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The “Third” UnitedNations
The “Third ” United Nations
HowaKnowledgeEcologyHelps theUNThink
TATIANACARAYANNIS and THOMASG.WEISS
3
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AbouttheAuthors
TatianaCarayannis isdirectoroftheSocialScienceResearchCouncil’sConflict PreventionandPeaceForum(CPPF),UnderstandingViolentConflict(UVC)program,andChina-AfricaKnowledgeProject.Shehasavisitingappointmentatthe LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience’sAfricaCentreandDepartmentof InternationalDevelopment,whereshealsoservesasaresearchdirectorfortheCentre forPublicAuthorityandInternationalDevelopment(CPAID).Untilrecently,she convenedtheDRCAffinityGroup,asmallbraintrustofleadingCongoscholarsand analysts.Shehasbeenbuildingbridgesbetweenresearchersandpolicypractitioners fortwodecades.AscholarofinternationalorganizationandCentralAfrica,particularlytheDRC,herresearchfocusesonconflictprevention,thenetworkeddynamicsof violence,UNpeacekeepingandpreventivediplomacy,evidenced-basedpolicymaking, andtheagenda-settingroleofUNhumanrightsanddevelopmentideas.Shehas conductedextensive fieldworkinCentralAfrica,andhaswrittenandlecturedwidely ontheseissues.Herbooksinclude UNVoices:TheStruggleforDevelopmentandSocial Justice (co-authoredwithThomasG.Weissetal.,2005)and MakingSenseofthe CentralAfricanRepublic (co-editedwithLouisaLombard,2015).Currentbookprojectsinclude PioneersofPeacekeeping:ONUC1960–1964 and AnatomyofRebellion:JP BembaandtheMouvementdeLibérationduCongo.CarayannisholdsaPhDandMA inpoliticalsciencefromTheCityUniversityofNewYorkGraduateCenterandNew YorkUniversity.ShegrewupinCentralandWestAfricaandpre-pandemiccould usuallybefoundonanairplane.
ThomasG.Weiss is fightingvaliantlyagainstseniormomentsandcreakingjointsas PresidentialProfessorofPoliticalScienceattheGraduateCenteroftheCityUniversity ofNewYorkandDirectorEmeritusoftheRalphBuncheInstituteforInternational Studies.HeisalsoDistinguishedFellow,GlobalGovernance,attheChicagoCouncil onGlobalAffairs,andEminentInternationalScholaratKyungHeeUniversity,Korea. Hewasa2016AndrewCarnegieFellowandapastpresidentoftheInternational StudiesAssociation(2009–10)aswellastherecipientofits “2016DistinguishedIO ScholarAward.” OtherrecentpostsincludedResearchProfessoratSOAS,University ofLondon(2012–15);ChairoftheAcademicCouncilontheUNSystem(2006–9); editorof GlobalGovernance (2000–5);andResearchDirectoroftheInternational CommissiononInterventionandStateSovereignty(2000–1).Hehaswrittenextensivelyaboutmultilateralapproachestointernationalpeaceandsecurity,humanitarian action,andsustainabledevelopment.Hislatestsingle-authoredbooksare Wouldthe WorldBeBetterwithouttheUN? (2018); What’sWrongwiththeUnitedNationsand HowtoFixIt (2016); HumanitarianIntervention:IdeasinAction (2016); Governing
theWorld?Addressing “ProblemswithoutPassports” (2014); GlobalGovernance:Why? What?Whither? (2013); HumanitarianBusiness (2013);and ThinkingaboutGlobal Governance:PeopleandIdeasMatter (2011).Heisalsomostrecentlytheeditorof RoutledgeHandbookontheUNandDevelopment (2021,withStephenBrowne),the secondeditionof TheOxfordHandbookontheUnitedNations (2018,withSamDaws), andthesecondeditionof InternationalOrganizationandGlobalGovernance (2018, withRordenWilkinson).
ListofFigures,Tables,andBox
Figures
1.1InteractionsamongtheThreeUnitedNations20
1.2HistoricaloverviewofthenumberofIGOsandINGOs,1909–201731
1.3ParentTNCsandforeignaffiliates, WorldInvestmentReport 1992–200932
Tables
2.1NumberandratioofINGOsandIGOsfoundedbydecade,1900–201942
4.1Numberofthinktanksbyregion,2018104
Box
4.1Thefunctionsofknowledgebrokers107
ListofAbbreviations
A4PActionforPeacekeeping
AGEAdvisoryGroupofExpertsonPeacebuilding
AIAmnestyInternational
AIartificialintelligence
AMISOMAfricanUnionMissioninSomalia
APMBCAnti-PersonnelMineBanConvention
ASEANAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations
AUAfricanUnion
BRIBeltandRoadInitiative[China]
BRICSBrazil,Russia,India,China,andSouthAfrica[Groupof]
CARCentralAfricanRepublic
CARICOMCaribbeanCommunity
CCACommonCountryAssessment
CDPCommitteeonDevelopmentPolicy(previouslyPlanning)
CEDAWConventionontheEliminationofallformsofDiscriminationagainst Women
CGPCSContactGroupforPiracyofftheCoastofSomalia
CHRCommissiononHumanRights
CICCenterforInternationalCooperation
CICCCoalitionfortheInternationalCriminalCourt
CISCommonwealthofIndependentStates
CMCClusterMunitionCoalition
CONGOConferenceofNon-governmentalOrganizationsinConsultative RelationshipwiththeUnitedNations
COPConferenceofParties
CPPFConflictPreventionandPeaceForum
CRASHCentredeRéflexionsurl’ActionetlesSavoirsHumanitaires
CSDCommissiononSustainableDevelopment
CSRcorporatesocialresponsibility
DACDevelopmentAssistanceCommittee[oftheOECD]
DaODeliveringasOne
DCAFGenevaCentreforSecuritySectorGovernance
DESADepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs
DHADepartmentofHumanitarianAffairs
DHFDagHammarskjöldFoundation
DPADepartmentofPoliticalAffairs
DPETDepartmentofPolicy,Education,andTraining
DPIDepartmentofPublicInformation
DPKODepartmentofPeacekeepingOperations
DPODepartmentofPeaceOperations
