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THEOXFORDHISTORYOFPROTESTANT DISSENTINGTRADITIONS, VOLUMEIV THEOXFORDHISTORYOF PROTESTANTDISSENTINGTRADITIONS GeneralEditors: TimothyLarsenandMarkA.Noll
TheOxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions,VolumeI ThePost-ReformationEra,c.1559–c.1689
EditedbyJohnCoffey
TheOxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions,VolumeII TheLongEighteenthCentury,c.1689–c.1828
EditedbyAndrewC.Thompson
TheOxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions,VolumeIII TheNineteenthCentury
EditedbyTimothyLarsenandMichaelLedger-Lomas
TheOxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions,VolumeIV
TheTwentiethCentury:TraditionsinaGlobalContext
EditedbyJehuJ.Hanciles
TheOxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions,VolumeV TheTwentiethCentury:ThemesandVariationsinaGlobalContext
EditedbyMarkP.Hutchinson
TheOxfordHistoryof ProtestantDissentingTraditions VolumeIV TheTwentiethCentury: TraditionsinaGlobalContext Editedby JEHUJ.HANCILES
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Contents ListofContributors vii
SeriesIntroduction xiii
TimothyLarsenandMarkA.Noll
Introduction1
JehuJ.Hanciles
PARTI:AFRICA 1.EmergingStreamsofDissentinModernAfricanChristianity21 JehuJ.Hanciles
2.CharismaticChurchesandthePentecostalizationofAfrican Christianity52 AllanHeatonAnderson
3.Indigenization,Translation,andTransformationinAfrican Christianity73 AkintundeE.Akinade
PARTII:ASIAANDTHEMIDDLEEAST 4.ProtestantDissentingTraditionsinAsiaintheTwentiethCentury89 JohnRoxborogh
5.MegachurchesinAsiaandtheDissentingMovement: TheCaseofYoidoFullGospelChurch106 WonsukMa
6.DissentingTraditionsandIndigenousChristianity: TheCaseinChina127 PeterTzeMingNG
7. ‘CryingforHelpandReformation’:DissentingProtestants inOttomanSyria145 DeannaFerreeWomack
PARTIII:AMERICAANDEUROPE 8.DissentasMainline165
LauraRomingerPorter
9.SouthernBaptistsandEvangelicalDissent194 BillJ.Leonard
10.TheTwentieth-CenturyBlackChurch:ADissenting TraditioninaGlobalContext216 DavidD.DanielsIII
11.PentecostalsandCharismaticsinAmerica241 CecilM.Robeck,Jr
12.FreeChurchTraditionsinTwentieth-CenturyEurope261 ToivoPilliandIanM.Randall
13.DissentbyDefault: ‘BelievingWithoutBelonging’ inTwenty-First-CenturyEngland292
SylviaCollins-Mayo
PARTIV:LATINAMERICA 14.HistoricalandIdeologicalLineagesofDissenting ProtestantisminLatinAmerica315 StephenDove
15.ChileanPentecostalism:MethodismRenewed338 MartinLindhardt
16.DissentingReligion:ProtestantisminLatinAmerica359 VirginiaGarrard
PARTV:THEPACIFIC 17.LocalizationandIndigenizationofChristianityinthePacific387
BrianM.HowellandMichaelA.Rynkeiwich
18.FijianandTonganMethodism409 JaneSamson
Index 433
ListofContributors AkintundeE.Akinade isaProfessorofTheologyatGeorgetownUniversity’ s EdmundE.WalshSchoolofForeignServiceinQatar.Hispublicationsinclude ChristianResponsestoIslaminNigeria:AContextualStudyofAmbivalent Encounters (2014);TheAgitatedMindofGod:TheTheologyofKosukeKoyama (1996,co-editedwithDaleT.Irvin); CreativityandChangeinNigerian Christianity (2010,co-editedwithDavidO.Ogungbile); ANewDay:Essays onWorldChristianityinHonorofLaminSanneh (2010);and Fractured Spectrum:PerspectivesonChristian-MuslimRelationsinNigeria (2013).He servesontheEditorialBoardof TheMuslimWorld, StudiaHistoriaeEcclesiasticae, Religions, TheTrinityJournalofTheology, JournalofInter-Religious Dialogue, Orita:IbadanJournalofReligiousStudies, Odu:AJournalofWest AfricanStudies,and TheLivingPulpit.Heisthebookrevieweditorfor The JournalofWorldChristianity publishedbyPennsylvaniaStateUniversity Press.WithintheAmericanAcademyofReligion,hehasservedonthe EditorialBoardonits flagshipjournal, TheJournaloftheAmericanAcademy ofReligion (JAAR)andalsoontheInternationalConnectionsCommittee.
AllanHeatonAnderson isProfessorofMissionandPentecostalStudiesatthe UniversityofBirmingham.HeisoriginallyfromZimbabwe,andistheauthor ofmanybooksandarticlesonglobalPentecostalism,andhehasalsospecializedonPentecostalisminAfrica.Hismostrecentbooksare AnIntroductionto Pentecostalism (2014), TotheEndsoftheEarth (2013)and Spreading Fires (2007).HismostrecentbooksareSpirit-FilledWorld(2018),AnIntroductiontoPentecostalism(2014),TotheEndsoftheEarth(2013)and SpreadingFires(2007).
SylviaCollins-Mayo isAssociateProfessorinSociologyatKingstonUniversity. Herresearchinterestsfocusonyouthandreligionwithparticularreferencetothe everydayfaithofyoungpeoplefromChristianbackgrounds.Herpublications include MakingSenseofGenerationY (2006,co-authoredwithSaraSavage, BobMayo,andGrahamCray); TheFaithofGenerationY (2010,co-authored withBobMayo,SallyNash,andChristopherCocksworth);and Religionand Youth (2010,PinkDandelion).Hercurrentresearchincludestheroleoffaithin secularplacesofworkandthesociologicalaspectsofprayerpractices.
DavidD.DanielsIII istheHenryWintersLuceProfessorofWorldChristianityatMcCormickTheologicalSeminary,havingjoinedthefacultyin1987. HeearnedaPhDinChurchHistoryfromUnionTheologicalSeminaryand hasauthoredover fiftyacademicjournalarticlesandbookchaptersontopics
relatedtotheBlackChurch,GlobalPentecostalism,andWorldChristianity. Danielsservesonvariouseditorialboards,includingtheboardofthe Journal ofWorldChristianity.HehasdeliveredpubliclecturesatcollegesandseminariesacrosstheUnitedStatesalongwithpresentingacademicpapersinover twelvecountriesthroughoutAfrica,Asia,andEurope.
