Introduction
I ,PhiloVance,theheroof TheBishopMurderCase,imaginedahypothetical creaturewhocan ‘ ...traverseallworldsatoncewithinfinitevelocity,sothatheis abletobeholdallhumanhistoryataglance.From ...AlphaCentaurihecanseethe earthasitwasfouryearsago;fromtheMilkyWayhecanseeitasitwas , years ago,andhecanalsochooseapointinspacewherehecanwitnesstheice-ageandthe presentdaysimultaneously!’
Thisbookwillnotgivethereaderquitesoprivilegedaperspective,butouraimisto seetheworldwholewithobjectivityhardtoattainforhumanstrappedinourown history toreviewthechangesthatreallyhavetakenplaceallovertheplanet,notjust inpartsofit andpresenttheminatinycompass,suchasagalacticobservermight beholdfromanimmensedistanceintimeandspace.
TheeruditionofVance(the fictionaldetectiveWillardWrightcreatedunderhis pseudonym,S.S.VanDine)wasaffectedandhisscienceabsurd.Hewasright, however,abouttheeffectsofperspectiveonhistoricalvision.Thetechniqueofshifting toanimaginaryperspectivecantransformthewayweseeourpast.Evensmallvariants inviewpointcandisclosediscoveries.Whenpaintingastilllife,forinstance,Cézanne usedtoswitchbetweenvantagepoints,seekingtocombine fleetingperceptionsina singlecomposition.Hemadethecurvesoftherimofabowlofappleslookasifthey cannevermeet.Hepaintedstrangelydistendedmelons,becausehewantedtocapture thewaythefruitseemstochangeshapefromdifferentangles.Inhisassemblagesof oddsandendseachobjectassumesitsownperspective.Hepaintedthesamesubjects overandoveragain,becausewitheveryfreshlookyouseesomethingnew,andevery retrospectleavesyoudissatisfiedwiththeobviousimperfectionsofpartialvision.
ThepastislikeapaintingbyCézanne orlikeasculptureintheround,thereality ofwhichnosingleviewpointcandisclose.Objectivereality(thatwhichlooksthe samebyagreementamongallhonestobserv ers)liessomewhereoutthere,remote anddif fi cultto fi nd exceptperhapsbyencompassingallpossiblesubjectiveperspectives.Whenweshiftvantagepoint,wegetanewglimpse,andtryto fi titinwhen wereturntoourcanvas.Toputitanotherway,Clioisamusewespybathing betweenleaves.Eachtimewedodgeandslipinandoutofdifferentpointsofview,a littlemoreisrevealed.
Weknowtheadvantagesofmultipleviewpointsfromeverydayexperience. ‘Tryto seeitmyway,trytoseeityourway’,sangtheBeatles.Wehavetoincorporate perspectivesofprotagonistsandvictimstoreconstructacrime.Weneedtestimony frommanywitnessestoreproducethe flickerandglimmerofevents.Tounderstand wholesocieties,weneedtoknowwhatitfeelsliketoliveinthemateverylevelof powerandwealth.Tounderstandcultures,weneedtosetthemincontextandknow whattheirneighboursthinkorthoughtofthem.Tograspacore,wepeelawayatouter layers.Butthepastisungraspable:weseeitbestwhenweaddcontext,justasthebull’s eyemakesaclearertargetwhentheouterringsdefineitanddrawintheeye.
ThemostspectacularandobjectivepointofviewIcanimagineisthatofPhilo Vance’s ‘hypotheticalhomunculus,’ whoseestheplanetwholeandviewsitscomplete pastconspectually.Thequestionforaglobalhistorianis, ‘Whatwouldhistorylooklike tothatgalacticobserverinthecosmiccrow’snest?’ IsuspectthatVance’screature mightneedpromptingeventomentionaspeciesaspunyand,sofar,short-livedas humankind.Grasses,orfoxes,orprotozoa,orvirusesmightseemmoreinteresting: theyallhave,fromabiologicalpointofview,featuresatleastasconspicuousasthose ofhumans vastenvironmentalreach,stunningadaptability,remarkableduration. Butonehumanfeaturewouldsurelybeconspicuousfromanyperspective:thewaysin whichwedifferfromallotherspeciesinourhectic,kaleidoscopicexperienceof culture,andthefactthatwehavemoreofit,ofmorevariouskinds,thananyother creature.Humanshaveadazzlingarrayofcontrastingwaysofbehaving,whereas otherspecies thoughmanyofthemresembleuscloselyinbodiesandgenes encompassacomparativelytinyrangeofdifferences.Wehavevastlymorelifeways andfoodways,socialstructuresandpoliticalsystems,meansofrepresentingand communicating,ritesandreligionsthananyotherculturalanimal eventhegreat apeswhoaremostlikeus.Thatvarietyisthesubject-matterofthisbook.
