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Abbreviations
OxfordHandbooksOnline
Abbreviations
OxfordHandbookofScienceandMedicineintheClassicalWorld
EditedbyPaulT.KeyserandJohnScarborough
PrintPublicationDate:Aug2018Subject:ClassicalStudies OnlinePublicationDate:Jul2018
(p.xi)
Abbreviations
DKDiels,H.,andW.Kranz.DiefragmentederVorsokratiker.6thed.2vols. ZürichandBerlin,1951.Citedbysectionandfragmentnumber.
EANSKeyser,PaulT.,andGeorgiaL.Irby-Massie,eds.EncyclopediaofAncient NaturalScientists.London,NewYork,2008.
FGrHistJacoby,F,ed.FragmentedergriechischenHistoriker.Leiden,1923–.Cited bynumber,notvolumeandpage.
KühnKühn,KarlGottlob.ClaudiiGaleniOperaomnia,20vols.Leipzig1821–1833;repr.Hildesheim1964–1965and1986;citedbyvolume.page.
OLDGlare,P.G.W.,ed.OxfordLatinDictionary.2nded.2vols.Oxford,New York:ClarendonPress,2012.
REWissowa,G.etal.,eds.PaulysRealencyclopädiederclassischen Altertumswissenschaft.85vols.Including15supplements.Stuttgart, 1893–1978.
SAMScarborough,Johnetal.,eds.StudiesinAncientMedicine.Vol.1.Leiden, 1990—.
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SIGDittenberger,W.,andF.H.vonGaertringen,eds.SyllogeInscriptionum Graecarum.3rded.4vols.Leipzig,1915–1924.ReprintHildesheim,1960.
(p.xii)
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OxfordHandbooksOnline
Contributors
OxfordHandbookofScienceandMedicineintheClassicalWorld
EditedbyPaulT.KeyserandJohnScarborough
PrintPublicationDate:Aug2018Subject:ClassicalStudies OnlinePublicationDate:Jul2018
(p.xiii)
Contributors
FabioAcerbi,CNRS,UMR8167“OrientetMéditerranée,”Paris,France
JochenAlthoff,InstitutfürAltertumswissenschaften,ArbeitsbereichKlassische Philologie/Gräzistik,JohannesGutenberg-UniversitätMainz,Germany
MaryBeagon,DepartmentofClassicsandAncientHistory,Universityof Manchester,Manchester,England
AlainBernard,CentreA.Koyré,ParisEstCréteilUniversity,France
LawrenceJ.Bliquez,Classics,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA,USA
AlanC.Bowen,InstituteforResearchinClassicalPhilosophyandScience, Baysville,ON,Canada
Page1of6
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LaurenCaldwell,DepartmentsofHistoryandClassics,TrinityCollege,Hartford, CT,USA
LouiseCilliers,DepartmentofEnglishandClassicalLanguages,Universityofthe FreeState,Bloemfontein,SouthAfrica
GlenM.Cooper,IndependentScholar,Springville,UT,USA
ElizabethCraik,SchoolofClassics,UniversityofSt.Andrews,St.Andrews, Scotland,UK
RosalieDavid,CentreforBiomedicalandForensicStudiesinEgyptology, UniversityofManchester,Manchester,England
JamesEvans,UniversityofPugetSound,Tacoma,WA,USA
KyleFraser,UniversityofKing’sCollege,Halifax,NovaScotia,Canada
KlausGeus,FreieUniversitätBerlin,Friedrich-Meinecke-Institut,Historische GeographiedesantikenMittelmeerraumes,Berlin,Germany
PamGordon,DepartmentofClassics,UniversityofKansas,Lawrence,KS,USA
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MarkGrant,IndependentScholar,Bruton,UK
AndrewGregory,DepartmentofScienceandTechnologyStudies,University College,London,England
(p.xiv)
MichaelGriffin,DepartmentsofPhilosophyandClassical,NearEastern, andReligiousStudies,UniversityofBritishColumbia,Vancouver,BC,Canada
StefanHagel,InstitutefortheStudyofAncientCulture,AustrianAcademyof Sciences,Vienna,Austria
JensHøyrup,SectionforPhilosophyandScienceStudies,RoskildeUniversity, Roskilde,Denmark
AnnetteImhausen,HistorischesSeminarundExzellenzclusterNormativeOrders, GoetheUniversitätFrankfurt,FrankfurtamMain,Germany
IanJohnston,IndependentScholar,Tasmania,Australia
PhilipG.Kaplan,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofNorthFlorida,Jacksonville, FL,USA
PaulT.Keyser,IndependentScholar,Chicago,NewYork,andPittsburgh,USA
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ColinGuthrieKing,DepartmentofPhilosophy,ProvidenceCollege,Providence,RI, USA
TokeLindegaardKnudsen,DepartmentofCross-CulturalandRegionalStudies, UniversityofCopenhagen,Copenhagen,Denmark
AndreasKuelzer,AustrianAcademyofSciences,InstituteforMedievalResearch, DivisionofByzantineResearch,Vienna,Austria
MariskaLeunissen,DepartmentofPhilosophy,TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaat ChapelHill,ChapelHill,NC,USA
DavidPaniagua,Dpto.FilologíaClásicaeIndoeuropeo,UniversidaddeSalamanca, Salamanca,Spain