StephenDove isAssistantProfessorofHistoryandLatinAmericanStudiesat CentreCollege.Heisco-editorofthe CambridgeHistoryofReligioninLatin America (2016,CambridgeUniversityPress).Hisresearchfocusesontheshift frommissionarytolocalProtestantisminLatinAmerica,andheiscurrently workingonabookmanuscriptbasedonresearchinGuatemala.
VirginiaGarrard hasbeenonthefacultyattheUniversityofTexassince1990. Hermostrecentworkis TheCambridgeHistoryofReligionsinLatinAmerica (2016, co-editedwithStephenDoveandPaulFreston).Sheisauthorof Terror intheLandoftheHolySpirit:GuatemalaUnderGeneralEfraínRíosMontt, 1982–1983 (2010,Oxford); TerrorenlatierradelEspirituSanto (2012, AVANCSO); ViviendoenLaNuevaJerusalem (2009,Guatemala); ProtestantisminGuatemala:LivingintheNewJerusalem(1998,UniversityofTexas Press);and BeyondtheEagle’sShadow:NewHistoriesofLatinAmerica’sCold War (2013,co-editorwithMarkLawrenceandJulioMoreno.Shehasalso edited OnEarthasitisinHeaven:ReligionandSocietyinLatinAmerica (2000, ScholarlyResources); RethinkingProtestantisminLatinAmerica (1993, co-editedwithDavidStoll);and TheHistoryofModernLatinAmericaand theWorld (2018,co-authoredwithPeterHendersonandBryanMcCann). Herresearchinterestsinclude:historicmemoryandhumanrightsduringthe ColdWarinLatinAmerica,archivesanddigitalhumanities,andcontemporaryCentralAmericanhistory.Sheisequallyinterestedinreligiousmovements andethnicidentityinLatinAmerica,PentecostalismandotherProtestant movements,andtheintersectionofreligion,culture,andpoliticsinLatin America.
JehuJ.Hanciles isD.W.RuthBrooksAssociateProfessorofWorldChristianity atCandlerSchoolofTheologyatEmoryUniversityanddirectorofitsWorld ChristianityProgram.OriginallyfromSierraLeone,heistheauthorof EuthanasiaofaMission:AfricanChurchAutonomyinaColonialContext (2002),and BeyondChristendom:Globalization,AfricanMigrationandtheTransformation oftheWest (2008).Hehaswrittenandpublishedmainlyinissuesrelatedtothe historyofChristianity,notablytheAfricanexperienceandglobalization.His currentresearchaimstosurveythehistoryofglobalChristianexpansionthrough thelensofmigration.
BrianM.Howell isProfessorofAnthropologyatWheatonCollege.He graduatedfromWesleyanUniversity(CT),majoredintheCollegeofSocial Studies,hasMastersfromFullerTheologicalSeminaryandWashington
UniversityinSt.Louis,andaDoctorateinSocioculturalAnthropology fromWashingtonUniversityinSt.Louis.Hespenteighteenmonthsinthe Philippinesondoctoral fieldwork,withadditional fieldworkintheDominican RepublicandUnitedStates.Hisbooksinclude ChristianityintheLocal Context (2008), PowerandIdentityintheGlobalChurch:SixCaseStudies (2009,co-editorwithEdwinZehner), IntroducingCulturalAnthropology (2011,co-authorwithJenellWilliamsParis),and ShortTermMission:An EthnographyofChristianTravelNarrativeandExperience (2012).
BillJ.Leonard isJamesandMarilynDunnProfessorofBaptistStudiesand ProfessorofChurchHistoryEmeritusattheSchoolofDivinity,WakeForest University,wherehewasthefoundingDean.Heistheauthororeditorof sometwenty-fivebookswithparticularfocusonAmericanreligion,Baptist Studies,andAppalachianreligioustraditions.LeonardisaanordainedBaptist minister.
MartinLindhardt isanAssociateProfessorofCulturalSociologyatthe UniversityofSouthernDenmark.Hehaspublishednumerousjournalarticles andbookchaptersonPentecostalisminChileandonPentecostal-Charismatic ChristianityandwitchcraftinTanzania.Heisalsotheauthorof Powerin Powerlessness:AStudyofPentecostalLife-WorldsinUrbanChile (2012),and theeditor ofPracticingtheFaith:TheRitualLifeofPentecostal-Charismatic Christians (2011),and PentecostalisminAfrica:PresenceandImpactof PneumaticChristianityinPost-Colonialsocieties (2014).
WonsukMa isDistinguishedProfessorofGlobalChristianityatOralRoberts University.HealsoservesasDeanofCollegeofTheologyandMinistry.His researchfocusesonAsianPentecostalism,Pentecostalmission,andglobal Christianity.AstheDirectorofRegnumBooksduringanOxfordtenure,he wasresponsibleforthepublicationofthethirty-five-volumeRegnumEdinburghCentenarySeries.Hispublicationsinclude MissionintheSpirit: TowardsaPentecostal/Ch arismaticMissiology (2010,withJulieC.Ma).
PeterTzeMingNG isProfessorandChairofChineseChristianityatChina VictoryTheologicalSeminaryofHongKong,andconcurrentlyanAdjunct ProfessoratboththeSchoolofInter-culturalStudiesinFullerTheological Seminary,Pasadena,USAandtheCentrefortheStudyofReligionand ChineseSociety,ShanghaiUniversity,Shanghai,China,aswellasaSenior ResearcherofLuminaCollegeResearchInstitute,HongKong.Prof.Nghas beenAdjunctProfessorofSichuanUniversity(2007–10),LanzhouUniversity (2007–10),andShanghaiUniversity(20058,2010– present),allinthePeople’ s RepublicofChina.HehasalsobeenaResearchFellowatYaleUniversity DivinitySchool(1991),AdjunctProfessoratChurchDivinitySchoolofthe Pacific,Berkeley(1992),andDistinguishedFellowofRicciInstitute,UniversityofSanFrancisco(2002)inUSA.Besides,hewasappointedVisitingFellow
ofWolfsonCollegeatCambridgeUniversity(2005),SeniorResearchFellow ofOxfordCentrefortheStudyofChristianityinChina,UK(2007),Henry MartynLecturer,UK(2007),andtheChairmanofNorthEastAsianCouncil fortheStudyofHistoryofChristianity(2007–9).Hisrecentbookis Chinese Christianity:AnInterplaybetweenGlobalandLocalPerspectives (2012,Brill).