Overthelastsixtyyearsorso,observershaveidentifiedcultureamongmany primatespeciesandclaimeditformanyothers.Humancultures,however,aredifferent:bycomparisonwithotherspecies,wearestrangelyunstable.Communitiesinall culturalspeciesbecomedifferentiated,astheychangeincontrastingandinconsistent ways,buttheprocessesinvolvedhappenincalculablymoreoften,withaperplexingly greaterrangeofvariation,amonghumansthanamonganyotheranimals:human culturesregistertheconstantseriesofchangescalled ‘history’.Theyself-transform, diverge,andmultiplywithbewilderingandapparently nowandformostofthe recentpast acceleratingspeed.Theyvary,radicallyandrapidly,fromtimetotime andplacetoplace.
Thisbookisanattempttoclaspthewholeofourvariety,orasmuchofitaspossible, byseeingthethemesthatlinkit,thestoriesthatoverarchit,andthepathwaysthrough it.Somepeoplethinkthebignarrative,whichencompassesjustaboutthewholeof history,isofprogressorprovidenceorincreasingcomplexity,orcyclicalchangeor dialecticalconflict,orevolution,orthermodynamics,orsomeotherirreversibletrend. Thegalacticobserver,however,wouldsurelynoticesubtler,lesspredictable,butmore
compelling,tales.Thecontributorsto TheOxfordIllustratedHistoryoftheWorld muster betweenthem fivewaysoftracingapaththroughthedata.Callthemmaster-narratives ifyoulike,ormeta-narrativesifyouprefer.Butthestorylinesareobjectivelyverifiable andcanbefollowedinthisbook.
The firststoryisofdivergenceandconvergence howwaysoflifemultiplyand meet.Divergence thesinglewordwithwhich,Ithink,thegalacticobserverwould summarizeourstory issurelydominant.Itdenoteshowthelimited,stablecultureof Homosapiens,atourspecies’ firstappearanceinthearchaeologicalrecord,scatteredand self-transformedtocoverthetremendousrangeofdivergentwaysoflifewithwhich wenowsurpriseeachotherandinfesteveryinhabitableenvironmentontheplanet. Westartedasasmallspecies,withauniformwayoflife,inarestrictedenvironmentin EastAfrica,whereallhumansbehavedinmuchthesameway,foragingforthesame foods;relatingtoeachotherwithasinglesetofconventionsofdeferenceand dominance;deployingthesametechnologies;using,asfarasweknow,thesame meansofcommunication;studyingthesamesky;imagining asbestwecanguess thesamegods;probablysubmitting,likeotherprimates,totheruleofthealphamale, butveneratingthemagicofwomen’sbodiesthatareuniquelyregenerativeand uniquelyattunedtotherhythmsofnature.Asmigrantgroupsadjustedtonew environmentsandlosttouchwitheachother sotheauthorsofPart show they developedcontrastingtraditionsanddistinctivewaysofbehaving,thinking,organizing familiesandcommunities,representingtheworld,relatingtoeachotherandtotheir environments,andworshippingtheirpeculiardeities.