JoachimFriedrichQuack,ÄgyptologischesInstitut,Heidelberg,Germany
TraceyRihll,DepartmentofHistoryandClassics,SwanseaUniversity,Wales,UK
FrancescaRochberg,NearEasternStudies,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley, USA
DuaneW.Roller,ProfessorEmeritusofClassics,theOhioStateUniversity,USA
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JohnScarborough,ProfessorEmeritus,DepartmentofHistoryandSchoolof Pharmacy,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,WI,USA
JoAnnScurlock,ProfessorEmeritaofHistory,ElmhurstCollege,Chicago,IL,USA
LucasSiorvanes,DepartmentofGreekandLatin,UniversityCollege,London, England
SvetlaSlaveva-Griffin,DepartmentofClassics,FloridaStateUniversity, Tallahassee,USA
FabioStok,DipartimentodiStudiletterariefilosofici,UniversitàdiRomaTor Vergata,Rome,Italy
(p.xv)
PhilipThibodeau,DepartmentofClassics,BrooklynCollege,Brooklyn,NY, USA
TeunTieleman,DepartmentofPhilosophyandReligiousStudies,Utrecht University,Utrecht,TheNetherlands
CristinaViano,CentreLéonRobin,CNRS,UniversitédeParisIV-Sorbonne,Paris, France
AlexeiVolkov,CenterforGeneralEducation,NationalTsing-HuaUniversity, Hsinchu,Taiwan
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ColinWebster,ClassicsProgram,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,USA
XuFengxian,InstitutefortheHistoryofNaturalScience,ChineseAcademyof Sciences,Beijing,China
TsutomuYamashita,DepartmentofBusinessAdministration,KyotoGakuen University,Kyoto,Japan
LeonidZhmud,InstitutefortheHistoryofScience,St.Petersburg,Russia
(p.xvi)
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OxfordHandbooksOnline
Introduction
PaulT.Keyser
OxfordHandbookofScienceandMedicineintheClassicalWorld
EditedbyPaulT.KeyserandJohnScarborough
PrintPublicationDate:Aug2018Subject:ClassicalStudies,AncientScienceandMedicine OnlinePublicationDate:Jul2018DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734146.013.81
AbstractandKeywords
Therewasscienceinantiquity.Sciencerequiresonlythat:theworldweobserveexists andisknowable;moreover,wecanshareknowledgeabouttheworld;andfinally,thereis awaythattheworldis,anditisbothmeaningfulandpossibletosaythatsomemodelsof theworld,orreportsabouttheworld,betterrepresentthatwaythandoothers.Itisno moreanachronistictoemployourterm“science”thanothermodernterms(“book,” “city,”“food,”“school”)foracorrespondingancientcategoryorpractice.Thisvolume includeswhatwasvalidlyscienceforancientpractitionersandtheorists:attemptsto understandhowthenaturalworldworkedandtoconstructmodelstoconveythose understandings.Thosewhoacceptasscientificageocentriccosmospopulatedbyliving beingsconstitutedofhumorsmustlikewiseacceptstellarinfluencesandmaterial transmutation.Thisvolumehumblytakestheancientideasforwhattheyareandstudies themasasystemthatchangedandgrewovertime.
Keywords:alchemy,Aristotle,astrology,astronomy,canon,Epicurus,mathematics,models,Plato,science
WHATgoesfirstcomeslast:onlyaStoicSageoraDaoistMastercouldwritean introductiontoaworkbeforetheworkwascompleted.We,thetwoeditors,arefarshort ofsuchascendedmasters,soonlynowdowelookbackandseewhatwehavedone.
Youhavebeforeyouacollectionofessaysonancientsciencesintendedtoprovidea synopticsynthesisofhowscholarscurrentlyunderstandthosesciences.Ourfocusisthe classicalworld,thatis,Greco-Romanantiquity,uptoca650CE.Butthatsetof descriptivetermsraisesahostofproblematicqueries,atleastafewofwhichmustbe confronted:Whatis“science”?How,orusingwhatcategories,shallwestudyit?What roledotheessaysonEgypt,Mesopotamia,India,andChinaplayinthisbook?
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Weareinagreementthatthereissuchathingasscienceand,indeed,thattherewas suchathinginGreco-Romanantiquity(Keyser2013).Thatis,wetakeitasgiventhat(a) theworldweobservedoesexistandcanbeknown;moreover,(b)wecanshare knowledgeabouttheworld;andfinally,(c)thereisawaythattheworldis,anditisboth meaningfulandevenpossibletosaythatsomemodelsoftheworld,orreportsaboutthe world,betterrepresentthatwaythandoothers.TwoilluminatingexamplesfromGrecoRomanantiquityare(1)theobservationthatopium-poppysapandwillow-barkinfusion eachgenuinelyalleviatepain;and(2)thespherical-earththeory,namelythattheearthis notaflattishexpanseonwhose“top”welive,butratheraglobularmass,onwhose outsidewelive.
