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Focus 2.1: Feminist Reformulation of a Theory of Moral Development

4. Gender Schema Theory

a. Evidence for Gender Schema Theory

5. Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology

a. Parental Investment

b. Sexual Selection

c. Evolutionary Psychology

d. Feminist Critique of Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology

e. Feminist Evolutionary Psychology and Feminist Sociobiology

6. Social Role Theory

7. Feminist Theories

a. Gender as Status and Power

b. Intersectionality

c. Queer Theory

d. Gender Roles and Socialization

e. External Versus Internal Attributions of Problems

f. Consciousness Raising

g. Diversity of Feminisms

h. Summary

i. Evaluation of Feminist Theories

j. In Conclusion

Focus 2.2: Feminist Theory in Psychology: Objectification Theory Experience the Research: Gender Schema Theory

9. Chapter Summary

10. Suggestions for Further Reading

3 Gender Stereotypes and Gender Differences

1. Gender Stereotypes

a. Stereotypes About Men and Women

b. Intersectionality and Gender Stereotypes

c. Stereotype Threat

d. Stereotypes About Trans Individuals

2. Meta-Analysis

3. Psychological Gender Differences

a. Aggressive Behavior

b. Impulsivity

c. Activity

d. Self-Esteem

e. Helping Behavior

Focus 3.1: Who Is More Narcissistic: Men or Women?

f. Anxiety

4. The Gender Similarities Hypothesis

5. Androgyny

a. Psychologists’ Traditional Views of Masculinity–Femininity

b. The Concept of Androgyny

c. Measuring Androgyny

d. Criticisms of Androgyny

e. Androgyny and Transgender

Experience the Research: How Accurate Are People’s Beliefs About

6. Chapter Summary

7. Suggestions for Further Reading

4 The Intersection of Gender and Ethnicity

1. Recurring Themes

2. Ethnic Group Labels

3. An Ethnic/Cultural Critique of Psychological Research

4. Guidelines for Research With People of Color

Focus 4.1: Racial Microaggressions

5. Cultural Heritages of People of Color in the United States

a. The Cultural Heritage of Asian American Persons

b. Subcultural Variations

c. The Cultural Heritage of Latinx Persons

d. The Cultural Heritage of American Indian Persons

e. The Cultural Heritage of African American Persons

Focus 4.2: Women and Islam

6. Gender Roles and Ethnicity

a. Gender Roles Among American Indian Persons

b. Gender Roles Among African American Persons

c. Gender Roles Among Asian American Persons

d. Gender Roles Among Latinx Persons

7. Immigration

8. Education

Focus 4.3: Affirmative Action

9. Mental Health Issues

10. Feminisms of Color

Experience the Research: Gender Roles and Ethnicity on Prime Time

11. Chapter Summary

12. Suggestions for Further Reading

5 Gender and Communication

1. Verbal Communication

a. Tentativeness

b. Affiliative Versus Assertive Speech

c. Interruptions

d. The Gender-Linked Language Effect

e. Clinical Applications

2. Nonverbal Communication

FOCUS 5.1: Gender and Electronic Communication

a. Encoding and Decoding Nonverbal Behavior

b. Smiling

c. Interpersonal Distance

d. Eye Contact

e. Posture: Expansive or Contractive?

3. How Women and Nonbinary People Are Treated in Language

a. Misgendering

b. Euphemisms

c. Infantilizing

d. Male as Normative and Female as the Exception

e. Gendering of Language

f. Does Sexist Language Actually Matter?