Untilabout , yearsagoorso,theyallhadsimilareconomies gettingtheir sustenancebyhuntingandgathering.Butclimatechangeinducedavarietyofstrategies,withsomepeopleoptingtocontinuetraditionalwaysoflife,othersadopting herdingortillage:inPart ,MartinJonestellsthatstoryinChapter .Farming acceleratedeverykindofculturalchange,asChapter andChapter makeclear.So, asJohnBrooke’scontributioninChapter shows,didadjustmentstothedynamicsof elementsoftheenvironmentbeyondhumancontrol thelurchesofclimate,the convulsionsoftheEarth,thebewilderingevolutionofthemicrobesthatsometimes sustain,sometimesrupture,theecologiesofwhichwearepart.Culturehas,moreover, adynamicofitsown,partlybecausehumanimaginationsareirrepressible,continually re-picturingtheworldandinspiringustorealizeourvisions,andpartlybecauseevery change especiallyinsomeareasofculture,suchasscience,technology,andart unlocksnewpossibilities.Theresultsarevisiblearoundus.
Tracingthedivergenceofhumans,however,isnotenough.Foralmostthewhole lengthofthestory,countervailingtrends,whichwecancallconvergence,havebeen goingon,too.DavidNorthrup’sworkinthisbookbroachesthetheme,which increasinglydominatesthechaptersfromPart onwards,littlebylittlemirroring thewayculturesestablishedorre-establishedcontact,exchangedlifewaysandideas, andgrewmorelikeeachotherastimewenton.Inconvergence,sunderedcultures meetattheedgesoftheirexplorationsorattensefrontiersoftheexpansionoftheir
territories,orintheadventuresoftradersormissionariesormigrantsorwarriors.They exchangethoughtsandtechnologiesalongwithpeople,goods,andblows.
Convergenceanddivergencearemorethancompatible:theyarecomplementary becauseexchangesofcultureintroducenovelties,stimulateinnovations,andprecipitateeveryotherkindofchange.Formostofthehumanpast,divergenceoutstripped convergence:cultures,thatistosay,becamemoreandmorediverse moreandmore unlikeeachother despitemutualencounteringandlearning.Isolationkeptmostof themapartforlongspells.Uncrossableoceans,dauntingdeserts,andmountains deterred,interrupted,orpreventedpotentiallytransformingcontacts.Atacontested moment,however thecontributorstothisbookcannotagreeabouthoworwhento fixit thebalanceswungawayfromdivergence,sothatconvergencebecamemore conspicuous.Overthelasthalfmillennium,convergencehasbeenincreasinglyintense. Explorationhasendedtheisolationofalmosteveryhumancommunity.Globaltrade hasbroughteveryone’scultureinreachofjustabouteveryoneelse’ s,andglobal communicationshavemadetheprocessinstantaneous.Afairlylongperiodof Westernglobalhegemonyseemstohaveprivilegedthetransmissionofculture fromEuropeandNorthAmericatotherestoftheworld, ‘globalizing’,aswenowsay, Westernstylesinart,politics,andeconomics.Divergencehasnotbeenhalted merely overshadowed.Undertheshellofglobalization,olddifferencespersistandnewones incubate.Someareprecious,othersperilous.
Asdivergenceandconvergencewindandunwindthroughthisbook,theytangle withanotherthread.InChapter ,IanMorriscallsit ‘growth’:acceleratingchange, which,withsomehesitanciesandreversals,hasperplexedandbaffledpeopleinevery age,butnowseemstohavespeededupuncontrollably;thesometimesfalteringbut everself-reassertiveincreaseofpopulation,production,andconsumption;evermore intensiveconcentrationsofpeople successivelyinforagers’ settlements,agrarianvillages,growingcities,mega-conurbations;increasinglypopulousandunwieldypolities, fromchieftainciestostatestoempirestosuperstates.
Insomeways,asisapparentfromDavidChristianinChapter ,alltypesof accelerationaremeasurableintermsofconsumptionofenergy.Tosomeextent, naturesuppliedtheenergythatacceleratinghumanactivitiesrequired,bywayof globalwarming.Todaywetendtothinkofglobalwarmingastheresultofhuman pro fl igacywithfuel,creatingthegreenhouse effect.ButclimateonEarthdepends aboveallonthesun astartoopotentanddistanttorespondtohumans’ petty doings andirregularitiesinthetiltandorbitoftheplanet,whicharebeyondour powertoin fl uence.Exceptforabriefblip a ‘ littleiceage’ ofdiminishedtemperaturesintheperiodcoveredbyPart ofthisbook andsomeminor fluctuationsat othertimes,theincidenceandresultsofwhichthereaderwill findchronicledinParts and ,naturaleventsbeyondhumanreachhavebeenwarmingtheplanetforabout , yearsorso.