Inusingthemodernword“science,”wearenaturallyawarethatweareusingamodern word:weareafterall,writinginEnglish,notinGreekorLatin,muchlessinEgyptianor Sanskrit,amongothers.That,ofcourse,meansthatwe—theeditorsandthecontributors —aretranslatingancientconceptsintomodernones.Wecanonlythinkaboutancient categoriesandpracticesatallbyfirstmappingthemontomoderncategories—keepingin mindthatourmappingswillberoughandraw.Itisnomoreanachronistictoemploythe modernterm“science”(orWissenschaft,or科学,kēxué)thanitistoapplyanymodern term—suchas“book”or“city,”or“food”or“school”—toacorrespondingancientGreek conceptorpractice.Scholarsemploymodernterms,suchas“astronomy,”to encompasswhatancientGreeksorothersincludedintheirstudyoftheheavens,andso alsofor“mathematics”or“medicine”ortherest.
Foranyofustoattempttospeakorreasonaboutancientsciencewithouttranslating wouldbeacomicfutility,ofthesortthatJonathanSwiftmightmock.Butattemptsat translationmayfarebetterorworse—doourspassmuster?AmongtheancientGreeks, termssuchasepistēmē,theōria,pragmateia,tekhnē,phusiologia,and“natural philosophy”werecommonlyusedtocoverasemanticrangelargelyoverlappingthe modernEnglish“science.”Tolabeltheworkofancientmathematicians,astronomers, doctors,andthelikeasscienceisvalid:onthebasisofsharedgoals,namely, comprehending,explaining,andsometimespredictingnaturalphenomena.
Wetheeditorsfirmlyintendedtobeinclusiveofsciencegenerally,thatis,toincludeall thesciencesthatcouldreasonablybesodesignated.Someofthose,notablyalchemyand astrology,wouldnotpassmusterintheworldofEinsteinandFermiassciences.Butall thatweincludehereinwasvalidlysciencefortheancientpractitionersandtheorists— thatis,allthatweincludeinvolveattemptstounderstandhowtheworldofnature workedandtoconstructmodelsofthatworldtoconveyinsightintoitsworkings.Ifone excludedastrologyandalchemyfromthestudyofancientscienceonthegroundstheir foundationsandresultshavebeeninvalidated(asindeedtheyhave),wewouldalsoneed toexcludeancientastronomy(whichwashighlygeocentric)andancientmedicine(which wasfirmlyhumoral).Ifwecanacceptassomehowscientificageocentriccosmos populatedbylivingsbeingsconstitutedofhumors,wemustlikewiseacceptstellar influencesandmaterialtransmutation. (p.2)
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Wetheeditorsalsofirmlywantedtoincludesomematerialonotherancientculturesto seethescienceoftheGreco-Roman(“classical”),worldinitswidercontext.Wewantedto doso,however,withoutlosingourchosenfocusonGreco-Romanscience.Ourintentmay beclarifiedbyconsideringtheanalogyofthehypothetical“OxfordHandbookofScience andMedicineintheSanskritWorld”(or“MesopotamianWorld”).Surelysuchavolume (highlydesirableinitsownright)wouldberenderedallthemoreinsightfulandvaluable ifitweretoincludesomesimilarcontext-settingessays,onotherculturesofantiquity, andespeciallyontheGreco-Romanworld.
Attentivereaderswillnotethattheessaysofthefirstsection,onotherancientcultures, mostlyfocusonmathematics,astralsciences,andmedicine,andthatnotallsuch sciencesarecoveredforeachofthefourcultures,Egypt,Mesopotamia,India,andChina. Wouldthatwehadbeenabletofindcontributorstocoverthemissingtopics!Asour editoratOxfordUniversityPresscanattest,weexertedlengthyandconsiderableeffort, andgreatlyregretthatoursuccesswaspartial—as,indeed,fatewillhaveitforanyeffort inouractualandcontingentworld.Anditneedhardlybesaidthatweareawarethat manyothercultures,otherthanorevenpriortothosewehavetoucheduponhere,must alsohavehadsomescience—butbecausesciencereferstoaconceptualframework,we requiretextstostudy,andthosealaswelack,ortheyarefewandnotyetfullydecoded.
GiventhenthatourcentralfocusisonGreco-Romanscience,howshallwestudythat evolvingsystemofconcepts,across13ormorecenturies,fromca650BCEtoca650CE?
(p.3)
Therehavebeentypicallytwoapproaches,susceptibleofbeingdesignated “receptionstudies”and“antiquarianstudies,”bothofwhichareburdenedwithwhatmay becalledthe“greatweightofthepast.”Somescholarshavestudiedancientscienceasif collectingantiquarianoddities,ofnolargerorcurrentrelevance:thisapproachsubjects theancientideastotheauthorityofourmodernviews.Othershavestudiedancient scienceasifelucidatingthereceptionofitsideasbylaterwriters,whetherthemselves alsoancientorlater:thisapproachsubjectstheancientideastotheauthorityoftheir priortexts(sothatPlatoispreferredoverPlotinus,HippocratesoverGalen,andAristotle overAlexanderofAphrodisias).
Thosetwomodesofscholarshiponancientsciencereflecttheliteraryandphilosophical debatethatflaredintheRenaissance,knownasthe“quarreloftheancientsand moderns.”Thosewhofavoredtheancientswerefavoringauthorityandadheredtoa modelofhistoryasaprocessofdecay,aviewthatemergesinHesiodandtheHebrew scriptures,butpersistsin,forexample,JohnDonne(seeHesiod,WorksandDays109–201;Isaiah51.6;Psalm102.25–27;Lucretius2.1105–1174;D.L.7.141;Donne1611; Lowenthal2015,226–232).Theopposingparty,infavoringthemoderns,wasadvocating thatprogressinsomeformwaspossible,and,inparticular,theywerearguingthatpeople “now”couldexceedtheachievementsoftheancients(seeVesalius1543;Gilbert1600; Bacon1623,sec.4.2;Swift1704).