DPPADepartmentofPoliticalandPeacebuildingAffairs
DRCDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo
ECAEconomicCommissionforAfrica
ECLA[C]EconomicCommissionforLatinAmerica[andtheCaribbean,after 1984]
ECOSOCEconomicandSocialCouncil
ECOWASEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates
ECPSExecutiveCommitteeonPeaceandSecurity
EEZExclusiveEconomicZone
EISASElectronicInformationandStrategicAnalysisunitintheSecretariat
EOSGExecutiveOfficeoftheSecretary-General
ERCEmergencyReliefCoordinator
ESCAPEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific
EUEuropeanUnion
FAOFoodandAgricultureOrganization
FDIforeigndirectinvestment
FIFAFédérationInternationaledeFootballAssociation
G-7/G-8GroupofSeven/GroupofEight
G-20Groupof20
G-77Groupof77
GATTGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade
GAVIGlobalAllianceforVaccinesandImmunization
GCCGulfCooperationCouncil
GCRPGenevaCentreforSecurityPolicy
GDPgrossdomesticproduct
GDPRGeneralDataProtectionRegulation
GEFGlobalEnvironmentFacility
GHGsgreenhousegases
GISgeographicinformationsystem
GNIgrossnationalincome
GNPgrossnationalproduct
GONGOgovernment-organizedNGO
GWOTGlobalWaronTerror
HD(Centrefor)HumanitarianDialogue
HDIHumanDevelopmentIndex
HIHandicapInternational
HIPPOHigh-levelIndependentPanelonUNPeaceOperations
HIV/AIDShumanimmunodeficiencyvirus/acquiredimmunedeficiency syndrome
HLPHigh-levelPanel
HLPFHigh-levelPoliticalForum
HPGHumanitarianPolicyGroup
HRCHumanRightsCouncil
HRIHumanitarianResponsesIndex
HRuFHumanRightsupFront
HRWHumanRightsWatch
IAEAInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency
IASCInter-AgencyStandingCommittee
IBRDInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment[WorldBank]
IBSAIndia,Brazil,SouthAfrica[Groupof]
ICANNInternetCorporationforAssignedNamesandNumbers
ICAOInternationalCivilAviationOrganization
ICBLInternationalCampaigntoBanLandmines
ICCInternationalCriminalCourt
ICGInternationalCrisisGroup(orCrisisGroup)
ICISSInternationalCommissiononInterventionandStateSovereignty
ICJInternationalCourtofJustice
ICMInternationalCommissiononMultilateralism
ICRCInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross
ICTRInternationalCriminalTribunalforRwanda
ICTYInternationalCriminalTribunalfortheFormerYugoslavia
IDPinternallydisplacedperson
IFADInternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment
IFRCInternationalFederationoftheRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties
IGOintergovernmentalorganization
IHLinternationalhumanitarianlaw
IHRInternationalHealthRegulations
ILinternationallaw
ILCInternationalLawCommission
ILOInternationalLabourOrganization
IMFInternationalMonetaryFund
IMOInternationalMaritimeOrganization
INGOinternationalnon-governmentalorganization
IOinternationalorganization
IPCCIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange
IPEInternationalPoliticalEconomy
IPIInternationalPeaceInstitute(previouslyInternationalPeaceAcademy)
IRInternationalRelations
IRCInternationalRescueCommittee
IROInternationalRefugeeOrganization
ITUInternationalTelecommunicationsUnion
IUCNInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNature
LGBTQlesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,andqueer
MAGMinesAdvisoryGroup
MIMedicoInternational
MDGMillenniumDevelopmentGoal
MINUSTAHUnitedNationsStabilisationMissioninHaiti
MONUSCOMissiondel’OrganisationdesNations-UniespourlaStabilisationen
RepubliqueDémocratiqueduCongo
MPTFOMulti-PartnerTrustFundOffice
MSFMédecinsSansFrontières[DoctorswithoutBorders]
NAACPNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeoples
NAMNon-AlignedMovement
NATONorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization
NGOnon-governmentalorganization
NIEONewInternationalEconomicOrder
NRANationalRifleAssociation(US)
OASOrganizationofAmericanStates
OCHAOfficefortheCoordinationofHumanitarianAffairs
ODAofficialdevelopmentassistance
OECDOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment
OHCHROfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights
OPCWOrganizationfortheProhibitionofChemicalWeapons
OPECOrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries
OSCEOrganizationforSecurityandCo-operationinEurope
OWGOpenWorkingGroup
OxfamOxfordCommitteeforFamineRelief
P-5permanent fivemembersoftheSecurityCouncil
PBCPeacebuildingCommission
PBFPeacebuildingFund
PBSOPeacebuildingSupportOffice
PCIJPermanentCourtofInternationalJustice
PHRPhysiciansforHumanRights
PMDPolicyandMediationDivision
PoCprotectionofcivilians
R2Presponsibilitytoprotect
RCresidentcoordinator
REFResearchinExcellenceFramework(UK)
RMRRegionalMonthlyReview
RwPResponsibilitywhileProtecting
SCOShanghaiCooperationOrganisation
SCRSecurityCouncilReport
SDGSustainableDevelopmentGoal
SEAsexualexploitationandabuse
SGBVsexualandgender-basedviolence
SIPRISwedishInternationalPeaceResearchInstitute
SNASystemofNationalAccounts
SRSGspecialrepresentativeoftheSecretary-General
SSRCSocialScienceResearchCouncil
SWIFTSocietyforWorldwideInterbankFinancialTelecommunication
TANtransnationaladvocacynetwork
TCCtroop-contributingcountry
TNCtransnationalcorporation
UKUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland
UDHRUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights
UNUnitedNations
UNCEDUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment
UNCHEUnitedNationsConferenceontheHumanEnvironment
UNCHSUnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements[Habitat]
UNCIOUnitedNationsConferenceonInternationalOrganization
UNCTUnitedNationsCountryTeam
UNCTADUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment
UNCTCUnitedNationsCentreonTransnationalCorporations
UNDPUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme
UNEFUnitedNationsEmergencyForce
UNEPUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme
UNESCOUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization
UNFCCCUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange
UNFPAUnitedNationsPopulationFund
UNGCUnitedNationsGlobalCompact
UNHCR[Officeofthe]UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees
UNICEFUnitedNationsChildren’sFund
UNIDOUnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization
UNIFEMUnitedNationsDevelopmentFundforWomen
UNIHPUnitedNationsIntellectualHistoryProject
UNITARUnitedNationsInstituteforTrainingandResearch
UNMOGIPUnitedNationsMilitaryObserverGroupinIndiaandPakistan
UNOGUnitedNationsOfficeinGeneva
UNRISDUnitedNationsResearchInstituteforSocialDevelopment
UNSCUnitedNationsStatisticalCommission
UNSOUnitedNationsStatisticalOffice
UNUUnitedNationsUniversity
UNU-CPRUNUCentreforPolicyResearch
UPUUniversalPostalUnion
USUnitedStatesofAmerica
USSRUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics
VVAFVietnamVeteransofAmericaFoundation
WEFWorldEconomicForum
WFM-IGPWorldFederalistMovement’sInstituteforGlobalPolicy
WFPWorldFoodProgramme
WHOWorldHealthOrganization
WIPOWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization
WMDweaponsofmassdestruction
WMOWorldMeteorologicalOrganization
WTOWorldTradeOrganization
WWFWorldWildlifeFund[WorldWideFundforNature]
Introduction
Thinktanks,knowledgebrokers,andepistemiccommunitiesarephenomena thathaveenteredboththeacademicandpolicylexicons,buttheirintellectual roleremainsmarginaltoanalysesofsuchintergovernmentalorganizations (IGOs)astheUnitedNations(UN).RecenttextsontheUN,ofcourse,discuss non-stateactors,¹butthebulkofanalyticalattentionhasconcentratedon nefariousnon-stateactorsinviolentconflictsandthedifficultiesintheUN’ s responsetothreatstopeaceandsecurity.Inaddition,theessentialoperational roleofnon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)indevelopmentandhumanitarianactionhasalsobeenatopicforresearch,includinganeditedvolumeby oneofusthatisstillinprintandciteddespitehavingappearedaquartercenturyago.²
Theemphasishere,incontrast,isuponthedynamicsandprocessesofideas andnormsand,moreparticularlystill,upontheimpactofasubsetofnonstateactorsonhowtheUNthinks,andhowwethinkabouttheUN.The recognitionoftheessentialroleofscholars,thinktanks,civilsociety,theforprofitprivatesector,andothernon-stateactorsonUNthinkingrequired addinga “ThirdUN” toouranalyticaltoolkitinordertomovebeyondthe binaryconceptofaUnitedNationscomposedofmemberstateswhose directivesarecarriedoutbyinternationalcivilservants.Inshort;weneeded tocaptureaccuratelythepoliticsofknowledgeandnormproductionthat shapethosedirectivesandtheideasandnarrativesthatdrivethem.
Inoneoftheearlyclassictextbooks,InisClaudedubbedmemberstatesthe “FirstUN,” andhecalledtheexecutiveheadsandtheirstaffsininternational secretariatsthe “SecondUN.” Histwo-folddistinction,betweentheworld organizationasanintergovernmentalarenaandasanautonomousactor,³ providedthelensesthroughwhichanalystsoftheUNhavetraditionally peered.However,ourresearch,andespeciallythein-depthoralhistoryinterviews⁴ thatweconductedoveradecadefortheUnitedNationsIntellectual HistoryProject(UNIHP),pointedtoanotherdimension.Ideasareoneofthe UN’smostimportantlegacies;theyhavemadeasubstantialcontributionto humanprogress.However,inordertoexplaintheiroriginsandrefinement,
The “Third” UnitedNations:HowaKnowledgeEcologyHelpstheUNThink.TatianaCarayannisandThomasG.Weiss, OxfordUniversityPress(2021).©TatianaCarayannisandThomasG.Weiss. DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198855859.003.0001
theirapplicationandimpact,werequiredabetterunderstandingofthe intellectual firepowerfromoutsidetheFirstUNandtheSecondUN.⁵
We firstspelledoutthe “ThirdUN” in2009 togetherwithRichardJolly inthejournal GlobalGovernance. ⁶ Manycolleagueshave,overtheyears,cited thatpieceonwhatamountstoan “additional” UNasinsightful.Aswewritein 2020,aquickGooglesearchhasreferencestoitinthe firstseveralhits.Many ofthesamecolleaguesalsoaskedwhywehadnot fleshedouttheconcept,to makeitreflectourimprovedunderstandingofthewaythatideasandnorms flourishorfall flat.Thisbookrespondstothosequeries.HelpingtheUNto think,oursub-title,isespeciallypressingaswe finalizethesepages. Apandemicstrikesandtheglobaleconomyimplodes.Politicians,pundits, andpeoplearelookingforanswers,buttheworldorganizationislargely missinginaction.Ifpastisprelude,themostcreativeandimaginative rethinkingofthecontemporarybasesforinternationalcooperationwillemanatefromtheThirdUnitedNations.