ToivoPilli isDirectorofBaptistandAnabaptistStudies,InternationalBaptist TheologicalStudyCentre,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands,andAssociateProfessorofFreeChurchHistoryandIdentity,TartuTheologicalSeminary, Estonia.Heistheauthorof DanceorDie:TheShapingofEstonianBaptist IdentityunderCommunism (2008).
IanM.Randall isaSeniorResearchFellowofSpurgeon’sCollege,London, andtheInternationalBaptistTheologicalStudyCentre,Amsterdam,anda ResearchAssociateoftheCambridgeCentreforChristianityWorldwide.He haswrittenanumberofbooksonevangelicalmovements.
CecilM.Robeck,Jr isanAssembliesofGodministerintheUS.Heservesas SeniorProfessorofChurchHistoryandEcumenicsandSpecialAssistantto thePresidentforEcumenicalRelations.HehaswrittenwidelyonPentecostal, Charismatic,andEcumenicalissues.
LauraRomingerPorter isanindependentscholarwhowritesandteaches aboutAmericanreligion,slavery,andtheUSSouth.SheholdsaPhDin HistoryfromtheUniversityofNotreDame.Sheistheco-editorof Turning PointsintheHistoryofAmericanEvangelicalism (2017).
JohnRoxborogh (UniversityofOtago)isanhistorianofChristianmissionin AsiaandSoutheastAsia.Heisauthorof AHistoryofChristianityinMalaysia (2014),andco-editorof TheHandbookofPopularSpiritualMovementsin Malaysia,SingaporeandIndonesia (2015,withMichaelNai-ChiuPoon).Heis anHonoraryFellowintheDepartmentofTheologyandReligionatthe UniversityofOtago,Dunedin,NewZealand.
MichaelA.Rynkeiwich isProfessorofAnthropology,retired,E.Stanley JonesSchoolofWorldMissionandEvangelism,AsburyTheologicalSeminar.HeisagraduateinanthropologyfromBethelUniversity,St.Paul,MN; withaMaster’sandDoctorateinAnthropologyfromtheUniversityof Minnesota.Hehascarriedoutdoctoral fieldworkintheMarshallIslands, Micronesia(eighteenmonths),andmissionaryworkinPapuaNewGuinea (fiveyears).Hisbooksinclude TheNacirema (1975)and EthicsandAnthropology (1976),botheditedvolumeswithJamesSpradley;twoeditedvolumes on LandandChurchesinMelanesia (2001,2004),andatextbook: Soul,Self, andSociety:APostmodernAnthropologyforMissioninaPostcolonial World (2011).
JaneSamson isProfessorofHistoryattheUniversityofAlbertainEdmonton. Sheistheauthorofnumerousbooksandarticlesonthenineteenth-century Pacificworld.Hercurrentresearchconcernsindigenousmissionariesinthe MelanesianMission.Hermostrecentprojectisthe CambridgeHistoryofthe PacificOcean (forthcoming,2020),co-editedwithAnnePerezHattori.
DeannaFerreeWomack isAssistantProfessorofHistoryofReligionsand MultifaithRelationsatEmoryUniversity’sCandlerSchoolofTheologyanda ministerinthePresbyterianChurch(USA).AtCandlersheteachesonthe historyandpracticeofChristian–MuslimrelationsanddirectstheLeadership andMultifaithProgram(LAMP).Herresearchexploresencountersbetween AmericanmissionariesandArabresidentsofOttomanSyriainthepre-World WarIperiod.Her firstbook, Protestants,GenderandtheArabRenaissancein LateOttomanSyria isforthcomingfromEdinburghUniversityPress(2019).
SeriesIntroduction TimothyLarsenandMarkA.Noll Thereissomethingdistinctive,ifnotstrange,abouthowChristianityhasbeen expressedandembodiedinEnglishchurchesandtraditionsfromtheReformationeraonwards.ThingsdevelopeddifferentlyelsewhereinEurope.Some EuropeancountriessuchasSpainandItalyremainedRomanCatholic.The countriesorregionsthatbecameProtestantchoosebetweentwoexportable andreplicablepossibilitiesforastatechurch LutheranorReformed.Denmark andSweden,forexample,bothbecameLutheran,whiletheDutchRepublic andScotlandbecameReformed.ThePeaceofWestphalia(1648)establishedthe rightofsovereignstochooseastatechurchfortheirterritoriesamongthose threeoptions:RomanCatholic,Lutheran,orCalvinist.Avarietyofstates adopteda ‘multi-confessional’ policy,allowingdifferentfaithstocoexistsideby-side.ThemostimportantalternativeexpressionofProtestantismonthe continentwasonethatrejectedstatechurchesinprinciple:Anabaptists. EnglandwaspowerfullyinfluencedbythecontinentalReformers,butboth thecourseandoutcomeofitsReformationwereidiosyncratic.Theinitial breakwithRomewasprovokedbyHenryVIII’smaritalproblems;theking rejectedtheReformationdoctrineofjustificationbyfaithandretainedthe Latinmass,butsweptawaymonasteriesandshrines,promotedthevernacular Scriptures,andhadhimselfproclaimedSupremeHeadoftheChurchof England.Eachofhisthreechildren(bythreedifferentwives)wastopullthe churchinsharplydifferentdirections.TheboykingEdwardVI,guidedby ArchbishopCranmerandcontinentaltheologianslikeMartinBucerandPeter MartyrVermigli,setitona firmlyReformedtrajectory,notablythrough Cranmer’ssecondPrayerBook(1552)andtheForty-TwoArticles(1553). MaryIreunitedEnglandwithRome,instigatingbothaCatholicreformation andarepressionofProtestantsthatresultedinalmostthreehundredexecutions.Finally,ElizabethIrestoredtheEdwardiansettlement(withminor revisions),whilesternlyopposingmovesforfurtherreformationofthekind favouredbysomeofherbishopswhohadspentthe1550sinexileinReformed citiesonthecontinent.IncontrasttomanyReformedchurchesabroad,the ChurchofEnglandretainedanepiscopalhierarchy,choralworshipincathedrals,andclericalvestmentslikethesurplice.
The ‘halfreformed’ characteroftheElizabethanchurchwasasourceof deepfrustrationtoearnestProtestantswhowantedtocompleteEngland’ s
reformation,to ‘purify’ thechurchof ‘popish’ survivals.Fromthemid-1560s, thesereformerswerecalled ‘Puritans’ (thoughthetermwasalsoapplied indiscriminatelytomanygodlyconformists).Theyrepresentedaspectrum ofopinion.Someweresimply ‘nonconformists’,objectingtotheenforcement ofcertainceremonies,likethesignofthecross,kneelingatcommunion,orthe wearingofthesurplice.Otherslookedfor ‘rootandbranch’ reformofthe church’sgovernment.(AllDissentingmovementswouldremainexpertat employingbiblicalimagesintheirpublicappeals,aswith ‘rootandbranch,’ takeninthissensefromtheOldTestament’sbookofEzekiel,chapter17.)