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Perhapswemaystepasidefromthatdebateifwecanconceiveofscienceasanorganic evolvingwhole,sothatthereisnoquestionofsubjectingtheancientideastoany authority.Instead,letushumblytaketheancientideasforwhattheyareandstudythem asasystemthatchangedandgrewovertime,leadinginanunbrokenseriesofsmall changestoourera(Keyser2013).HoweveralientheideasofancientGreeks—orindeed ancientChineseorancientEgyptians—mayhavebeen,thoseideaswereideasaboutthe sameworldinwhichwealsoliveandwereattemptstoachievethesamegoalthatmodern scientistshave,thegoalofunderstanding(Lloyd1996;2002).Noradicalbreakis possible,andsciencecannothaveemergedsuddenly,sometime,andsomewhere,asif fromthebrowofAthena(Lloyd2009,chap.9,159–160).
ThatoutlookinturnthrowssomelightonthesomewhatunusualpositionofGreco-Roman scienceinworldhistory.Inthefourculturessurveyedbriefly(alltoobriefly)inthefirst sectionofessays,wemayobservethattheroleofclassictextsandthescholarswho studiedthemwasverymuchaneffortofreceptionstudies.
ThatismostapparentinthehistoryofChinesescienceandliteraturefromtheearlyHan dynasty(ca100BCE)onward,wherea“classic”(jing,经)wasatextofacertainage, attributedtoanhonoredfounder,aroundwhichaninterpretivetraditionflourishedthat attractedstudentsandinspiredteachers;amongthejingwerethemainscientifictexts fromancientChina.Theteachersandstudentsformeda“lineage”(jia,家),withinwhich studentsowedrespectanddeferencetotheteacher,andthemostexcellentstudent wouldsucceedtheteacherwhenhedied.Thelineagecopied,memorized,and commenteduponthetext,ensuringitssurvivalandelucidatingthe“veiledmeaningsor hiddendimensions”inthefounder’sdiscourse,sothattheycouldbe“appliedvariablyto newsituations”(Sivin1995;Lewis1999,53–97;LloydandSivin2002,42–61).
TheSanskrittradition,fromtheMauryaera(ca300–200BCE)onward,offersa verysimilarstructure,inthesuccession(paramparā)ofteacher(ācārya)andpupil (shishya)inaVedicintellectualtradition,passingonknowledgeandpractice,and preservingthetextaroundwhichthesuccessionformed;thescientifictextsofancient Indiawerepreservedinthissystem.Herealsothestudentbeganbymemorizingthetext thatformedthebasisofthetraditionandowedhisteacherthedutyofpreservingthe traditionintowhichtheteacherhadinitiatedhim.Theworkofthelineagewastoproduce exegeticalcommentariesonthetextthatdefinedthelineage(Hara1980;Roelcke1987; Jacobsen2011).
InthescribaltraditionsofbothMesopotamiaandEgypt,fromthesecondmillenniumBCE onward,thescribewasanhonoredandreveredfigure,who,amongotherduties,passed onthewisdomofbygoneages.InEgypt,thetextsthatplayedthelargestroleinthis traditionseemtohavebeenethicalpreceptsattributedtospecific,namedancientsages, althoughprobablythescientifictextsthatsurvivewerepropagatedinasimilarway (Williams1972;Assmann1991,476–478;Piacentini2001).InMesopotamia,theAssyrian andBabylonianscribespreserved,translated,andcommentedontheclassictextsof (p.4)
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Sumerianliterature,includingscience.Herethetexttraditiononlygraduallyachieved stabilityofcontentandform,andtheprecisewording,unlikeintheotherthree traditions,wasfluid(Olivier1975,49–54;Rochberg-Halton1984,127–137).
AsarguedbyRochberg-Halton(1984,133–134/2010,72–73),these“classic”traditions, dedicatedtopreservingatextanditsattendantreinterpretations,tendedtopreserveand conservetheircontent,ratherthanpromptingdebateordevelopment.Thepreservative pathisnottheonlypathforreadersofclassictexts,and“interpretivecommunities”can becomeactivelyinnovative,asarguedbyFish(1980,338–371).ThetraditionsofChina andIndia,andtoalesserdegreethoseofEgyptandMesopotamia,thusprovidean analogywithcertainliteraryandscientifictraditionswithinGreekscientificwriting, pointingoutboththepreservativenatureofsuchlineagesandyetalsoshowinghow Greeksciencepressedagainstits“classic”boundaries.
Plato’sdialoguesservedastheclassictextoftheAcademy;whereasmuchlater(fromthe 1stand2ndcenturiesCE),Aristotle’sessaysalsoservedmuchthesamefunctionfor philosophers,especiallyfortheNeoplatonists.TheschoolfoundedbyEpicurustreated hislettersandlongerworksasclassics,whichlaterEpicureansstudied.Themedical schoolsfoundedinthefirsthalfofthe3rdcenturyBCEbyHerophilusandErasistratus preservedandinterpretedthetextsoftheirfounders.Whenthosethreeschoolswithered awayinthe1stand2ndcenturiesCE,theirtextssoonafterwardbecamelost,exceptfor quotations,sometimesextensive,byoutsiders.AfinalexamplefromtheGreekworldis thefellowshipimaginedintheHippocraticOath(cf.LloydandSivin2002,112),inwhich thestudentswearstopassontheteacher’sknowledgeonlywithintheHippocratic lineage.