Thenextsectionbrieflyparsesittoprovidethebasisforthefollowing chapters.Readersmayhavenoticedthatouroriginalargumentappearedina journalwhosetitle, GlobalGovernance,reflectsthemoveawayfromtheolder notionofstatesandtheircreationsintheformofIGOsastheonlysubstantial pillarsofworldorder.Weexplainthatevolutioninthefollowingsection beforebrieflysummarizingthebook.
TheThirdUN:WhatIsItandWhyIsItImportant?
Webeginwithadefinition.TheThirdUNistheecologyofsupportivenonstateactors intellectuals,scholars,consultants,thinktanks,NGOs,theforprofitprivatesector,andthemedia thatinteractswiththeintergovernmental machineryoftheFirstUNandtheSecondUNtoformulateandrefineideas anddecision-makingatkeyjuncturesinpolicyprocesses.Someadvocatefor particularideas,othershelpanalyzeoroperationalizetheirtestingandimplementation;manythushelptheUN “think.” Thisbook fillsagapinunderstandingtheimpactofnon-stateactors.Itisessentialtonotethatouruseof thistermconnotesthoseworkingtowardknowledgeandnormativeadvances fortherealizationofthevaluesunderlyingtheUNCharter thatis,weare clearlynottalkingaboutarmedbelligerentsandcriminals.Wenonetheless keepinmindthecounselofJamesO.C.Jonah,whonotedthatuniform categoriesof “saints” or “sinners” arenotairtight atleastforsomeonewho hadattemptedtocoordinatenon-stateinputsinSomaliaastheUNspecial
representativeandtheninSierraLeoneasagovernmentminister: “Notallof themaresolid.Someofthemareoutright ‘crooks,’ sorrytosay,... [G]overnmentsareraisingquestions andIknowwedidinSierraLeone abouttheaccountabilityofNGOsintermsofhowtheyruntheirshow.”⁷
WenotetwosignificantdevelopmentssinceourearlierframingoftheThird UN.One,for-profitactors,especiallyinthedigitaltechnologysector,playafar largerroletodaythanduringtheUN’searliestyears.Whiletheprivatesector hasalwayshadanover-sizedimpactontheglobaleconomy,itwasmarginalizeduntilrecentlyinUNcirclesbecauseofitsperceivednegativeimpact certainlyinideologicalterms,intheSocialistblocandmuchoftheGlobal South.Hence,theirrelativelymarginalroleforUNpoliticscomparedwith othermembersofthecategoryhaschangedabruptlyinthetwenty-first century.ItshapeshowtheUNworks,thinks,andtheglobalchallengesthat itfaces.
Two,themedia print,electronic,andmorerecentlysocial isamore importantfactorforthedisseminationofideasandthebattleforprimacy thanforthecreationofnewideasandnorms.Historically,themediahave beenlessfrequentparticipantsthanothermembersoftheThirdUNbecause theytypically(otherthanoccasionallyacreativejournalist) “donothelpthe UNthink,” orformulateandrefineideas.Inadditiontoshapingthewaythat allthreeUNsoperate,theemergenceofnewtechnologiesanddigitalmediais givinggreaterprominencetotheseactorsintheThirdUN.
Analysesofworldpoliticsincreasinglyacknowledgetheextenttowhichthe stageiscrowdedwithavarietyofactors.Nonetheless,thepointofdeparture forthisbookreflectsthefactthatthemost-usedadjectiveinourrelated disciplinary fieldsofworkcanbemisleading.Internationalrelations(IR), internationallaw(IL),internationalorganization(IO),andinternational politicaleconomy(IPE)arethemajorcomponentsofourresearchand teaching.Yet,theLatinroot “natio” (birth)nolongermakessensebecause state-centricperspectivesinaglobalizingworldignoremovementsacross bordersofpeoples,information,capital,ideas,andtechnologies.Scholars andpractitionersformerlyused “nation-state,” whichismisleadingasnations andstatesaredifferent.Legallyspeaking,wherethereisastate,thereisa nation.However,thereareseveralpeoples somebornwithinaterritorybut othersbornelsewherewhohavemoved withinvirtuallyeverystate;moreover,manysignificantpeoples(forexample,theKurdsandPalestinians)are withoutanation-state.
Sovereigntyremainsthepredominantcharacteristicofworldpolitics. Indeed,inmanywayswiththeemergenceofnewnationalismsandpopulisms,
statesovereigntyisbackwithavengeance.Atthesametime,itisnotwhatit usedtobe.Analysesofworldpoliticsacknowledgetheextenttowhichthe stageiscrowdedwithavarietyofactors,whichiswhy “globalgovernance” emergedinthelatetwentiethcenturyasthetermofarttoconceptualizethe UN,otherIGOs,multilateralcooperation,andpublic-privatepartnerships.⁸ Thisrealizationisfundamentalforthosewhoconcentrateononlytwo UnitedNations,theonecomposedofmemberstatesandthesecondone ofsecretariatswithinternationalcivilservants recruitedonthebasisof theirnationality whoworkforthestatesthatdetermineagendasand (sometimes)paythebills.WehavelongpointedtoanotherUN,whichis composedofnon-stateactorscloselyassociatedwiththeorganizationandits activitiesbutnotformallypartofit.Despitethegrowthinanalysesattemptingtounderstandtherelationshipsbetweennon-stateactorsandIGOs, this “other” or “Third” UNispoorlyunderstood,oftenignored,andnormallydiscounted.