TheywishedtocreateaReformed,Presbyterianstatechurch,thatis,tomake overtheChurchofEnglandintothepatternthatultimatelyprevailednorthof theborderastheChurchofScotland.Stillothersgaveupontheestablished churchaltogether,establishingillegalseparatistchurches.Eventually,England wouldseeaproliferationofhome-grownsects:Congregationalists(orIndependents),GeneralBaptists,ParticularBaptists,Quakers(orFriends),Fifth Monarchists,Ranters,Muggletonians,andmore.
Thesereformingmovements flourishedduringthetumultuousmidcenturyyearsofcivilwarandinterregnum,whenthetowering figureofOliver Cromwellpresidedoverakinglessstateandactedasprotectorofthegodly. Butwhenthethroneandtheestablishedchurchwere ‘restored’ in1660, reformingmovementsofallsortscameundertremendouspressure.The term ‘Dissent’ cametoserveasthegenericdesignationforthosewhodid notagreethattheestablishedChurchofEnglandshouldenjoyamonopoly overEnglishreligiouslife.Someofthesects suchastheRanters, Muggletonians,andFifthMonarchists soonfadedaway.Others,especiallyIndependents/Congregationalists,Baptists,andQuakerssurvived. Crucially,theywerenowjoinedout sidetheestablishedchurchbythe Presbyterians,ejectedfromthelivingsin1660 – 62.AlthoughPresbyterians continuedtoattendparishworshipan dworkforcomprehensionwithin thenationalchurch,theywere(asRichardBaxternoted)forcedintoa separatingshape,meetinginillega lconventicles.In1689,Parliament con fi rmedtheseparationbetweenChurchand ‘ Dissent ’ byrejectinga comprehensionbillandpassingtheso-calledActofToleration.The denominationsofwhatbecameknownas ‘ OldDissent ’— Presbyterians, Congregationalists,Baptists,andQuakers nowenjoyedlegally-protected freedomofworship,evenastheirmembersremainedsecond-classcitizens, excludedfrompublicof fi ceunlesstheyreceivedAnglicancommunion.
Overthecourseoftheseventeenthcentury,alloftheseDissentingmovementshadestablishedapresenceintheBritishcoloniesofNorthAmerica. (Theybecame ‘British’ andnotjust ‘English’ coloniesin1707,aftertheUnion ofEnglandandScotlandthatcreated ‘GreatBritain’.)IntheNewWorldbegan whathasbecomeacontinuoushistoryofEnglishDissentadaptingtoconditionsoutsideofEngland.Inthisinstance,CongregationalistsinNewEngland
setupasystemthatlookedanawfullotlikeachurchestablishment,evenas theycontinuedtodissentfromtheAnglicanismthatintheoryprevailed whereverBritishsettlementextended.
ComplexityinthehistoryofDissentonlyexpandedintheeighteenth centurywiththeemergenceofMethodism.Thisreformingmovementwithin theChurchofEnglandbecame ‘NewDissent’ attheendofthecenturywhenit separatedfromAnglicanorganizationaljurisdiction.InAmerica,thatseparationtookplaceearlierthaninEnglandwhentheAmericanWarofIndependenceruledoutanykindofofficialauthorityfromtheestablishedchurch acrosstheseainthenewnation.
InthegreatexpansionoftheBritishEmpireduringthelateeighteenthand throughoutthenineteenthcentury,AnglophoneDissentmovedouteven fartherandevolvedevenfurther.Canada,Australia,NewZealand,South Africa,andotherimperialoutpostsinAfricaandAsiausuallyenjoyedthe serviceofAnglicanmissionariesandlocalsupporters.Buteverywherethat EmpirewentsoalsowentDissentingProtestants.ThecreationoftheBaptist MissionarySociety(1792)andtheLondonMissionarySociety(1795)(which wasdominatedbyCongregationalists)inauguratedadramaticsurgeofoverseasmissions.NowhereintheEmpiredidtheChurchofEnglandenjoythe samerangeofprivilegesthatitretainedinthemothercountry.
Meanwhile,backinEngland,stillmorenewmovementsaddedtothe ProtestantpanoplylinkedtoDissent.LiberalizingtrendsinbothAnglican andPresbyteriantheologyinthelatereighteenthcenturysawtheemergence oftheUnitariansasaseparatedenomination.Conservativetrendsproduced the(so-calledPlymouth)BrethrenwhoreplicatedtheearlierDissentingpatternbyoriginatingasaprotestagainstthenineteenth-centuryChurchof England aswellaslamentingthedivisionsinChristianityandlongingto restorethepurityoftheNewTestamentchurch.TheSalvationArmy(with rootsintheMethodistandHolinessmovement)wasestablishedinresponseto thechallengesofurbanmission.
Evenfurthercomplexityappearedduringthetwentiethandtwenty-first centurieswhenPentecostalmovementsarose,usuallywithanobvious Methodistlineage,especiallyasdevelopedbytheHolinesstraditionwithin Methodism,butalsosometimeswithalineagetraceabletorepresentativesof ‘OldDissent’ aswell.Historicallyconsidered,Pentecostalsaregrandchildren ofDissentviaaMethodist-Holinessparentage.
Whether ‘New’ or ‘Old’—ordescendedfrom ‘New’ or ‘Old’—allofthese traditionshavenowbecomeglobal.Someareevendominantinvarious countriesorregionsintheirpartsoftheglobe.TotakeUnitedStateshistory asanexample,intheeighteenthcenturyCongregationalismdominatedMassachusetts.Bytheearlynineteenthcentury,MethodismwasthelargestChristiantraditioninAmerica.Today,thelargestProtestantdenominationinthe UnitedStatesistheSouthernBaptistConvention.OrwithCanadaasanother
example,AnglicansremainedstrongerthandidEpiscopaliansintheUnited States,butMethodistsandPresbyteriansoftentookonestablishment-like characteristicsinregionswheretheirnumbersequalledorexceededthe Anglicans.Indifferentwaysandthroughdifferentpatternsofdescent,these NorthAmericantraditionstracetheirrootstoEnglishDissent.Thesameis trueinparallelfashionandwithdifferentresultsinmanypartsofAfrica,Asia, LatinAmerica,andelsewhere,wherePentecostalismisusuallythedominant styleofProtestantism.
