopaeatogetherona beautifulJunemorning,guidedbyStylianosGkekasandKostasApostolopoulos,veteransoftheAnopaearace,andaccompaniedbymy verygoodfriendProfessorAthanasios(Thanasis)Efstathiouofthe
IonianUniversityofCorfuandhiscolleagueSokratisPoulis.Nike PolychroniadisandherhusbandApolloniosGogossharedtheir detailedknowledgeoftheareaaroundThermopylaeaswescoped possibleentrypointstotheAnopaeaandreportedtomeonApollonios’ laterexpeditions.IamgratefultoIanBeckettforsharingsources relatingtoRorke’sDriftandIsandlwana,thesubjectofhis volumeinthe GreatBattles series.Thanksarealsoduetothestaffat OxfordUniversityPress,fromwhomIhavereceivedexcellentsupport from firsttolast,andespeciallytoRowenaAnketell,whosavedme fromerrorsatthecopy-editingstage.Butmyprincipaldebtistomy wifePauline,whofollowedXerxes’ routewithmeacrosswestern Turkey,overtheHellespontandthroughGreeceasfarastheGates, andasifthatweren’tenoughdiscussedanddebatedissueslargeand smallwithinfinitepatienceasthebookdeveloped,then finallyread andcommentedonsuccessivedraftswithacuteandsensitivejudgementbothonstyleandoncontent.
Writingthisbookhasbeenapleasurefrom firsttolast,aboutas muchfunasyoucanhavewithyourclotheson.Whetherthesame canbesaidofreadingitIleavethereadertojudge.
CHRISCAREY March
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Wherenototherwisespeci fiedtheillustrationsarefromphotographstakenbymeduringresearchvisitstoGreeceand Turkey.Thefollowingarethankedfortheirkindpermissiontoreproducedrawings,images,andtext:
Map ,thePersianEmpirefrom CambridgeAncientHistory,voliv (ndedn., ) CambridgeUniversityPress; ExtractfromMargaretAtwood, ‘TheLonelinessoftheMilitary Historian’—HoughtonMifflinHarcourt; ExtractfromJohnE.Brookes ‘Thermopylae ’—MrsE.M.Brookes, MrJeremyBrookesandTheVisitorLtd,formerlyBadgerPublications; ExtractfromSylviaPlath, ‘LetterinNovember’—FaberandFaber; EmilyDickinson, ‘“Gotellit”—Whatamessage’—ThePoemsofEmily Dickinson,editedbyThomasH.Johnson,Cambridge,MA:TheBelknap PressofHarvardUniversityPress,Copyright© , bythe PresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.Copyright©renewed , bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.Copyright © , , ,
, ,byMartha DickinsonBianchi;Copyright© ,
,
, ,byMary L.Hampson;
Figure ,Hoplites fightinginformation;detailfromtheChigi vase WorldHistoryArchive/AnnRonanCollection/agefotostock; Figure , LeonidasatThermopylae byDavid AnnRonanPictures/ HeritageImage/agefotostock;
Figure , RuinsofMonteCassino ARNOLDOMONDADORI EDITORES.P./MondadoriPortfolio/agefotostock; Figure ,PhotographofDimitriHadzi, Thermopylae RobinLevine.
ThefollowingimagesarereproducedunderCreativeCommons licenceoraspublicdomainimages:
Figure ,Persiancoin(‘Daric’)showingthekingasarcher.Digital imagecourtesyoftheGetty’sOpenContentProgram;
Figure ,Persianarchers,possiblymembersoftheeliteImmortals, Wikimediacommons/CaroleRaddato/CC-BY-SA- .;
Figure ,PersianandMediantroopsfromPersepoliswiththe smallerPersianshield,Wikimediacommons/Arad/CC-BY-SA- .;
Figure .DariusIIIwearingthe tiara ,Wikimediacommons/Carole Raddato/CC-BY-SA-.
Figure ,StatueofCambronneatNantes,Wikimediacommons/ AdamBishop/CC-BY-SA-.