Intheend,thestudyofancientGreco-Romanscience,likeanystudy,isundertakenforits ownsakeandcannotbejustifiedbyanappealeithertosomebasisuponwhichitis foundedortosomebenefitwhichitmayconfer.Thissituationislikethestudyofany ancientorforeigndiscipline—music,painting,philosophy,poetry—thosepractitioners weredoingwhatwedo,wethink(seeaboveontranslation),andtheireffortsare worthyofappreciationandstudyintheirownright.Soalsoscience:humaninilame alienumputo(Terence,Heautontimoroumenos,77).
(p.5)
Thevolumebeforeyouismadeupoffiveparts.Thefirstoffersessaysonthesciencesof ancientEgypt,Mesopotamia,India,andChina.Inthesecondpart,thecontributorshave sketchedwhatweknowofthescienceoftheperiodupthroughPlatoandtheearly Academy.ThethirdandlargestpartfocussesonthescienceofAristotle,thePeripatetic school,andthelongHellenisticeragenerally.Thefourthpart,somewhatoverlapping withthethird,treatsthescienceoftheGreco-Romanperiod.Thelastpartoffersessays onthescienceofLateAntiquity,includingtheveryearliestphaseoftheByzantine Empire.Thesedivisionsseemedtousthe“naturaljoints”ofourmaterial,asdidthe individualtopicsofthedozensofessays.Westrovetoemployancientactors’categories, suitablytranslated,insofaraswecould,ratherthanretrojectingmoderncategoriesinan
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eisegeticalway.Butasalways,wetranslatewhenweanalyze,andoursynthesesare limitedbyourimperfectinsight.
Last,butneverleast,letusnowthankhelpfulpeople.Aworksuchasthisdependsnot onlyonitsmanycontributorsbutalsoonscholarswhogaveadvice,readdrafts,wrote referee’sreports,or(especially)helpedusfindcontributors.Amongthose,wepickout fornotethesefive:DavidCreese(Newcastle),WiebkeDenecke(Boston),Marco Formisano(Utrecht),SusanMattern(Atlanta),andKarineChemla(Paris).Theworkis betterfortheirefforts,buttheyareinnowaytobeheldresponsibleforitsdefects.
ReaderspleasealsonotethatthebibliographicclosingdateofthisvolumewasNovember 31,2016—itemsappearingafterthatdatecouldonlybecitedorusedinexceptional cases.
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PaulT.Keyser,IndependentScholar,Chicago,NewYork,andPittsburgh,USA
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OxfordHandbooksOnline
MesopotamianBeginningsforGreekScience?
JoAnnScurlock
OxfordHandbookofScienceandMedicineintheClassicalWorld
EditedbyPaulT.KeyserandJohnScarborough
PrintPublicationDate:Aug2018Subject:ClassicalStudies,AncientScienceandMedicine OnlinePublicationDate:Jul2018DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734146.013.2
AbstractandKeywords
ThischapterstudiestheinfluentialtraditionofMesopotamianmedicine.Twodistinct kindsofmedicalexpertscollaboratedtodiagnoseandtotreatillness,theāšipuandthe asû,whoarerespectivelyanalogoustotheGreekiatrosandpharmakopōlēs.Assyrian herbalsareorganizedbymedicaleffect,muchlikeDioscorides’herbal.TheDiagnostic andPredictiveSeries,standardizedbyca1050bce,providesevaluationsofillnessesfrom headtotoe,plusevaluationsbycategorysuchasfever,neurology,obstetricsand gynecology,andpediatrics.Mesopotamianmedicinewasveryfamiliarwithcontagion. Theattributionofdiseasestogods,ghosts,ordemonswassimplytheāšipu’swayof subdividingbroadcategoriesofdisease,muchasweaggregatesymptoms.
Keywords:contagion,diagnosis,DiagnosticandPredictiveSeries,diseases,epilepsy,herbals,prognosis
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THEgreatflourishingofGreeksciencedidnottakeplaceinavacuum.Longbeforethe conquestsofAlexander,therewasasignificantGreekpresenceintheNearEast, beginningwiththeplantingofcoloniesintheeasternMediterraneanandAsiaMinorin the8thcenturyBCE.DescendantsofthesecolonistsapparentlyencounteredAssyrian expansionatleastonce,whentheYaunaya(Ionians,i.e.Greeks)senttributetoSargonII (721–705)fromCyprus.EusebiusalsoquotesAbydenostotheeffectthatSennacherib (704–681)battledanddefeatedanIonianGreekfleet(FGrH685F5,§6;seealso: Scurlock2004a,10;especiallyRöllig1971,643–647;andBraun1982b,1–31).