THEFIVEVOLUMESOFTHISSERIES The five-volume OxfordHistoryofDissentingProtestantTraditions isgovernedbyamotifofmigration(‘out-of-England’,asitwere),butintwosenses oftheterm.It firsttracesorganizedchurchtraditionsthataroseinEnglandas Dissentersdistancedthemselvesfromastatechurchdefinedbydiocesan episcopacy,theBookofCommonPrayer,theThirty-NineArticles,and royalsupremacy,butthenfollowsthosetraditionsastheyspreadbeyond England andalsotracesnewertraditionsthatemergeddownstreamin otherpartsoftheworldfromearlierformsofDissent.Second,itdoesthe sameforthedoctrines,churchpractices,stancestowardstateandsociety, attitudestowardScripture,andcharacteristicpatternsoforganizationthatalso originatedinearlierEnglishDissent,butthathaveoftendefinedatrajectoryof influenceindependentecclesiasticalorganizations.Perhapsthemostnotable occasionwhenamajorworld figurepointedtosuchaninfluencecamein1775 whenEdmundBurkeaddressedtheBritishParliamentintheearlydaysofthe Americanrevolt.Whileopposingindependenceforthecolonies,Burkeyet calledforsensitivitybecause,heasserted,thecolonistswere ‘protestants;and ofthatkind,whichisthemostadversetoallsubmissionofmindandopinion’ . ThenBurkewentontosaythat ‘thisaversenessinthedissentingchurches fromallthatlookslikeabsolutegovernment’ wasabasicrealityofcolonial history.OtherclaimshavebeenalmostasstronginassociatingDissenterswith thepracticeoffreetrade,themediatingstructuresofnon-stateorganization, creativityinscientificresearch,andmore.
Thisserieswascommissionedtocomplementthe five-volume Oxford HistoryofAnglicanism.IntheIntroductiontothatseries,theGeneralEditor RowanStrongengagedinconsiderablehandwringingaboutthedifficultiesof makingcoherent,defensibleeditorialdecisions,beginningwiththequestionof how fittingtheterm ‘Anglicanism’ wasfortheseriestitle.Ifsuchangstis neededforAnglicanism,thosewhosemindscravetidinessshouldabandonall hopebeforeenteringhere.Beginningagainwithjustthetitle, ‘Dissenting’ isa termthatobviouslyvarieswidelyintermsofitsconnotationsandapplicability,
dependingontheparticulartime,place,andtradition.Insomecases,ithasbeen usedasaself-identifier.Inmanyothercases,groupswhomhistoriansmight legitimatelyregardasdescendantsofDissent finditirrelevant,incoherent,or justplainwrong.Anexamplementionedearliersuggestssomeofthecomplexity.IncolonialMassachusetts, ‘Dissenting’ Congregationalistsineffectsetupan establishedchurchsupportedbytaxesandexercisingsubstantialcontrolover publiclife.Inthatcircumstance, ‘Dissent’ obviouslymeantsomethingdifferent thanitdidfortheirfellowIndependentsleftbehindinEngland.Nevertheless, MassachusettsCongregationalismisstilloneofthetraditionsout-of-England thatwehavedecidedtotrackwhereveritwent evenintothecourthouseand thecapitolbuilding.Muchlaterandfar,faraway,MethodisminthePacific IslandofFijiwouldalsotakeonsomeestablishmentarianfeatures,whichagain suggeststhat ‘Dissent’ pointstoahistoryoraffinitiessharedtoagreaterorlesser extent,butnottoanunchangingessence.Indeed,becauseDissentisdefinedin relationtoEstablishment,itisarelativeterm.
AnotherparticularlyanomalouscaseisPresbyterianism,whichhasbeena DissentingtraditioninEnglandbutastatechurchinScotlandandelsewhere. Whenoneexaminesitinotherpartsoftheworld,asophisticatedanalysisis required forexample,intheUnitedStatesandCanada(wherePresbyterianismwasonceaforcetobereckonedwith)andinSouthKorea(whereitstillis). InthesecountriesoneencountersatraditionoriginallyfosteredbymissionariesandemigrantswithbothDissentingandestablishmentarianroots.By includingPresbyteriansinthesevolumes,wecommunicateanintentionto consider ‘Dissent’ broadlyconstrued.
Othertermsmighthavebeenchosenforthetitle,suchas ‘Nonconformist’ or ‘FreeChurches’.Yettheysufferfromthesamedifficulty thatallgroups thatmightinhistoricalviewbelinkedunderanyonetermwillincludemany whoneverusedthetermforthemselvesorwhodonotacknowledgethe historicalconnection.Yet ‘DissentingStudies’ isarecognizedand flourishing fieldofacademicstudies,focussedonthehistoryofthoseProtestantmovementsthatcoalescedasDissentingdenominationsintheseventeenthcentury andontheNewDissentthataroseoutsidetheestablishedchurchinthe eighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.
Still,theproblemof fittingterminologytohistoricalrealityremains.The furtheringeographicalspacethatonemovesfromEnglandandthenearerin timethatonecomestothepresent,thelessrelevantanyofthepossibleterms becomesfortheindividualsandProtestanttraditionsunderconsideration. ProtestantsinChinaorIndia,forexample,generallydonotthinkoftheirfaith as ‘Dissenting’ atall atleastnotinanywaythatdirectlyrelatestohowthat wordfunctionedforUnitariansinnineteenth-centuryEngland.Eveninthe West,astrongsenseofdenominationalidentityorheritagehasbeenwaning duetoincreasingindividualismandhybridization.Suchdifficultiesareinevitableforagenealogywheretrunksandbranchesoutlineacommonhistoryof
protestagainstchurchestablishment,butverylittleelsebesidesbroadly Protestantconvictions.
The fivevolumesinthisseries,aswellastheindividualchapterstreating differentregions,periods,andemphases,admittedlybraveintellectualanomaliesandhistoricalinconsistencies.Onedefenceissimplytopleadthat untidinessinthevolumesreflectsrealityitselfratherthaneditorialconfusion. ChurchandDissent,AnglicanismandNonconformity,weredefinedbytheir relationship,andthewallbetweenthemwasaporousone;whileitcanbe helpfultothinkittermsoftightlydefinedecclesiasticalblocs,therealityof livedreligionoftendefiedneatlinesofdemarcation.Manyeighteenth-and nineteenth-centuryAnglicansreadPuritanworks,whilemanyDissenters imbibedtheworksofgreatAnglicans.Besides,aneditorialplanthatputa premiumontidinesswouldimpoverishreadersbyleavingoutexcitingand importantevents,traditions,personalities,andorganizationsthatdofall, howeverremotelyorobscurely,intothebroaderhistoryofEnglishProtestant Dissent.