Meanwhile,threegreatrevolutions,inwhichhumanshavebeeninvolvedasactive participants,havefurtherboostedouraccesstoenergy: first,theswitchfrom finding
foodtoproducingit fromforagingtofarming.AsMartinJones’schaptermakes clear,theswitchwasnotsolelyorentirelytheproductofhumaningenuity;norwasita fluke(assomeenquirers,includingDarwin,usedtothink),butratheralongprocessin responsetoclimatechange.Itwasamutualadjustmentinwhichplantsandcreatures, includinghumans,establishedrelationshipsofreciprocaldependence:humanscould notsurvivewithoutspeciesthat,withouthumans,couldnotexist.Insofarashuman agencyprocuredit,theinceptionoffarmingwasaconservativerevolution,produced bypeoplewhowantedtosticktotheirtraditionalfoodstocks,buthadto findnew waystoguaranteesupply.Theresultwasastunninginterruptionofthenormalpattern ofevolution:forthe firsttime,newspeciescameintobeingby ‘unnaturalselection’ , craftedforhumanpurposesbysorting,transplanting,nurturing,andhybridization. EvolutiongotwarpedasecondtimeinaprocessdescribedinChapter and Chapter :the ‘ecologicalrevolution’ thatstartedwhenlong-rangevoyagesbegan regularlytocrosstheoceansoftheworldfromthesixteenthcenturyonwards.In consequence,lifeformsthathadbeendivergingonmutuallyseparateandincreasingly distantcontinents,duringabout millionyearsofcontinentaldrift,begantobe swapped,partlyasaresultofconscioushumaneffortstomultiplyaccesstoavarietyof foods,andpartlyasanunintendedconsequenceofbiota weeds,pests,microbes hitching,asitwere,aridewithtrading,exploring,conquering,ormigratinghuman populations.Thepreviouslydivergentcourseofevolutionfromcontinenttocontinent yieldedtoanew,convergentpattern.Today,asaresult,climateforclimate,we findthe samelifeformsallovertheworld.
Notalltheconsequencesfavouredhumankind.Thediseaseenvironmentworsened forpopulationsthatbecamesuddenlyexposedtounfamiliarbacteriaandviruses; fortunatelyforourspecies,however,asweseeinChapter andChapter byDavid NorthrupandDavidChristian,respectively,otherchangesinthemicrobialworld counteractedthenegativeeffects,as,inresponsetoglobalwarming,someofthemost deadlydiseasesmutatedandtargetednew,non-humanniches.Overwhelmingly,meanwhile,changesinthedistributionofhumanlydigestiblefoodsourceshugelyincreased thesupplyofenergyintwocrucialways.First,morevariedstapleswereavailable, indemnifyingagainstblightandecologicaldisastersocietiesformerlydependentona verylimitedrangeofcropsoranimals.(Therewereexceptions,assomenewlyavailable cropsproveddeceptivelynutritious,trappingsomepopulationsintoover-relianceon potatoesormaize,withsubversiveeffectsonhealthortheincidenceoffamine.)More straightforwardly,theamountoffoodproducedintheworldincreasedwiththeeffects oftheecologicalrevolution,whichenabledfarmersandrancherstocolonizepreviously unexploitedorunderexploitedlands especiallydrained,upland,andmarginalsoils andtoboosttheproductivityofexistingfarmland.
Supplementarysourcesboostedfoodenergy:animalmuscle-power,gravity,wind andrunningwater,clockworkandgears(onaverysmallscale),andthecombustibles (mainlywood,withsomeuseofwax,animalandvegetablefats,peat,turfandwaste grasses,tar,andcoal)usedtomakeheatforwarmthandcooking.Buttheworld
resortedtononewrevolutionarywayofmobilizingenergyuntilindustrialization, whentheuseoffossilfuelsandsteampowermultipliedmuscleexponentially.The results,aswehaveseen,wereequivocal.AsIanMorrispointsout,people’scapacityto ‘getthingsdone’ wasimmeasurablyenhanced.ButasAnjanaSinghpointsoutinher chapter,thatextracapacitywasexploitedfordestructiveends ofhumanlifeinwar, andoftheenvironmentinpollutionandresourcedepletion.Inthelasthundredyears orso,electricityhasdisplacedsteamandnewwaysofgeneratingpowerhavebegunto relievestressonfossilfuels,buttheequivocaloutcomesremainunresolved.