4. Toward Nonsexist Language

a. Institutional Change

b. Language and Careers

5. In Conclusion

Experience the Research: Gender and Conversational Styles

6. Chapter Summary

6 Gender and Emotion

1. Gender Stereotypes About Emotions

a. Emotionality

b. Specific Emotions

c. Some Consequences of Gender Stereotypes About Emotion

FOCUS 6.1: Gender and the Politics of Emotion

2. Gender and Emotional Experience and Expression

a. Emotional Expression and Display Rules

b. Measuring Emotion

c. Experience Versus Expression

d. Specific Emotions

e. Emotional Intensity

3. Emotional Competence

4. Emotions Beyond the Binary

5. The Socialization of Gendered Emotions

a. Socialization in the Family

b. Socialization by Peers

c. Brody’s Transactional Model

Experience the Research: The Gender Socialization of Emotions

6. Chapter Summary

7. Suggestion for Further Reading

7 Lifespan Development

1. Infancy

a. Gender Differences in Infant Behavior

b. Adults’ Treatment of Infants

c. Gender Learning in Infancy

2. Childhood

a. Gender Differences in Child Behavior

b. Gender Learning in Childhood

c. Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Child Development

d. FromGender Identity to Gender Roles: Self-Socialization

e. Gender Role Socialization

f. Peers and the Gender Segregation Effect

g. The Sexualization of Girls

3. Adolescence

a. Puberty for Cisgender and Transgender Youth

b. Gender Intensification

c. Identity Development

d. Friendship and Dating

FOCUS 7.1: Peer Sexual Harassment in the Schools

e. Body Dissatisfaction

4. Emerging Adulthood

5. Adulthood

a. Gender and Work

b. Romantic Relationships and Marriage

c. Divorce

d. Single Women

e. Motherhood

f. An Empty Nest

6. Later Adulthood

a. Grandmotherhood

b. Gender and Cognitive Aging

c. Widowhood and Gender Ratios

Experience the Research: Older Women

7. Chapter Summary

8. Suggestions for Further Reading

8 Abilities, Motivation, and Achievement

1. Abilities

a. General Intelligence

b. Verbal Ability

c. Spatial Ability

d. Mathematics Performance

e. Physical Performance and Athletics

Focus 8.1: Gender Diversity and Athletics

f. Summary

2. Motivation: Expectancy-Value Theory

3. Achievement

a. School Achievement

b. Occupational Achievement

4. The Gender Gap in STEM

Focus 8.2: Achieving Women: Ellen Ochoa

a. Explanations for the Gender Gap in STEM

b. An Intersectional Approach to the Gender Gap in STEM

c. Interventions to Close Gaps in STEM

Experience the Research: Gender and Computers

5. Chapter Summary

6. Suggestion for Further Reading

9 Gender and Work

1. Pay Equity and the Wage Gap

a. The Motherhood Penalty

b. Occupational Segregation

c. Compensation Negotiation

Focus 9.1: Psychology and Public Policy: Employment Discrimination in the United States

d. Entitlement

e. Implicit Stereotypes

2. Gender Discrimination and Workplace Climate

a. Gender Discrimination in Job Advertisements

b. Gender Discrimination in the Evaluation of Work

c. Workplace Climate

3. Leadership and the Glass Ceiling

a. Leadership Effectiveness and Gender Role Congruity

b. Are We Making Any Progress?

4. Work and Family Issues

a. Work and Women’s Psychological Well-Being

Focus 9.2: Psychology and Public Policy: Family Leave

b. The Second Shift

Experience the Research: Entitlement

5. Chapter Summary

6. Suggestions for Further Reading 10 Biology and Gender

1. Genes

a. Epigenetics

b. Are There Genes for Being Transgender?