TheUnited Nationsisanintergovernmentalorganizationwhose193membersarestates.UNanalystsaretypicallystudentsofIR,IL,IO,andIPE.They beginwiththebuildingblockofthePeaceofWestphaliathatessentiallyended Europeanreligiouswarsin1648.Theyalsohavelongacceptedthattheworld isdividedintoterritorialstates.PriortoWestphalia,dynasticempires,citystates,feudalisticorders,clansandtribes,churches,andavarietyofother publicauthoritiesorganizedpeopleintogroupingsforidentityandproblemsolving.Theterritorialstateemergedasthebasicunitofsocialorganization fromaboutthemiddleofthe fifteenthtothemiddleoftheseventeenth century, firstinEuropeandthenelsewhere.Itcommandedprimaryloyalty andwasresponsiblefororder,andeventuallyforjusticeandprosperitywithin astate’sterritorialboundaries.Europeanrulersfoundtheinstitutionofthe stateusefulandperpetuateditsimage;ironically,politicallyawarepersons outsidetheWestadoptedthenotiontoresistdominationbythosesame colonialpowers.Withdecolonization,thenumberofstateshasgrown,as hastherigidityoftheattachmenttosacrosanctsovereigntybyyoungandold statesalike.
Despitethepersistenceofclan,ethnic,andreligiousidentitiesandapattern ofinconsistenciesthatStephenKrasnerfamouslycalled “organizedhypocrisy,”⁹ mostofthoseexercisingpowerhavepromotedtheperceptionthatthe basicpolitical-legalunitofworldpoliticswasandshouldremaintheterritorial state.Thebasisforsovereigntyisanadministrativeapparatuswithasupposed monopolyonthelegitimateuseofforceoveraspecificgeographicalareawith astablepopulation.
Thattheonlybona fideUNmembersareterritorialstates(withtheexception oftheVatican)isthepointofdepartureforananalyticalpuzzleaboutwhat constitutestheUnitedNations.SomeexamplesshouldhelpthereaderunderstandwhywecameupwiththeanalyticaltooloftheThirdUN.Numerous non-territorialplayersinissue-specificglobalgovernancearemoreinfluential thanmanyterritorialstates:theInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross (ICRC)forthelawsofwarandhumanitarianprinciples;theFédération InternationaledeFootballAssociation(orFIFA,itsfamiliarabbreviation) fortheworld’smostpopularsport(footballorsoccer);andtheInternet CorporationforAssignedNamesandNumbers(alsobetterknownbyits acronym,ICANN)fortheinternet.Similarly,corporationshavecome togethertoparticipateinthedevelopmentofgovernancesystemseitherat theurgingofinternationalorganizations,suchastheUN’sGlobalCompact,or insharedrecognitionoftheneedfornewsystemsofcoordination,such astheSocietyforWorldwideInterbankFinancialTelecommunication (SWIFT).Moody’sInvestorsServiceandStandard&Poor’sRatingsGroup renderjudgmentsthatareauthoritativeenoughtocausemarketresponses. IndividualexpertsservingontheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange (IPCC)oreminentpersonsonotherpanelsandcommissionshavealtered narrativesandpublicpolicy.Theglobalsignificanceofnon-traditionalactors likeFacebookandtheneedfornewgovernancesystemsfordigitalspacewas explicitinUNSecretary-GeneralAntónioGuterres’ 2018appointmentofa High-LevelPanelonDigitalCooperation.
Itishardtoimaginecontemporaryworldpoliticswithoutnon-state actors indeed,theiractivitiesandinfluenceonpoliticsandtheworldeconomyoftendwarfthoseofmanysmallcountries.Thatsaid,geo-politicalpower isreflectedintheUN’sstate-based,institutionalstructures,rangingfromthe veto-wieldingpermanent fivemembersoftheSecurityCouncil(P-5)tothe leverageofthelargestcontributorstothebudget.Aswesee,thehistoryof theThirdUNresemblesthatoftheFirstUNandtheSecondUNinlacking diversity thatis,itismorewhite,male,andelitistthantheglobe’spopulation,oreventhevastbulkofmemberstates.
TheThirdUN’srolesincluderesearch,policyanalysis,ideamongering, advocacy,andpubliceducation.Itsvariouscomponentsputforwardnew informationandideas,pushforalternativepolicies,andmobilizepublic opinionaroundUNdeliberationsandprojects.Theyalsocanimpedeprogress,bydeployingthesamemethods;thepolarizationthatafflictsgeopoliticaldynamicsandleft-right,secular-religioussocietalbattlesarealso reflectedacrosstheThirdUN’sever-changingnetworkofnetworksthat
helpstheUN “think.” SomeThirdUNactorsadvocateforparticularideas, whileothershelpanalyzeoroperationalizetheirtestingandimplementation. Participationvarieswithissuesandgeographicfocusaswellastiming. Atanygiventime,anyofthesenon-stateactorscanbeamemberofthe ThirdUN.Therearenobarrierstoentryorexit,andnopermanent membership.
Somecriticsmightregardourperspectivesasratherorthodoxandas extensionsofthestatusquo.¹⁰ However,manynon-stateactorssuchas informedscholars,practitioners,andactivistshavehadadistinctvalueaddedwithinintergovernmentalcontextstopushoutintellectualandpolicy envelopes,toventurebeyondwhatpassesforconventionalwisdom.These actorsoftheThirdUNareindependentofbutprovideessentialinputs intoClaude’sothertwoUnitedNations.Theydonotnecessarilyfoster progressivevaluesandactions theNationalRifleAssociationandmany transnationalcorporations(TNCs),forinstance,pursueagendasthat maydistortthepursuitoftheUN’shumanrightsorenvironmentalnorms. Whatisimpossibletoignore,however,isthatsuch “outside-insiders” or “inside-outsiders” areintegral,todayandtomorrow,totheworldbody. Whatoncemayhaveseemedmarginalisnowcentralforworldpoliticsand multilateralism.