Alongwithdivergenceandacceleratingchange,thethirdthemetoemergein The OxfordIllustratedHistoryoftheWorld isofhumans’ relationshipwiththerestofnature, whichchangesconstantly,sometimesinresponsetohuman orincurrentlyfashionablejargon ‘anthropogenic’—influencesthatformpartofthestoryofculture,butalso, morepowerfully,inwayshumanscannotcontrolandarestilllargelyunabletoforesee: climatic,seismic,pathogenic.Everysocietyhashadtoadjustitsbehaviourinorderto balanceexploitationwithconservation.Civilizationisperhapsbestunderstoodasa processofenvironmentalmodificationtosuithumanpurposes re-shapinglandscapesforranchingandtilling,forinstance,thensmotheringthemwithnew,built environmentsdesignedtosatisfyhumancravings.Insomeways,environmental historyisanotherchronicleofacceleratingchange,asexploitationhasintensifiedin ordertosupplygrowingpopulationsandgrowingpercapitaconsumption.The relationshipbetweenhumansandtherestofcreationhasalwaysbeenuneasyand hasbecomeincreasinglyconflictive.Ontheonehand,humansdominateecosystems, mastervastportionsofthebiosphere,andobliteratespeciesthatweseeasthreatening orcompetitive.Yet,ontheother,weremainvulnerabletotheuncontrollablelurches offorcesthatdwarfus:wecannothaltearthquakes,orinfluencethesun,orpredict everynewplague.
Thestoryofhumaninterventionsintheenvironmentlookslikeaseriesofhair’s breadthescapesfromdisaster,eachofwhich,likethesalliesofanadventurestory, thickenedtheplotandintroducednewdifficulties.Farminghelpedpeoplewho practiseditsurviveclimatechange;however,itcreatednewreservoirsofdisease amongdomesticatedanimals,condemnedsocietiestodependenceonlimitedfoodstuffs,andjustifiedtyrannouspolitiesthatorganizedandpolicedwar,labour,irrigation,andwarehousing.Industrializationhugelyboostedproductivity,atthecostof fearfullabourconditionsin ‘infernalwens’ and ‘dark,satanicmills’.Fossilfuels unlockedvastreservesofenergy,butpollutedtheairandraisedglobaltemperatures. Artificialpesticidesandfertilizerssavedmillionsfromstarvation,butpoisonedthesoil andwinnowedbiodiversity.Nuclearpowerhassavedtheworldfromexhaustionand threateneditwithimmolation.Medicalsciencehassparedmillionsofpeoplefrom physicalsickness,butevermorerampant ‘lifestylediseases’—oftentheresultofmisuse ofsex,food,drugs,anddrink havegoneonwreckingorendinglives,whileneuroses andpsychosesswarm.Overall,theglobaldiseaseenvironmenthardlyseemsbenign. Thecostsoftreatmentleavemostoftheworldoutsidethereachofenhancedmedicine.
Technologyhassavedusfromeachsuccessivesetofself-inflictedproblems,onlyto createnewonesthatdemandeverbigger,riskier,andcostliersolutions.Atechnologicallydependentworldisliketheoldwomaninthesong,whobeganbyswallowinga flyand,inanefforttocatchit,gulpeddowneverbiggerpredatorsinpursuitofeach other.Sheended ‘dead,ofcourse’.Wehavenobetterstrategyatpresentthanescalating recoursetotechnology.
Thefourththemeapparentinthisbookconcernstheoneareaapparentlylargely exemptfromchange:whatwemightcallthelimitationsofculture theapparently immutablebackgroundofallotherstoriesinthestagnancyanduniversalityofhuman nature,thebedrockmixtureofgoodandevil,wisdomandfollythattranscendsevery culturalboundaryandneverseemstoaltermuchovertime.Whileweincreaseour ‘capacitytogetthingsdone’,asIanMorrispointsout,ourmoralsandourstewardship oftheworldandofeachotherremainmiredinselfishnessandrivenwithhostilities. AnjanaSinghpointsouthowmuchofourenhancedcapacitywediverttodestructive ends destructiveofeachother,destructiveoftheeco-systemsonwhichwedepend, destructiveofthebiospherethatisourcommonhome.