CulturalcontactsexpandeddramaticallywiththefoundingofNaukratistohouseGreek mercenaries.GreekarmorwasfoundatCarchemish(Braun1982a,49;Wiseman1991, 230)wherethefinalbattleofthefallofAssyria(614–605BCE)wasfought.Contacts betweenGreeksandnon-GreeksintheancientNearEast,particularlyEgypt,intensified furtherasAthenianssupportedEgyptianrevoltsagainstthePersianEmpire.A BabyloniannamedBerossoswroteahistoryofhislandinGreekfortheedificationofhis patron,AntiochusI(FGrH680;Burstein1978).Fromlaterperiods,wehavetheso-called Greco-Babyloniaca,thatis,textsinAkkadian(i.e.Assyro-Babylonian)languagebut writtenusingtheGreekalphabetwithaviewtogivingGreekscholarswhowantedto learnAkkadianaccesstotherichliteraryandscientifictraditionofancientMesopotamia (Geller1997).
ThatEgyptiansciencesreachedGreeceiswellestablished,anditisbeginningtobe realizedjusthowmuchofancientGreekmathematicalastronomyhasanancient Mesopotamianfoundation(seeRochberg,inthisvolume).Beginningalreadyinthe Persianperiod,themixofculturesintheancientNearEastproducedtheHellenistic scienceparexcellence,andthatwasastrology,withitssisterscienceofastrological medicine(Scurlockandal-Rawi2006),whichallowedillnessassociatedwithconjunctions oftheplanetstobeavertedbyusingtherightwoodasafumigant,therightplantsand otheringredientsasasalve,andwearingtherightstoneasacharm(Finkel2000, 212–217;Heeßel2005).
(p.36)
1.ĀšipuandAsû:IatrosandPharmakopōlēs
InancientMesopotamia,thereweretwoseparatemedicalexpertswhoworkedtogether todiagnoseandtreatillness;so,too,inGreece,thedivisionoflaborwasquitesimilar (Scurlock1999;2005,304–306).Theāšipuwas,roughlyspeaking,theequivalentofthe modernphysicianandtheGreekiatros,whereastheasûcorrespondstothemodern pharmacistandtheGreekpharmakopōlēs.Thesecorrespondencesarenot,however, exact.Themodernphysiciandoesnotthinkofhimselfasaphilosopher,whereasthe ancientGreekiatrosdid.Theāšipufellintothemiddlegroundbetweenthesetwopoles, practicingmedicineratherthanphilosophybutonoccasion,asinthepassagecited below,waxingphilosophicalabouthiscraft.
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Allphysiciansarefrustratedthatbabiesarehardtodiagnoseandthattheimpending deathofelderlypatientsisalltooclear.ThisinspiredoneancientMesopotamian physiciantowritethismeditationon“evildeath”:
Whenahumanbeingisborn/comesoutofthewomb,nobodycanrecognizeits signs.[Onlylater]dotheybecomeapparent.Itisasiftheygrowfatwithhimand growtallwithhim....Theillnessofthatillnessisathingthatcanneverbe removed,theevilsofthatillness,ofthatfalsesleep.
(Böck2007,223,lines3–7withScurlock2011,98–99).
Likehismoderncolleague,theāšipuwastheoneexpectedtodiagnoseillnessesand, againlikethemodernphysician,heprescribedmedicinestobedeliveredtothepatient bythepharmacist.However,modernphysiciansdonotmakearegularpracticeof directlyprovidingpatientswithneededmedicines,whereastheāšipuapparently frequentlymadeupandadministeredmedicinalpreparationstohispatientshimself.Like modernphysicians,healsogaveaprognosisand,inhopelesscases,forbadehiscolleague thepharmacistfromofferingquackcurestodesperatepatientsortheirfriendsand relatives.
Forthosewhohadsimpleproblemsnotrequiringdiagnosis,orwhoknewfromsad experiencewhatwaswrong,orwhohadgottentheancientequivalentofaprescription fromaphysician,therewasasecondhealingspecialistknownastheasû,theequivalent ofthepharmakopōlēsandtheEuropeanpharmacist.Therewereathousandorso medicinesknowntoancientMesopotamians,mostlyplantsorplantparts,butalsoanimal andmineralsubstances;theasûneededinformationaboutsupply,therighttimetocollect them,andhowtostoreandprocessthemformaximumefficiency.Likethephysician,the pharmacistalsohadastockofrecitationstousetoensuretheefficacyofthe treatmentshesoldcustomers.Likethephysician,heexperimentedwithhisplantsto determinethemostefficaciousforspecificmedicalconditions.Therewere,ofcourse, midwivesandunofficialexperts,manyofthemprobablyalsowomen.Itisunfortunate thatweshallprobablyneverknowtowhatextentthetempleofthegoddessGulaatIsin (modernIšānal-BaḥrīyātinIraq)providedanalternativelocusoftreatment.Thesitewas underexcavationbuthasnowbeencompletelydestroyed(duetoillicitexcavationsand lootinginthewakeofthe2003Americaninvasion).InancientGreece,therewas definitelyanalternativetotheHippocraticiatrosintheformoftheasklepieionwhere patientscametospendthenightandhopefullytoreceivethetreatmentoftheirdreams.
(p.37)
Youngboysfrompriestlyfamiliesbeinggroomedasphysiciansstudiedlonghoursintheir ownorrelatives’houses,passingthroughseveralgradesofapprenticeshipbeforebeing allowedtopractice(Maul2010).Alongtheway,muchtimewasspentcopying(Finkel 2000)andmakingcommentariesontextsrelevanttothediscipline.So,too,Hippocratic physicians(Scurlock2004b,5–7).