Inaddition,therelationshipsoftenaremorecomplicatedthantheyappear. MichaelDoyle,whowasaprofessoratPrincetonandColumbiaUniversities beforejoiningtheUNSecretariatinNewYorkandrejoinedtheacademyafter leaving,agreed: “Ifyouwantgenuinelyfreshideas,you’vegottogooutsidethe systemaltogether.Youhavetogotocommissions,panels,academicsand NGOs,andafewgovernments mostlyacademicsandNGOs.” JustFaaland, whospentmostofhiscareerattheNorwegiandevelopmentinstitutein BergenbutofteninteractedwiththeUNsystem,alsoemphasizedtherelevanceofinjectingoutsideintellectualgrist: “TheUNwouldbeamuchpoorer organizationifithadn’tbeenfor ...consultanciesandotherwaysofmobilizingtheoutsideworld.”¹¹
Socialscientistsaretaughttoask, “Sowhat?” Thefollowingpagesdemonstratefourwaysthatideasandnormsmakeadifference:
• Theychangethewaythatissuesareperceived.
• Theyredefinestateandnon-stateinterestsandgoals,settingagendasfor action.
• Theymobilizecoalitionstopressforaction.
• Theybecomeembeddedininstitutions.
Wesaymoreaboutsuchimpactsinsubsequentchapters,butthedynamicsof changeinvariablyinvolvethecreation,refinement,andimplementationof ideas forgoodandforevil.Anyexplanationsofcontinuityandchangealso entailtechnology,politics,andeconomics;butataminimum,ideasmatterin openingspaceforexperimentationandmodification.
Hence,thecomplexityoftheplanetandtheanalyticalrequirementto accuratelyreflecttheUNgohand-in-hand.Aheterogeneousandnumerous arrayofactorsparticipatesinprocessesthatproduceknowledgeandnorms.In addition,aprescriptiveagendalooms.Besidesreinforcingtheoverarching argumentthattheUNismorethanthesumofitsmember-stateandsecretariatparts,wearecommittedtotakingadvantageofasdiverse(intermsof geographicoriginsandsubstantivebackgrounds)arangeofsourcesaspossible foralternativeknowledgeandnorms,fornon-traditionalornon-mainstream thinking.
Tosimplify,ideasandoperationsarethetwomainactivitiesbytheFirstUN andtheSecondUN;theThirdUNhasadiscernableimpactontheirthinking andactivities.Althoughoperationsaccountforthebulkofactualexpenditures andareimportantfortestingideasandpolicies,wefocusonhownon-state actorshelptheUNthink.ThosethatreceiveourattentionareNGOs,eminent individuals,thinktanks,universityresearchers,andthefor-profitsector.They areessentialandunderappreciatedsourcesofknowledgeandnormsproduced bytheUN inthepastandatpresent,astheywillbeinthefuture.
WeremindreadersthatthereisalsoaThirdInternationalMonetaryFund (IMF)andanequivalentnetworkinotherIGOs.Theoreticalandanalytical toolkitsmustreflectthisreality;wehopethatourattemptstobetterunderstandtheThirdUNwillinspireotherstodothesameforothermultilateral organizations.
GlobalGovernanceReflectstheRealityoftheThirdUN
ItshouldbeobviousthatweneedtoconceptualizetheUN,otherIGOs,and multilateralcooperationmorecomprehensivelythanhadbeenthecaseuntil lateinthetwentiethcentury.Thathappenedinthe1990swithintheacademy andpolicycircles.
Theterm “globalgovernance” wasbornfromamarriage neithershotgun norarrangedbutprecipitatedbyablendofreal-worldeventsaccompaniedby developmentsinscholarlyandpolicycircles betweenacademictheoryand practicalpolicy-formulation.Attheoutsetofthetwentiethcentury’ s final
decade,itbecameentwinedwithanothermeta-phenomenonofthelastdecadesofthecentury,globalization.¹²In1992,JamesRosenauandErnst Czempielpublishedtheirtheoretical GovernancewithoutGovernment,at approximatelythesametimethattheSwedishgovernmentlaunchedthe policy-orientedCommissiononGlobalGovernancewithSonnyRamphal andIngmarCarlssonasco-chairs.Botheventssetinmotioninterestinthe newlycoinednotionof “globalgovernance.”¹³The1995publicationofthe commission’sreport, OurGlobalNeighbourhood,coincidedwiththe firstissue oftheAcademicCouncilontheUnitedNationsSystem’sjournal Global Governance.Thisquarterlysoughttoreturntotheglobalproblem-solving andinstitutionaloriginsoftheleadingjournalinthe field, International Organization,whichseemedtohavelostitsway.AsTimothySinclairwrote, “Fromthelate1960s,theideaofinternationalorganizationfellintodisuse... [and] InternationalOrganization,thejournalwhichcarriedthisname foundedinthe1940s,increasinglydrewbackfrommattersofinternational policyandinsteadbecameavehicleforthedevelopmentofrigorousacademic theorizing.”¹⁴
Thesedevelopmentspavedthewayforaraftofworksaboutgrowingglobal complexity,themanagementofglobalization,andthechallengesconfronting internationalinstitutions.¹⁵ Thevocabularybecame “globalgovernance,” whichreplacedanimmediatepredecessorasanormativeendeavor, “world orderstudies.” Havinggrownfrom WorldPeacethroughWorldLaw the classicfromGrenvilleClarkandLouisSohn worldordernotonlyseemed overlytop-downandstaticbutalsofailedtocaptureadequatelythevarietyof actors,networks,andrelationshipsthatcharacterizedinternationalrelations.¹⁶
Whentheperspectivesfromworld-orderscholarsbegantolookalittleoldfashioned,thestagewassetforanewanalyticalandnormativecottage industry.