Whichbringsustothesecond,moresignificantjustificationforthis fivevolumeseries.Onofferisnothinglessthanafeast.NottheleastofBritain’ s contributionstoworldhistoryhasbeenitsmultifacetedimpactonreligious life,thought,andpractice.Inparticular,thisonecornerofChristendomhas provenunusuallyfertileforthegerminationofnewformsofChristianity. ThoseformshaveenrichedBritishhistory,whiledoingevenmoretoenrichall ofworldhistoryinthelastfourcenturies.Byconcentratingonlyonthehistory ofDissent,thesevolumesnonethelessilluminatetheextraordinarycontributionsofsomeofthegreatestpreachers,missionaries,theologians,pastors, organizations,writers,self-sacri ficingaltruistsand(yes,also)someofthe mostscandalous,self-defeating,andegotisticalepisodesintheentirehistory ofChristianity.Takeninitsbroadestdimensions,thisseriesopensthestory oflargethemesandnewwaysofthinkingthathaveprofoundlyshapedour globe ontherelationshipsbetweenchurchandstate,onthesuccessesand failuresofvoluntaryorganization,onfaithandsocialaction,ontoleration andreligiousandcivilfreedom,oninnovationsinworship,hymnody, literature,thearts,andmuchelse.Itisastoryoftraditionsthathave significantlyin fluencedEurope,NorthAmerica,LatinAmerica,Africa, Asia,thePacificIslands,andeventheMiddleEast(forexample,thefoundingofwhatisnowtheAmericanUniversityofBeirut).Especiallythetwo volumesonthetwentiethcenturyoffertreatmentsofvibrant,growingforms ofChristianityinvariouspartsoftheworldthatoftenhavenotyetreceived thescholarlyattentiontheydeserve.All fivevolumespresenttheworkof accomplishedscholarswithwidelyrecognizedexpertiseintheirchosen subjects.Inspecificallythematicchapters,authorsaddressissuesofgreat currentinterest,includinggender,preaching,missions,socialaction,politics, literaryculture,theology,theBible,worship,congregationallife,ministerial
training,newtechnologies,andmuchmore.Thegeographical,chronological, andecclesiasticalreachisbroad:fromtheElizabethaneratothedawnofthe twentieth-firstcentury,fromCongregationaliststoPentecostals,fromCape CodtoCapeTown,fromChinatoChile,fromIrvingiteapostlesin nineteenth-centuryLondontoAfricanapostlesintwenty-first-centuryNigeria. JustasexpansiveistherosterofDissentersordescendantsofDissent:fromJohn BunyantoMartinLutherKing,Jr,fromprisoner-reformerElizabethFryto mega-mega-churchpastorYonggiCho,fromprincesofthepulpittoeducationalinnovators,frompoetstopoliticians,fromliturgicalreformerstosocial reformers.Howeverimprecisethecategoryof ‘Dissent’ mustremain,thevolumesinthisseriesareguaranteedtodelightreadersbythewealthoftheirinsight intoBritishhistoryintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,bywhatthey revealaboutthesurprisingreachofDissentaroundtheworldinlaterperiods, andbytheextraordinaryrangeofpositiveeffectsandinfluences flowingfroma familyofChristianbelieversthatbeganwithanegativeprotest.
Introduction JehuJ.Hanciles ThisfourthvolumeintheseriesonProtestant ‘dissentingtraditions’ covers thetwentiethcentury(asdoesthe fifthvolume),aperiodofunprecedented globalizationandworldwideChristianexpansion.By1900,aftersomethreeand-a-halfcenturiesofexistence,Protestant ‘Dissent’ hadexperiencedsignificantreshapinginitsoriginalBritishsettingandproducedpowerfuloffshoots inNorthAmericaandelsewherewithintheAnglophoneworld.¹However, disseminationintonewareasinAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmericaduringthe twentiethcenturymarkedtheapogeeofDissentasatransnationalmovement;a processthatcoincidedwiththeworldwidespreadofevangelicalProtestantism, withinwhichthedissentingtraditionsareinexorablyembedded.²Thisprocessof globalization,inseparablefromindigenizationinnewcontextsandcontinued adaptationsinoldsettings,fomentedmoreradicaltransformationsthanever before.Bytheendofthecentury,ProtestantDissenthadachievednotonlyits widestgeographicalreachbutalsothegreatestgenealogicaldistancefromits pointoforigin.Thisprocess,attendedbysomeofthemostmomentous developmentsinhumanhistory,wasmarkedbyamultitudeofpathwaysor starting-points,continuitiesanddiscontinuities,aswellascomplications andcontradictions.Thiscompilationusesaregionalframeworktoprovide detailedsnapshotsofProtestantDissentasaglobalizingmovement.
¹InBritain,forinstance,resistancetostateinterventionwanedandinvolvementinpolitical lifeincreased,inpartbecausestatesponsorshipandresourceswerecriticalforpursuingthe socialandmoralreforms(notablytheabolitionofAfricanslavery)sovitaltotheNonconformist agenda.By1880,Nonconformistsaccountedfor24percentoftheMembersoftheBritish Parliament:DavidBebbington, TheNonconformistConscience:ChapelandPolitics,1870–1914 (Boston,1982),p.12.
²FortreatmentoftheglobalspreadofProtestantevangelicalism,seeMarkHutchinsonand JohnWolffe, AShortHistoryofGlobalEvangelicalism (NewYork,2012);BrianStanley, The GlobalDiffusionofEvangelicalism:TheAgeofBillyGrahamandJohnStott,AHistoryof Evangelicalism(DownersGrove,IL:2013);MarkHutchinsonandOgbuKalu,eds, AGlobal Faith:EssaysonEvangelicalismandGlobalisation (Sydney,1998).