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IthasbeenarguedthatDioscorideswasthe“inventor”oftheschemaoforganizationof plantsbymedicaluse(Riddle1985,22–24).Infact,thetraditiongoesbacktothethird millenniumBCEintheancientNearEast(Neumann2010,4).Neo-Assyrianexemplars indicatethatthepharmacist’sstockintradeincludedvademecumtexts,thatis,listingsof plantswithinstructionsforpreparation.Atypicalentryfromavademecumtextreads: pirʾieqliisaplanttoremoveopaquespotsintheeye.Itistobegroundand[put] ontheopaquespot.(BAM423i9')
Therearealsotwofragmentaryworksknowntousbytheirancientnames,Šammu šikinšu(literally,theplant,itsnature),whichgavedescriptionsofplants,and URU.AN.NA,whichwasessentiallyanancientplantglossaryprovidinginformationon synonymsandsubstitutions.
Šammušikinšuprefixestothemedicaluseadescriptionoftheplantusingtherudiments ofasystemofplanttaxonomy(similartoDioscorides,whosemanuscriptsadddrawings). Thisallowsanunknownplanttobedescribedintermsofknownplantswithdistinctive heads,leavesorseedpods.So,forexample:
Theplantwhichresemblessupāluandwhoseseedisrediscalledellibu.Itisgood forremovinglimpnessandnumbness.Yougrinditandrubhimgentlywithit (mixed)withoil.
Theplantwhichresemblesduḫnu-milletiscalledanunūtu.Itisgoodforearsthat producepus.Yougrinditandpouritintohis[ears](mixed)withoil.(SpTU3.106i 1'-4')
Someentriesalsogivespecificreferencetohabitat:
Theplantwhichresembleslaptu-vegetablebutwhichcontinuallyseeksoutthe frontside(i.e.,theplantturnstofacethesunlight),andwhichcomesupin irrigatedfieldsandwhichwhenyoupullitup,itsrootbends[iscalled]liddanānu. (SpTU3.106i19'-21')
ItisclearthattheseancientMesopotamiantextswerewrittenandreadas practicalmanuals.IncontrasttotheHippocraticiatrosandmoreinlinewiththemodern physician,theāšipuhadaphilosophyof“usewhateverworks”.Alongtraditionof experimentationrevealedthatmanyplantsandothernaturalproductshavemedicinal properties.AncientMesopotamiansdidnotknowthatplantsdevelopedtheseproperties todefendthemselvesagainstinsectsas,forexample,bytargetingtheirpredators’central nervoussystems.Whattheydidknowwasthatplantscouldeffectivelybeusedtotreat patientsforquiteawidevarietyofdiseasesandconditions.Whereplantsarewell attested,andwehavesomeideaofwhattheywere,weareinapositiontounderstand justhowsophisticatedherbalmedicinecanbe.Forkamantu,whichhassome97 (p.38)
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referencesinancientMesopotamiantherapeutictextsandwhichisprobablyhenna,we canaccountforeverymedicalusebytheāšipu(Scurlock2007).
Forexample,ingynecologicaluse,theāšipugroundtheseedofkamantu,mixeditwith firstqualitybeeranduseditinapotion“tohaveseed.”HellenisticGreekphysicianswere inagreementwiththeāšiputhatwomenandmenhad“seed”(Stol2000,8).Indeed,given Greek“folk”traditionwhichheldthatthewomanwastheovenwherethemanbakedhis loaves(asinthetaleinHerodotus5.92.η2–3),itisnotunlikelythattheideaofwomen’s “seed”reachedtheGreeksfromMesopotamia(Scurlock2006a,175).What“havingseed” meantinpracticaltermsisthatthewomanhadregularperiodsandwasabletobearlive children.Modernstudiesofhennahaveshown(Scurlock2007,517–518)thatitisan oxytocicdrug.Oxytocicdrugsstimulateuterinecontractionsandtheejectionofmilk, slightlylowerbloodpressure,andslightlydilatecoronaryarteries.Inwomenwhoarenot pregnant,theyincreasethetone,amplitude,andfrequencyofuterinecontraction,thus bringingonmenstruation.However,theuterusisresistanttooxytocicdrugsduringthe firstandsecondtrimestersofpregnancy,whichallowsafertilizedeggtodevelop.Asthe pregnancyprogresses,thesusceptibilityoftheuterusalsoincreases.Whatthismeansis thatadministeringanoxytocicdruglikekamantuinthethirdtrimesterofpregnancywill amplifyuterinecontractions,thusallowingthebabytobeborn(Scurlock2007,517–520).
Thustheāšipu’suseofherbalmedicinestoregulatefemalefertilitywaswell-founded. Similarly,ancientMesopotamianphysicianswerequiterighttoprescribedatekernels, whichcontainplantestrogens,forirregularmenstruation(BAM237i25’);andtouse šūmu-garlic(AlliumsativumL.),whichisavasodilator,incombinationwithzibû-black cumin(NigellasativaL.),whichisantihistaminic,totreatghost-inducedtinnitus(roaring intheears;formoredetailsonthediagnosisandtreatmentoftinnitusseeScurlockand Stevens2007).