Afterhisarchivallaborstowriteatwo-volumehistoryofworldfederalism, JosephBarrataobservedthatinthe1990s “thenewexpression, ‘globalgovernance, ’ emergedasanacceptabletermindebateoninternationalorganizationforthedesiredandpracticalgoalofprogressiveefforts,inplaceof ‘world government.’”¹⁷ MichaelBarnettandRaymondDuvallputitmoredramatically: “Theideaofglobalgovernancehasattainednear-celebritystatus.”¹⁸ MichaelZürncalculatedin2018thatthegrowthrateofnewtitlesforglobal governancesurpassesallothersininternationalrelations;itsabsoluteannual numbersnowaregreaterthanthemorefamiliar “warandpeace” and “internationalcooperation.”¹⁹
Public-privatepartnershipsarenotnewtotheUN.Infact,mostUNentities maintainsomekindofpublic-privatepartnershipprogram.Asnon-state-led governancehasgrownexponentiallyinsomesectors,e.g.theenvironment,so hastheacademicliteratureaboutthesepublicauthorities.Indiscussing environmentalgovernance,LilianaB.Andonovadefinesthesepartnerships as “agreementsforcollaborativegovernancebetweenpublicactors(national governmentalagencies,sub-nationalgovernments,orIOs)andnonstateactors(foundations, firms,advocacyorganizations,orothers),whichestablish commonnorms,rules,objectives,anddecision-makingandimplementation proceduresforasetofpolicyproblems.”²⁰ AnneMarieGoetzwritesthat “[f]Feministengagementwithinternationalinstitutionsis ...a paradigmatic exampleofhowarelativelypower-deprivedsocialgroup(womenandfeminists)” bybuildingpartnershipswithstateswillingtochampiongenderequality, can “challengethepowerofsovereignstates.”²¹
Theemergenceoftheterm andchangesinthewaythatthepurposeof insightsfromitwereexpressed imbuedglobalgovernancewiththeaspirationsthathadmotivatedearliergenerationsofIR,IL,IO,andIPEscholars. Globalgovernancecametorefertocollectiveeffortstoidentify,understand, andaddressworldwideproblemsandprocessesthatwentbeyondthecapacitiesofindividualstates.Itincludedbothformal and informalvalues,rules, norms,practices,andorganizationsthatprovidedadditionalorderbeyond purelyformalregulationsandstructures.Itreflectedalongingfortheinternationalsystemtoprovidegovernment-likeservices inthiscase,global publicgoods intheabsenceofanythinglikeaworldgovernment.
Globalgovernancethusencompassesawidevarietyofcooperativeproblemsolvingarrangementsthatarevisiblebutinformal(e.g.,practicesorguidelines) oraretemporaryformations(e.g.,coalitionsofthewilling).Sucharrangements couldalsobemoreformal,takingtheshapeofhardrules(lawsandtreaties)or institutionswithadministrativestructuresandestablishedpracticestomanage collectiveaffairsbyavarietyofactors includingstateauthorities,IGOs, NGOs,privatesectorentities,andothercivilsocietyactors.²²
Oneofushasspentconsiderableintellectualefforts²³intryingtomove beyondansweringthequestionthatLawrenceFinkelsteinprovocativelyposed shortlyafterthetermemerged25yearsago—“Whatisglobalgovernance?” Hisansweratthatmomentwas “virtuallyanything.”²⁴ Theotheroneofushas beentinkeringwithsocialnetwork-basedapproachestounderstandhowan institutionbuiltonstatesovereigntycanadapttothetrans-boundaryissues andactorsofourglobalizedworld.²⁵ Bothofusrepresenttwosuccessive
generationsoftheThirdUN.Thisbookseekstoputmore fleshononepartof theglobalgovernanceskeleton,theUnitedNations.Itisparthistory,andpart acalltoaction.Readersshouldrecallthatouroriginalargumentappearedina journalwhosetitle, “GlobalGovernance, ” reflectsthemoveawayfromtheoldfashionednotionofstatesandtheircreationintheformofIGOsastheonly meaningfulpillarsofworldorder.
AboutThisBook
Amongotherthings,thethawintheColdWarchangedthebalancebetween marketsandstates.Asaresult,anumberofvoices forinstance,humanrights advocates,genderactivists,developmentspecialists,andgroupsofindigenous peoples wereamplifiedintheideationalandoperationalspacesthatearlier hadbeenvirtuallytheexclusiveterritoryofstatesorintergovernmentalsecretariats.Thisbookexploresthisphenomenon.
Chapter1beginsourexplorationof “TheThirdUN” byprobingthenutsand-boltsof “Non-StateActorsandtheWorldOrganization’sThinking.” It defendsourselectionofandconcentrationonthemainknowledgebrokersin theThirdUN.Itexploresthegrowthinnumbersofthetwomajortypesof non-stateactorsthatareeasiesttocount,internationalNGOsandTNCs,as wellastheirdynamicswithintheUNsystem.Thewidespreadpush,including withinIGOs,forevidence-basedpolicymakinghascreatedafurtherdemand forthinktanksandresearchthat “translateappliedandbasicresearchintoa languagethatisunderstandable,reliable,andaccessibleforpolicymakers.”²⁶ It isimpossibletoappreciatethenatureofthepolicyprocesswithoutunderstandingthe “whole” UN First,Second,andThird.
Chapter2, “NGOs:Sovereignty-FreePartnersforUNPolicyDevelopment,” examinesthemaintasksofNGOsandhowtheyarerelatedtotheachievementoftheirmissionsandtothoseoftheUnitedNations.Thehistoryof NGOlinkstotheThirdUN includinganofficialroleintheUN’sconstitution,CharterArticle71 aswellasthevariousdistinctionsbetweenthemand othernon-stateactorsprovidesanessentialbuildingblockforthebook. Detailedcasesconcerneffortstoalleviatetheplagueoflandmines(the InternationalCampaigntoBanLandmines,ICBL),toimproveinternational judicialpursuit(theCoalitionfortheInternationalCriminalCourt,CICC), andtosettheagendaforsustainabledevelopment(theconversationsleading totheformulationandadoptionoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals, orSDGs).