Previousvolumeshaveexaminedinconsiderabledetailthehistoricalroots oftheterm ‘dissent’ andthenebulousnessofitsmeaning.³Abriefreviewis necessaryherefortworeasons: first,toaidcomprehensionoftheradical changesinmeaningandapplicationthatbesettheconceptasittravelled globally;second,toidentifytheprinciplesandconvictionsthatalloweddissentingtraditionstotakerootandacquirenewmanifestationsindifferent regionsoftheworldwhilestillretainingabasicfamilyresemblance.The cognateterms ‘Dissent’ and ‘dissenting’ originallycoveredawiderangeof ChristiangroupsinBritainwhoseoriginsspanthesixteenthtotheeighteenth centuries.Usage,inthetechnical(andmostgeneric)sense,datestothemidseventeenthcenturywhenthe1662ActofUniformityrequiredswornallegiancetothecrownandauthorizedordinationonlythroughtheChurchof England.GroupsthatrejectedtheauthorityoftheEstablishedchurch(i.e.,the churchestablishedbylaw),earnedthelabel ‘dissenting’ or ‘Nonconformist’ . Thesegroups,mainlycomprisingCongregationalists,Presbyterians,Baptists, andQuakers,grewinnumbersandcomplexityandlaterwonconcessions.But thedesignation ‘Dissent’ identifiedthemasanecclesiasticalentitydistinct fromtheEstablished[Anglican] ‘Church’.Thealternativelabels ‘Nonconformist’ and(later) ‘FreeChurch’ conveyboththeirresistancetolegislative demandsbythestateinmattersofchurchdisciplineorliturgicalpracticeand theirdeterminationasreligiousbodiestoremainfreeofexternalcontrol (astancethattacitlyfavouredreligiousplurality).
Thefundamentalissuethatunitedthedisparatedissentinggroupswas oppositiontoanationalchurchor,moreprecisely,rejectionofstateinterferenceinreligiouslife.But ‘Dissent’ wasmorethanalegalcategory.Refusalto conformwasalsomotivatedbyacommitmenttoreform,a ‘desiretoreclaim thetruecatholicityandapostolicityofthechurch’ . ⁴ Subsequentlydescribedas ‘OldDissent’,thesegroupsestablishedatraditionthatincorporatedecclesiasticalautonomy,suspicionofpoliticalauthority,andidealsofreformbasedon biblicalprinciples.ThebirthofMethodism,alongwithotherdenominations producedbytheeighteenth-centuryevangelicalrevivals,gaverisetotheterm ‘NewDissent’;sincethesegroupsalsoendedupoutsidetheEstablished Church.Theevangelicalrevivalsnotonlyswelledtheranksofdissentersbut alsoimbuedProtestantDissentwithstrikingevangelicalvitality;manifestin heavyemphasisonaconversionistfaith,ferventcommitmenttothepropagationofthegospel(athomeandabroad),moralandsocialreform(increasingly
³Inadditiontothe ‘SeriesIntroduction’ inthisvolume,seeDavidW.Bebbington, Victorian Nonconformity (Bangor,1992);JohnH.Y.Briggs, ‘TheChangingShapeofNonconformity, 1662–2000’,inRobertPope,ed., T&TClarkCompaniontoNonconformity (London,2013);and MichaelLedger-Lomas, ‘Introduction’,inTimothyLarsenandMichaelLedger-Lomas,eds, The OxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions:TheNineteenthCentury,vol.III(NewYork, 2017).
⁴ Briggs, ‘TheChangingShapeofNonconformity,1662–2000’,p.2.
inalliancewiththestate),extensivelayinvolvementinministry,prioritizingof religiouseducation,andgreatstressonbiblicalteachinginfaithandpractice. ‘NewDissent’ becameanationalphenomenon,surpassing ‘OldDissent’ in numbersandrepresentationacrossEngland,andincreasinglyengagedin politicallife.⁵
Theeighteenth-centuryrevivalsalsotriggeredtheProtestantforeignmissions movementthatintensifiedthetransatlanticconnectionsbetweenProtestant dissentinggroupsandtransformedDissentintoaglobalphenomenon.Infact, theevangelicalvisionforworldevangelizationwasrootedinNonconformist fervour.Nineteenth-centuryProtestantmissions ‘beganamongtheNonconformistlaity’,anddissentingdenominationsformedtheearliestmissionary societies.⁶ DissentinggroupsoutsideBritain,notablyinAmericaandAustralia, alsofoundedtheirownmissionarysocieties.⁷ Bytheearlytwentiethcentury, thepreponderanceofDissentingmissionariesintheProtestantmissionary movementhadcontributedtotheestablishmentofsubstantialpopulationsof ChristiansoutsidetheWestin ‘theincreasinglyglobalnetworksofDissent’ . ⁸ But thefactthatthismissionarymovementwasenmeshedwithinthestructuresof theBritishempirecontributedtothecomplexitiesandcontradictionsthat plaguedglobalDissentinthetwentiethcentury.
Otherthantheoverseasmissionarymovement,theworldwidespreadof dissentingtraditionsderiveditsgreatestimpetusfromtheextraordinary growthofPentecostal-Charismaticmovements whichexpanded,byone account,fromlessthan1percentofallChristiansin1900to23percentby 2000.
⁹ GlobalPentecostalismhasmultipleorigins,withseparateanddistinctivemanifestationsinAsiaandAfrica;afactthatfurtherunderlinesthe difficultiesofanalysingglobaldissent.However,intheNorthAtlantic world,PentecostalismemergedoutoftheWesleyan-Holinessmovement, promptingtheclaimthat ‘PentecostalsaregrandchildrenofDissent’.¹⁰ The vastmajorityofPentecostalsmaylackactiveconsciousnessofthispedigree; butinmanypartsoftheworld(notablyLatinAmerica)Pentecostalism
⁵ Ibid.,p.11.Nonconformityalsobecamemorerespectableandmiddleclass,andaccounted forsome15percentofthepopulationin1901 Bebbington, VictorianNonconformity,p.2.
⁶ AndrewR.Holmes, ‘Evangelicalism,Revivals,andForeignMissions’,inTimothyLarsen andMichaelLedger-Lomas,eds, TheOxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions:The NineteenthCentury,vol.III(NewYork,2017),pp.395–6.
⁷ Ibid.,p.395;JoannaCruickshank, ‘ColonialContextsandGlobalDissent’,inTimothy LarsenandMichaelLedger-Lomas,eds, TheOxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions: TheNineteenthCentury,vol.III(NewYork,2017),p.307.
⁸ Cruickshank, ‘ColonialContextsandGlobalDissent’,p.309.
⁹ ToddM.JohnsonandGinaA.Zurlo, ‘WorldChristianDatabase’ (Leiden;Boston,2016), accessedOctober2016.