Wecan,ofcourse,pointtosomeimprovement,butonlywithsubversivequalifications.Perhapsthemostcomfortingchangetraceableinthisbookisthewayour moralcommunityhasgraduallyenlargedtoencompassalmostthewholeofhumankind.Theachievementhasbeenastounding,becausehumansarenottypicallywell disposedtothoseoutsidetheirowngroupsofkinorfellowcountrymen.AsClaude Lévi-Strausspointedout,mostlanguageshavenowordfor ‘human’ beyondtheterm thatdenotesgroupmembers:outsidersareusuallycalledbywordsthatmeansomethinglike ‘beast’ or ‘demon’.Thestruggletoinducehumanstoseecommonhumanity beneaththesuperficialitiesofappearance,pigmentation,anddifferencesofcultureor prioritiesorabilitieshasbeenlongandhard.Keymomentscanbetracedinthe chaptersbelowbyManuelLucenaGiraldo,AnjanaSingh,PaoloLucaBernardini,and JeremyBlack,butblindspotsremain.Somebio-ethicistsstillregardcertainminorities asimperfectlyhumanordisqualifiedfromhumanrights:theunborn,thevictimsof euthanasia,infantssupposedlytootinytohaveconsciousinterests.Somefeelour moralcommunitywillneverbefullymoralwhileitexcludesnon-humananimals.And inpractice,webehaveasviciouslyasever,whentheopportunityarisesorthe perceivedneedoccurs,persecutingandexploitingmigrantsandrefugees,victimizing minorities,exterminatingsupposedenemies,immiseratingthepoorwhileincreasing cruellyunjustwealthgaps,engrossingresourcesthatoughttobecommon,and honouring ‘humanrights’ inthebreach.Claimsofthedemiseor,atleast,retreatof violenceseempremature(thoughDavidChristianwoulddissent).Fearsofthedestructivenessofmodernweaponshascurtailedlarge-scalewar,butterrorismhasexpanded itsniche.Outsidetherealmsofterrorismandwarcrimes,murderhasdeclined,suicide grown.Abortionhasreplacedinfanticideinsomepartsoftheworld.Spankinghas droppedoutoftheparentalarmoury,whilesadismhasachievedtolerance,evena certainrespectability.Overall,peopleseemnobetterandnoworse,nodumberor
brighterthanever.Theeffectofmoralstasisisnot,however,neutral,becauseofthe wayimprovedtechnologiesempowerevilandfolly.
Finally,asthisbookhelpstoshow,thestoryofhumansocieties’ relationshipswith eachothercanbetoldintermsoftheshiftofwhatIcallinitiative:thepowerofsome humangroupstoinfluenceothers.Initiativechangesbroadlyinlinewiththeglobal distributionofpowerandwealth.Withsomeexceptions,wealthier,toughercommunitiesinfluencethosethatarelesswelloffintheserespects.Asreadersofthisbookwill see,overthe , yearsorsoduringwhichwecandocumentthedriftofinitiative,it was firstconcentratedinsouthwestAsiaandaroundtheeasternendoftheMediterranean.Itbecameconcentrated,forlargelyundetectablereasons,ineastandsouth Asia,andespeciallyinChina,fromearlyintheChristianErauntilaslowshiftwestward becamediscernible,insomerespects,inthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies, acceleratinginthenineteenthandtwentieth.Westernscience,especiallyastronomy, establishedparityofesteeminChina asurprisingachievementinthefaceofChinese contemptforWestern ‘barbarians’.Intheeighteenthcentury,WesternEuropean marketsseem,onthewhole,tohavebeenmoreintegratedthanthoseofIndia, wageshigher,mutatismutandis,thanthoseofIndiaorChina,and financialinstitutions,especiallyinBritain,betterequippedtofundneweconomicinitiatives.Butin overallproductivityandintermsofthebalanceoftrade,ChinaandIndialedtheworld untilwellintothenineteenthcentury.Atpresent,Westernhegemonyseemstobe waningandtheworldreverting,inthisrespect,toasituationinwhichinitiativeis unfocused,exchangedbetweenculturesinmultipledirections,withChinare-emerging inher ‘normal’ placeasthemostlikelypotentialworldhegemon.