Focus 10.1: Feminist Biology

2. Basic Physiological Processes

3. Sex Hormones

a. Prenatal Gender Differentiation

b. Prenatal Sex Hormone Effects

c. Hormone Effects in Adulthood

Focus 10.2: Endocrine Disrupters

d. Better Hormone Models

4. The Brain

a. Brain Size

b. The Hypothalamus

c. Other Brain Regions

d. Right Hemisphere, Left Hemisphere

e. Neural Plasticity

Focus 10.3: Single-Sex Schooling and the Brain

f. Feminist Criticism

g. The Brain Mosaic

h. Transgender and the Brain

Experience the Research: Biology and Gender Differences in the Media

5. Chapter Summary

6. Suggestions for Further Reading 11 Psychology, Gender, and Health

1. Gender and Health

a. Women and the Health Care System

b. Transgender Persons and the Health Care System

c. Health Issues at the Intersection of Gender, Ethnicity, and Class

2. Menstruation

a. Biological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle

Focus 11.1: Gender and Infectious Disease

b. Dysmenorrhea

c. Psychological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle

d. The Social Construction of PMS

e. Practical Implications

3. Menopause

a. Physical and Psychological Changes

b. Treating Menopausal Symptoms

4. Reproduction and Health

a. Contraception

b. Pregnancy

c. Childbirth

d. Abortion

e. Miscarriage

f. Infertility

5. Breast Cancer

Focus 11.2: Health at the Intersection of Gender and Disability

6. HPVand Cervical Cancer

7. Trans Health Issues

a. Medical Transition

b. Surgical Transition

Experience the Research: Women’s Experience of PMS

8. Chapter Summary

9. Suggestions for Further Reading 12 Gender and Sexuality

1. Physiology

a. Criticisms of the Masters and Johnson Model

b. Alternative Models

c. Clitoral and Vaginal Orgasm

d. Multiple Orgasms

e. Sexuality and Aging

f. The G-Spot

2. Psychological Aspects of Gender and Sexuality

a. Gender Differences in Sexuality

b. Sexual Development

c. Adolescent Girls, Desire, and First Intercourse

d. Hooking Up

e. The Sexuality of Transgender Persons

3. The Intersection of Gender and Race in Sexuality

4. Sexual Disorders and Therapy

a. Desire Disorders

b. Arousal Disorders

c. Orgasmic Disorders

d. Pain Disorders

e. Behavioral Therapy for Sexual Disorders

Focus 12.1: Women’s Sexual Problems: ANew View

f. Additional Therapies for Women’s Sexual Disorders

g. Feminist Sex Therapy

h. Where’s the Female Viagra?

5. Gender Similarities

Experience the Research: Gender Differences in Sexuality

6. Chapter Summary

7. Suggestions for Further Reading 13 Gender and Sexual Orientation

1. Queer Theory

2. Stereotypes and Discrimination

3. Lesbian Culture

a. Lesbian Community

b. Lesbian Relationships

c. Gay Marriage

4. Sexual Orientation Development and Fluidity

5. Mental Health Issues

a. Lesbians’ Adjustment

b. Therapy

c. Children of Lesbian Mothers

6. Why Do Women Become Lesbian, Bi, or Straight?

a. Biological Explanations

b. Environmental Factors

c. The BottomLine

7. Differences Between Lesbians and Gay Men

8. The Intersection of Sexual Orientation and Ethnicity

Focus 13.1: AQueer Woman Tells Her Story

Experience the Research: Lesbian Community

9. Chapter Summary

10. Suggestions for Further Reading 14 Gender and Victimization

1. Rape

a. Definition and Prevalence

b. Impact of Rape

c. Rapists

d. Causes of Rape

e. Prevention

f. Treatment

2. Intimate Partner Violence

a. Definition and Prevalence

b. Consequences of IPVfor Victims

c. Consequences of IPVfor Children

d. IPVPerpetrators

e. Causes of IPV

f. Prevention and Treatment

3. Sexual Harassment

a. Sexual Harassment in the Workplace

Focus 14.1: The Violence Against Women Act and Vulnerable Populations

b. Sexual Harassment in Education

c. Perpetrators of Sexual Harassment

d. Feminist Analysis

4. Human Trafficking

5. Child Sexual Abuse

a. Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse

b. Impact on the Victim

c. Feminist Analysis

6. Looking Forward

Experience the Research: AScale to Assess Views on the Causes of Rape

7. Chapter Summary

8. Suggestions for Further Reading

15 Gender and Mental Health Issues

1. Depression

a. Gender Differences

b. The ABC Model

Focus 15.1: The Politics of Psychiatric Diagnosis: Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