¹
⁰ SeeTimothyLarsenandMarkA.Noll, ‘SeriesIntroduction’,inTimothyLarsenand MichaelLedger-Lomas,eds, TheOxfordHistoryofProtestantDissentingTraditions:The NineteenthCentury,vol.III(NewYork,2017),p.xv.
arguablybecameamajor,ifnotthechief,expressionoftheProtestant dissentingtraditions.Yet,theglobalizationofProtestantdissentingtraditions wasinseparablefromindigenizationofexpressionandfunction.Thiscomplex dynamiciscentraltothisstudy.
THEGLOBALINPERSPECTIVE Theglobalizationofreligiousphenomenahasalonghistoryand,untilquite recently,wasmainlyfuelledbythetwin(andoftenintertwined)forcesof humanmigrationandimperialexpansion;thoughthecorrelationsarecomplexandsometimesambiguous.TheglobalspreadofProtestantdissenting traditionsthatthisvolumeexaminesiscloselytiedtotheBritishEmpireand inseparablefrommassmigrationsofthenineteenthtoearlytwentiethcenturies. Some50millionEuropeansmigratedoverseasbetween1815and1915; includingavastarmyofDissentingmissionaries.Bythe1920s,largelydueto Europeancolonizationefforts,almosthalfoftheworld’spopulation(agreater proportionthanatanytimepreviously)hadbeenbroughtunderthedomainof empire.¹¹Inadditiontohumanmobility,newtechnologiesofcommunication andtravelextendedthereachofideasovervastdistancesandgenerated unprecedentedglobalinterconnectedness.Asone1910accountputit, ‘the wholeworldhasbecomeoneneighborhood ...[where]thenationsandraces areactingandreactinguponeachotherwithincreasingdirectness,constancy, andpower’.¹²Remarkably,themostextraordinarydevelopmentsintechnologiesofmasscommunicationandtravel,alongwithotherunparalleledfeatures ofthetwentiethcentury(suchasairtravel,thedigitalrevolution,useofsatellite technology,andtheproliferationofcellphones),stilllayinthefuture!
Itisonlyinrecentdecadesthathistorianshavebeguntogiveserious attentiontomigrationasafundamentalfeatureofhistoricalchange.¹³The sameisbroadlytrueofeffortstoanalysehumandevelopmentandreligious exchangeutilizingthe ‘global’ ortransnational(ratherthanthenation-stateor particularethnicgroups)asaframeofreference.Thedramaticriseinstudies
¹¹PatrickManning, MigrationinWorldHistory,ThemesinWorldHistory(NewYork, 2005),p.150.
¹² WorldMissionaryConference,1910:ReportofCommission1 CarryingtheGospeltoAll theNon-ChristianWorld (Edinburgh,1910),pp.344,345.
¹³SeeJerryH.Bentley, OldWorldEncounters:Cross-CulturalContactsandExchangesinPreModernTimes (NewYork,1993);RichardFoltz, ReligionsoftheSilkRoad:PremodernPatternsof Globalization (NewYork,2010edn);,StephenS.GoschandPeterN.Stearns, PremodernTravel inWorldHistory,ThemesinWorldHistory(NewYork,2008);ChristianeHarzigandDirk Hoerder, WhatIsMigrationHistory?,WhatIsHistory?(Cambridge,UK,2009);DirkHoerder, CulturesinContact:WorldMigrationsintheSecondMillennium,ComparativeandInternational Working-ClassHistory(Durham,NC,2002),andManning, MigrationinWorldHistory.
ofChristianityasaglobalreligioninthelastcoupleofdecadesreflectsthis trend.Asweshallsee,applyingaglobalperspectivetohistoricalenquirydoes notnecessarilymitigateentrenchedethnocentricviewsoreliminateideological preconceptions.Furthermore,what ‘ global ’ meanscanbefuzzy.Insome instancesitissynonymouswiththewor ldoutsidetheWest;leadingtocrude augmentation,wherebydatafromotherplacesorregionsintheworldare simplyaddedtoexistingnarrativesand essentiallytreatedassupplemental. Evenwheninterregionalandtranscontinentallinkagesormovementsarein focus,useoftheconceptcanreductivelyprivilegehighpro fileactorsor dominantstructures.Itisthereforenecessaryforourpurposestoclarifyhow ‘ global ’ isunderstoodandthespecifi ctheoreticalassumptionsthatinformits useasaunitofanalysistoexaminehistoricalprocesses.
Thegrandconceptusedtodescribeprocessesoftransformationthataccumulativelyimplicatethesocietiesoftheworldinrelationsofinterdependence andinterconnectedness,therebyintensifyingconsciousnessoftheworldasa singleplace,is ‘globalization’.¹⁴ Thetermisnolongernew.But,afterseveral decadesofwidespreadusage,itsmeaningandsignificancearestillmuch debated,anditsnaturepersistentlycontested.Inpublicdiscourse,themost contentiousandconflictingclaimsfocusalmostexclusivelyoneconomic dimensions.Butsucharethecomplexitiesandparadoxesofglobalization thatanalysesofitsimpactorimplicationsvarysignificantlyevenamong thosewhoacceptitscogencyandrelevance.Ithelpstorecognizethatglobalizationisnotasingleprocessbutacompositeofmultiple,simultaneous, processes(economic,political,cultural,etc.)thatarebothdifferentiatedand interrelated.Forinstance,whilereligiousmovementsorphenomenamainly fallwithinculturaldimensionsofglobalization,effectiveanalysisisimpossible withoutscrupulousattentiontoeconomicandpoliticalstrands.Itisnot enoughtorecognizethatglobalizingreligiousmovementssuchasevangelical ProtestantismorProtestantDissenttookrootindifferentlocalitiesaroundthe worldandproducedcommunitieswithavaryingsenseofsharedidentityand interconnectednessacrosstimeandspace.Itmattersforhistoricalassessment thattheprocesswasdeeplyshapedbyworldwidesystemsofeconomicand politicaldominanceandalsothatportrayalofitsnatureandoutcomesoften privilegesprominentstrands.
Attheriskofoversimplification,twomajorapproaches(orvariations thereof)shapeassessmentsofculturalglobalization.The firstviewsthephenomenonaslargelyunidirectional;dominated(evenmanaged)bydecisions
¹⁴ Forhelpfultreatment,seeGiddens,Anthony, TheConsequenceofModernity (California, 1990);RolandRobertson, Globalization:SocialTheoryandGlobalCulture (London:SAGEPublications,1992);JamesH.Mitellman, TheGlobalizationSyndrome:TransformationandResistance (NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,2000);Steger,ManfredB. Globalization:AVeryShort Introduction (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009);NeilJ.OrmerodandShaneClifton, GlobalizationandtheMissionoftheChurch (NewYork:T&TClark,2009).