Figure ,Alamomission,Wikimediacommons/DanielSchwen/ CC-BY-SA-.;
Figure ,LaststandhillLittleBighorn,Wikimediacommons/ wil/CC-BY-SA- .;
Figure ,RuinsofStalingrad,RIANovostiarchive,image#/ Zelma/CC-BY-SA .;
Figure ,KohimaMemorial,Wikimediacommons/Isaxar/CC-BYSA-.;
Figure ,AchaemenidkingkillingaGreekhoplite,MarcoPrins;
Figure ,AerialViewoftheMiddleGate,waseditedfromanimage downloadedfromGoogleMaps.
Inaddition,anumberofmapsweredigitallyredactedbymyselfand redrawnbystaffatOUPfrompreviouslypublishedmaps.Map , GreeceandtheAegean,wasbasedonMap inRobinWaterfield’s translationof Demosthenes fortheOxfordWorldClassics(Oxford, ),p.xxxii.Map ,Thermopylae BC,isbasedontheonline illustrationontheLiviuswebsitecreatedbyJonaLendering.Map ,the MiddleGateatThermopylae,wasultimatelybasedonthemapin D.Müller, TopographischesBildkommentarzuHerodot, Griechenland ( ), andheavilyrevisedundertheinfluenceofS.Marinatos,F.Stählin, E.Meyer,andW.K.Pritchett.Map ,PossibleroutesfortheAnopaea, isbasedonthemapofP.W.Wallace, ‘TheAnopiaiaPathat
Thermopylai’ , AmericanJournalofArchaeology ().Map of SalamiswasreproducedfromHignett, Xerxes’ InvasionofGreece (OUP, ).
Translationsaremyown,thoughforstyleandaccuracyIhavealso consultedpublishedtranslations.InthecaseofOldPersiandocuments IdrewonthetranslationsofMariaBrosiusandAmelieKuhrt(listedin theFurtherReading,p. ),whichIrevisedusingtheonlineresources oftheUniversityofTexasatAustinLinguisticsResearchCenter (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/).
ListofFigures
Introduction
ReadingThermopylae TheProblems
ThePass
ThePersians:TheLongRoadtothePass
TheGreeks
TheBattle
ThermopylaeRefought
ThermopylaeintheAncientWorld
TheMythintheModernEra
AndFinally...
FurtherReading
LISTOFFIGURES
.ThermopylaeseenfromtheplainofMalis
.Thermopylaefromthehillsabove
.ThehotspringsatThermopylae
.ArrowheadsfoundatThermopylae
.The ‘Phocian ’ Wall
.AerialViewoftheMiddleGate
.TheHellespont(Dardanelles)atitsnarrowest,site ofXerxes’ doublebridge
.ThesouthernendofXerxes’ canalthroughMountAthos
.ThevalleyofTempe
.Artemisium/Pefki,thesiteoftheGreekanchorage in BC
.Aphetae/Platania,thesiteofthePersiananchorage in BC
.Persiancoin(‘Daric’)showingthekingasarcher
.Persianarchers,possiblymembersoftheeliteImmortals
.Hopliteshield
.Hoplites fightinginformation;detailfromtheChigivase
. ‘Corinthian’ helmetfromtheMuseumatOlympia
.PersianandMediantroopsfromPersepoliswiththe smallerPersianshield
.DariusIIIwearingthe tiara
.AsoposGorge
.Thehillofthe finalstand(Kolonos)
.StatueofLeonidasatThermopylae
. LeonidasatThermopylae byDavid
.StatueofCambronneatNantes
.RemainsoftheAlamomission
.LaststandhillLittleBighorn
.RuinsofStalingrad
.KohimaMemorial
.RuinsofMonteCassino
.DimitriHadzi: Thermopylae
.Achaemenidcylinderseal
LISTOFMAPS
.GreeceandtheAegeanxxvi
.Thermopylae BC
.ThePersianEmpire
.MiddleGate(Greekposition)atThermopylae
.PossibleroutesfortheAnopaea
.Salamis
ABBREVIATIONS
Diod.Sic.DiodorusofSicily
Hdt.Herodotus
IsocIsocrates
Lycurg.Lycurgus
Lys.Lysias
Paus.Pausanias
PMGD.L.Page, PoetaeMeliciGraeci
Stob.JohnofStobi
Thuc.Thucydides
Tyrtaeus
Fr.West
TyrtaeusfragmentscitedfromM.L.West, IambietElegi Graeci