Itisworthwhileopeningaparenthesisaboutcaseselection.Whilewe certainlyrefertoexamplesoffailure,thedetailedillustrationsinChapter2 andelsewherearecasestudiesthathavetwocharacteristics.First,theyarefar enoughinthepasttoprovidesomehistoricaldistanceaswellasanabundance ofsecondaryliteratureaboutthem,includingsome first-handaccountsby importantplayers.Theythusprovidewell-documentedexamplesfromwhich wecangeneralize.Second,theyare “ successes ” andillustratethefourways thatideasmatter.Inparticular,theyhavealteredthewaysthatconversations takeplaceamongthe193membersoftheFirstUN,andthenatureof decisionsbythemathomeaswellasinintergovernmentalforums.They havealsoalteredthewaysthatsecretariatsactinheadquartersandinthe field thatis,thenumbersofpeopleworkingonatopicandtheresources devotedtoaction.
In “CommissionsandPanels:HowEminentIndividualsShapeUN Thinking,” Chapter3analyzestheover-sizedroleofonevisiblecomponent oftheThirdUN.Prominentindividuals manyofwhommadetheirgovernmentandinternationalcivilservantcareersasmembersoftheFirstandthe SecondUNs havecometoconstituteessentialandfrequentcontributorsto theadvanceofknowledgeandnorms.Theexamplesconcernpeaceoperations (theBrahimireportof2001andHIPPO[High-levelIndependentPanelon UNPeaceOperations]of2015);theprotectionofhumanbeingsinwarzones (theICISS,InternationalCommissiononInterventionandStateSovereignty) reportof2001);andforsustainabledevelopment(theBrundtlandreportof 1987andtheongoingworkbytheIPCC).Asacounterpoint,lesssuccessfulor evencounterproductivegroupeffortsalso figureinthediscussion,butthe mainexamplesseektodemonstratehowandwhensuchblue-ribbongroups makeadifference.
Chapter4, “TheUN’sKnowledgeEconomy:ThinkTanks,Academics,and KnowledgeBrokers,” spellsoutthevariouswaysthattheworldorganization’ s intergovernmentalmachineryrequiresoutsideinputsformakingvariousUN policysausages.Acottageindustryofoutsideexperts thinktankers,consultants,anduniversityfacultymembers greasesthegearsofthismessyprocess withsubstantiveinputs.²⁷ Thewaysthatideasmatter,andhowtheyinfluencestatedecision-making,areessentialelementsinthisdiscussion,as aretheThirdUN’sknowledgebrokers.Amongtheactorsconsideredarethe InternationalPeaceInstitute(IPI),theInternationalCrisisGroup(ICG),the DC-basedStimsonCenter,theSecurityCouncilReport,UNUniversity,and thesmallerConflictPreventionandPeaceForum(CPPF)attheUS-based SocialScienceResearchCouncil.IntheotherUNheadquarterssite,theCentre
forHumanitarianDialogue,theSmallArmsSurvey,andothershavehelped shapethinkingwithinUNGeneva.Especiallyoverthelasttwodecades,these intellectualentrypoints primarilybasedintheGlobalNorthbutincreasingly withwiderparticipationfromindividualsandinstitutionsworldwide have helpedshapetheUN’sframingofinternationalpeaceandsecurity,human rightsandhumanitarianaction,andsustainabledevelopment.
Chapter5followsbydetailingthegrowinginputsforUNdeliberationsfrom “AlternativeVoices”;thesub-titleindicatestheresult,namely “Challengersof theNormativePostwarOrder.” Therearetwodistinctsetsof “voices” that appearinthischapter:fromwithinemergingpowersthatformerlywere absentorlargelyhidden;andfromfor-profitbusinesses.The firstpartexaminesthepoliticalandeconomicchangesbroughtaboutbyrisingandemerging powers.WeneednotexaggerateeithertheshadowcastbythedecliningWest orwhatAmitavAcharyacallsthe “hypeoftherest”²⁸ toseethattheroleof emergingpowersinglobalgovernanceisalteringthelandscapeforhowto approachinternationalpeaceandsecurity,humanrights,humanitarian action,andsustainabledevelopment thepillarsofUNactivity.
ThesecondpartofChapter5reflectsthearrivalontheUNstageofactors thatformerlyhadcameorolesdespitetheirweightintheglobaleconomy.As mentioned,businessingeneralandTNCsinparticularwereonceanathemain UNcirclesbecauseoftheirperceivedroleintheGlobalSouthasexploitersof resourcesanddriversofpoverty.Whatbeganasanefforttobringtheminto thesystemthroughtheUnitedNationsGlobalCompact(UNGC)hasburgeonedinthetwenty-firstcenturythathaswitnessed,belatedly,themobilizationoftheprivatebusinesssectorfornumeroustasksandoftheessentialrole offoreigndirectinvestment(FDI)andoverseasremittances.Weemphasize technologyanddata firms,manyofwhicharerelatedtomediaandsocial media.Theselong-ignoredpartnersbringresources,expertise,newtechnologies,andenergytointernationalproblem-solvingandtotheThirdUN;they havealsochallengedthemultilateralsystemandledtocallsforanew architectureofglobalgovernance.
Bylookingaheadto “TheUN’sNormativeFuture,” Chapter6askshonestly whethertheworldorganizationcanbecome “FitterforPurpose?” Anessential motivationforgettingrighttheunderstandingoftheThirdUNistheneedto identifythecomparativeadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthe “whole” organization.Forinstance,acrucialchallengeistodeterminehowtheUNshould actintheeraofinformationdisorderandpublichealthpandemics,andthus howavarietyofknowledgeproducersandbrokersfromtheThirdUNcan helptheUNthink.Thereareareaswhereitsroleisacceptedandwell