2. Alcohol- and Substance-Use Disorders

a. Gender and Alcohol-Use Disorder

b. Causes of Gender Differences in Alcohol-Use Disorder

c. Predictors of Alcohol-Use Disorder in Women

d. Substance-Use Disorder

3. Eating Disorders

a. Anorexia Nervosa

b. Bulimia Nervosa

c. Causes of Eating Disorders

d. Feminist Perspective

e. Treatments for Eating Disorders

f. Prevention of Eating Disorders

4. Sexismand Psychotherapy

Focus 15.2: The Politics of Psychiatric Diagnosis: Gender Dysphoria

a. Gender Bias in Diagnosis

b. Gender Bias in Treatment

Focus 15.3: Sexual Misconduct by Therapists

5. Psychotherapeutic Approaches

a. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy

b. Feminist Therapy

6. Addressing the Mental Health Needs of People of Color

7. Psychological Practice With Trans People

Experience the Research: Gender Stereotypes and Psychotropic Drugs

8. Chapter Summary

9. Suggestions for Further Reading

16 The Psychology of Men and Masculinity

1. Masculinity and the Male Role

a. Characteristics of the Male Role

b. Historical Changes in the Male Role

2. The Gender Role Identity Paradigm

3. The Gender Role Strain Paradigm

4. Lifespan Development

a. Infancy

b. Childhood

c. Adolescence

d. Adulthood

5. Male Sexuality

6. Men of Color

a. African American Men

Focus 16.1: Myths About Male Sexuality

b. Asian American Men

c. Latino Men

d. American Indian Men

7. Health Issues

Experience the Research: Childhood Experiences of the Mother and Men’s Desire to Control Women

8. Chapter Summary

9. Suggestions for Further Reading

17 Retrospect and Prospect

1. Future Research

2. FeminismRevisited

3. Re-visioning Theory

Focus 17.1: Paradigms, Science, and Feminism

4. The Continuing Feminist Revolution and Backlash

Experience the Research: Feminist Identity

5. Suggestions for Further Reading

Glossary

Bibliography

Index

About the Authors

Preface

Our textbook Half the Human Experience: The Psychology of Women had a good run, through eight editions. But then, in the short time between finishing the 8th edition in 2012 and the present, many things changed, foremost among themthe transgender activist movement, blossoming new research on transgender individuals, and fundamental challenges to the gender binary. At the same time, scholars and activists increasingly called for a more intersectional approach to the psychology of women and gender. In light of these major shifts, we decided that the field needed not a new edition, but a very new book. We sought a new publisher and were impressed with Sage’s resonance with our ideas. We set out to write a new, cutting-edge textbook that thoroughly integrated intersectionality and transgender research. We developed a new title that pays homage to the textbook fromwhich it was derived and simultaneously recognizes the new thinking about gender: The Psychology of Women and Gender: Half the Human Experience + .

Within the field of gender and women’s studies today, we face a tension between the traditional emphasis on cisgender women and the new emphasis on transgender people. Transgender activists and the new research on trans people make us rethink what we mean by the termgender. We have tried hard to include that new thinking in this textbook. Yet women remain oppressed in our society and most societies in the world, and women’s issues continue to deserve a focus in our courses and textbooks. Therefore, we have tried to strike a balance between an emphasis on women and an emphasis on trans folks and the new thinking about gender. Strikingly, there are many commonalities among women and trans people, the persistent challenges they face, and the profound resilience they display.

Language is extremely important. Our goal was to create a trans-inclusive textbook written in transinclusive language. Yet that turns out to be more difficult than it might sound. Within the trans community, there are often disagreements about preferred terminology, and terminology often changes over time. We have done our best to use respectful language based on 2017 norms, but it is possible, indeed likely, that preferred terms will change over the years. All of us need to keep up with these trends. Agood basic rule is that people should be called what they prefer to be called.

Intersectionality has become a more and more prominent force in gender and women’s studies, and it is increasingly making its way into psychology. We began to introduce intersectionality into the textbook in its previous incarnation. This time we integrated it thoroughly, examining its place in each chapter. This time, we had much more to work with, because intersectionality research is blossoming in psychology.

Overall, our goal has been to create a text on the psychology of women and gender written in such a way that it will be accessible to undergraduates who may have little background in psychology perhaps only an introductory course yet also challenging and thought-provoking for senior psychology majors or gender and women’s studies majors. We want students to feel excited to learn about the psychology of women and gender, and we hope that our excitement about the field shows through for themin the book. This is truly one of the most meaningful courses that a student can take. It can be life changing. Those of us who teach it can feel a deep pride in the body of research fromwhich we can draw.