TheglobaltriumphoftwoWesternideas capitalismanddemocracy maycome toseem,inretrospect,boththeculminationandconclusionofWesternsupremacy.In thelastthreedecadesofthetwentiethcentury,mostdictatorshipstoppledortottered. Oneformoftotalitarianism,fascism,collapsedearlierinthecentury;itscommunist rivalcrumbledinthe s.Meanwhile,deregulatinggovernmentsinmuchofthe worldliberatedmarketforces.Thedawnsoondarkenedandblightdisfiguredanybliss optimistsmayhavefeltatbeingalive.Democracyprovedinsecure,asmanystates slidbackintoauthoritarianhands.Fanaticismsreplacedideologies:nationalism, whichhadseemeddoomedintheincreasinglyinterdependentworldofglobalization, re-emergedlikeverminfromthecrookedwoodworkoftheworld;religion which secularistshadhopedtoseeburnitselfout reignitedmephiticallyasajustificationfor actionsofterrorists,whogenerallyseemedtobepsychoticandincoherentvictimsof manipulationbycriminals,butwhotalkedlikefundamentalistsanddogmatists. Capitalismproveddelusive.Insteadofincreasingwealth,itincreasedwealthgaps. Evenintheworld’smostprosperouscountries,thechasmbetweenfatcatsandregular guysgapedbythebeginningofthenewmillenniumatlevelsnotseensincebeforethe FirstWorldWar.Onaglobalscale,thescandalofinequalitywasfranklyindecent,with, foreverybillionaire,thousandsofthepoordyingforwantofbasicsanitation,shelter, ormedicine.LifeexpectancyinJapanandSpainwasnearlydoublethatofapeasantin
BurkinaFaso.Theglobal ‘financialmeltdown’ of exposedtheiniquitiesofunderregulatedmarkets,butnooneknewwhattodoaboutit.Economiclurcheshave continued,increasingtheprevailinginsecuritiesthatnourishextremistpolitics.Capitalismhasbeendented,ifnotdiscredited,butnoeffortstoreplaceit,orevenpatchits wounds,haveworked.
Historyisastudyofchange.Thisbookisthereforedividedintochronological tranches,ineachofwhichanauthorwhoisanexpertinenvironmentalhistory sketchestheenvironmentalcontextandhumans’ interactionswithit,beforeothers, alsoexpertsintheir fields,dealwithwhathappenedtoculture typicallyinone chapteronartandthought,anotheronpoliticsandbehaviour intheperiodconcerned.Forearlyperiods,uptoabout , yearsago,theevidenceofwhatpeople thoughtandwhattheydidissointerdependentthatcontributorshavetocoverbothin asinglechapterineachpartofthebook.Formorerecentperiods,theevidenceis abundantenoughforustoseethedifferences,aswellasthesimilarities,betweenthe waypeoplerecordedthoughtsandfeelings,ontheonehand,andthewaythey behavedinpracticetowardseachotherinpoliticsandsociety.Thus,thechapters multiplyaccordingly.
Readerswillseethat,althoughallthecontributorstothisbooktrytostandback fromtheworldinordertoseeitwhole,orasnearlywholeaspossible,andalthoughall haveinmindthethemesofdivergence,acceleration,environmentalinteractions,the limitationsofculture,andtheshiftsofinitiative,therearetensionsbetweenthe authors,differencesofpriorityandemphasis,andsometimesunderlyingconflictsof valuesorideologicaltenetsorreligiousbeliefs.Still,thecollegialityandgoodwillwith whicheveryoneinvolvedintheprojecthascollaboratedunstintinglyisonecausefor pleasure.Another,whichIhopereaderswillappreciate,isthatthediversityofmy fellowwriters’ viewpointsechoes,inasmallway,thediversityofhistory,andhelpsus seeitfrommultipleperspectives.