Three characteristics of this book its readability, comprehensiveness, and scholarship have been well received in previous versions, and we have worked to retain and improve those features. We believe that

the readability of textbooks is a feminist principle. One of the goals of feminists has been to demystify science, and as part of that effort we must demystify psychology, including the psychology of women and gender. Our goal therefore has been to provide a text with solid, cutting-edge scholarship, clearly explained so that students can grasp it indeed, be captivated by it.

Each of us has taught psychology of women and gender numerous times using earlier versions of this textbook. We have used those experiences to polish and improve the book. For example, if students have problems with a question on an exam, is it because that passage in the book is not clearly written? If so, we fix it. Both of us have a deep understanding of what is fascinating and what is difficult for students, and we put that knowledge into our crafting of the book.

What’s new in this edition? We have kept the chapter numbering the same, although the titles of many chapters changed with the new emphasis on both transgender and intersectionality. The following are some of the highlights, although we can’t begin to list all of the additions and updates.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Updated and expanded material on important language and terminology regarding gender

New sections on the intersectionality of gender and critiquing the gender binary

New material on transnational feminismand gender equality around the world, mixed methods, and critical theory

Chapter 2: Theoretical Perspectives on Gender

Added material on queer theory and intersectionality

New Focus box: Feminist Theory in Psychology: Objectification Theory

Expanded material on the cognitive-developmental theory of gender and the feminist critique and reformulation of evolutionary psychology

Chapter 3: Gender Stereotypes and Gender Differences

New sections: The Gender Similarities Hypothesis and Stereotypes About Trans Individuals, including an intervention to reduce cisgenderism

New material on gender differences in impulsivity and in narcissism

Chapter 4: The Intersection of Gender and Ethnicity

New sections: Immigration and Feminisms of Color

New material on historical trauma and intergenerational transmission of trauma

Integrated content on trans people of color, intersectionality, and gendered racism

Chapter 5: Gender and Communication

New sections on gendered language, expansive/contractive posture, misgendering language, and clinical applications of research on gender and language for transgender people

New data on interruptions, gender-linked language, and effects of sexist language

Chapter 6: Gender and Emotion

Expanded coverage of the politics of gender and emotion

New sections on gender differences in temperament, self-conscious emotional experience, emotional expression in childhood, and intersectional approaches to emotion

New section: Emotions Beyond the Binary, on gender and emotion in transgender individuals

Chapter 7: Lifespan Development

Added exciting new research on gender-differentiated maternal touch, infants’ abilities to discern gender congruent and incongruent faces and bodies, and learning of the gender binary

New sections on transgender gender identity development in early childhood and pubertal development in cisgender and transgender adolescents

New section: Gender and Cognitive Aging

Chapter 8: Abilities, Motivation, and Achievement

New data on gender, ethnicity, and academic achievement

New section: The Gender Gap in STEM

New section on motivation, framed around expectancy-value theory

Chapter 9: Gender and Work

New section: The Motherhood Penalty

New data on the gender wage gap and occupational segregation by gender

New Focus box: Psychology and Public Policy: Employment Discrimination in the United States

Chapter 10: Biology and Gender

New Focus box: Feminist Biology

New sections: Are There Genes for Being Transgender? and Transgender and the Brain

New research on the brain gender mosaic

Chapter 11: Psychology, Gender, and Health

New sections: Transgender Persons and the Health Care System, Trans Health Issues, and Miscarriage

New Focus box: Gender and Infectious Disease, which incorporates a transnational feminist perspective

New and expanded material on pregnancy, abortion, and childbirth

Chapter 12: Gender and Sexuality

New section, The Sexuality of Transgender Persons

New section on the search for a female Viagra

Data table on intersectionality updated Disorders updated to DSM-5, with critique of DSM-5

Chapter 13: Gender and Sexual Orientation

New section: Queer Theory

Old section on civil unions deleted, replaced with new section on gay marriage

Queer of color critique added

Chapter 14: Gender and Victimization

New data and research on gender-based violence, with integrated coverage of violence against trans individuals

New section: Human Trafficking

New Focus box: The Violence Against Women Act and Vulnerable Populations