2.DiagnosticandPrognosticSeries
Indivisionofspecialties,usesofcommentaries,andthepracticeofgeneratingherbal handbooks,ancientMesopotamiaisinlinewiththeGreekworld.Numerousparallels downtotheleveloflanguagebetweenancientMesopotamiantherapeutictexts andtheHippocraticCorpus(Scurlock2004a,14–15)stronglysuggestsomesortof meetingoftheminds.ThesamemaybesaidfortheancientMesopotamianDiagnostic andPrognosticSeries,asetof2tabletscontainingmedicalomensandafurther38 tabletsexplaininghowtodiagnoseandprognosticatediseasesandconditionsonthe basisofsignsobservedbytheāšipuorsymptomsdescribedtohimbyhispatients (Scurlock2014,13–271).Tablet36ofthisseriesoffersmanypredictionsofthesexofa fetus,basedondifficultiesexperiencedbytheexpectantmother,thatappearinlater classicalauthorsalmostverbatim,albeitwiththesexesreversed(Mesopotamian: ScurlockandAndersen2005,277–279;classical:Hanson2004,298).
(p.39)
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TheDiagnosticandPredictiveSerieshadbeensystematizedbythereignofthe BabyloniankingAdad-apla-idina(1068–1047BCE).Weknowthenameoftheeditor, Esagil-kīn-apli(Finkel1988).AncientMesopotamiandiagnosiswasbasedonface-to-face examinationofthepatient,solicitingsymptomsbyaskingpertinentquestionsandnoting signsbylookingcarefullyatthepatient’scolor,generalappearanceandmovement; examininghisfeces,urineandvomitus;listeningtohisbreathingandbowelsounds; feelinghistemperatureandbodyconfiguration;andnotingtheodorofhisbreathandof infectedwounds.(Formoredetailsandmyriadexamples,seeScurlockandAndersen 2005.)
AncientMesopotamianāšipusgeneratedaspecialvocabularytodescribemedically significantsigns(e.g.,differenttypesofpain,paralysis,spontaneousmovement,andskin lesions).Theyknewhowtotellwhetherawomanwaspregnantbylookingforwhatwe understandtobechemicalchangesinthewomb(Reiner1982;ScurlockandAndersen 2005,262)comparedwithinsertingagarliccloveintothevaginaandthencheckingto seewhetherherbreathsmelledofgarlic—amethodfavoredbyHippocraticandEgyptian physicians(Hanson2004,296–297).AncientMesopotamianphysiciansalsodeviseda numberofdiagnosticmaneuvers,forinstance,whatmodernphysicianscalltheMoro test,whichisusedtothisdaytoevaluatetheneurologicsystemofinfants:“Ifyou suspendaninfantbyhisneckandhedoesnotjerkanddoesnotstretchouthisarms,he was‘gotten’bythedust”(i.e.hewilldie)(ScurlockandAndersen2005,341).
TheDiagnosticandPrognosticSeriescontainedinformationonthedevelopmentof symptomsoverthecourseofadisease,insomecases,daybydayandinothersfive-day periodbyfive-dayperiod.Therewerealsosectionsthathelpedtheāšiputodistinguish onediseaseorconditionfromanothersimilardiseaseorcondition,whatwecall differentialdiagnosis(ScurlockandAndersen2005,575–576).Ofthe38purelymedical tabletsinthisseries,12wentsystematicallydownthebodyinheadtotoeorder,thatis, signsandsymptomsrelatingtotheheadwerelistedfirst,beginningwiththepatientwho hadbeensickforonedayandthetopofwhoseheadfelthotbutwhosetemporalblood vesselswerenotpulsating.Thelistingscontinuewithsignsandsymptomsoftheneck andsoondownthebodytothetoesendingwithsignsrelatingtothebloodvesselsofthe feet.Theselistingswerefollowedbytabletsonfever,neurology,obstetricsand gynecology,andpediatrics(ScurlockandAndersen2005,575–677,charts).
Ontheneurologytablets,itispossibletorecognizedescriptionsofwhatwecall grandmalseizures,petitmalseizures,simplepartialseizures,andcomplexpartial seizures,inadditiontosensoryseizures,gelasticseizures,statusepilepticus,andphases ofseizuresincludingthepost-ictalstate,nottomentionnarcolepsy,cataplexy,stroke,and coma.Pseudo-seizuresweredifferentiatedfromtherealthing.Forexample,complex partialseizures:
Ifwhatafflictshimdoessoinclosesequenceandwhenitcomesoverhim,he wringshishandslikeonewhomcoldafflicts,hestretchesouthisfeet,hejerksa (p.40)
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lotandthenisquiet,(and)hegazesattheonewhoafflictshim,“hand”ofthe binder.
(ScurlockandAndersen2005,320–322)
Then,gelasticseizures:
[I]fwhen(afallingspell)fallsuponhim,heturnspaleandlaughsalotandhis handsandhisfeetarecontinuallycontorted,“hand”oflilû-demon. (ScurlockandAndersen2005,322)
Third,pseudo-seizures:
Ifitafflictshiminhissleepandhegazesattheonewhoafflictshim,itflowsover himandheforgetshimself,heshudderslikeonewhomtheyhaveawakenedand hecanstillgetup;alternatively,whentheytrytowakehim,heisgroggy,false “hand”oflilû.Forawoman,alilû;hecangetupafterwards.
(ScurlockandAndersen2005,435)
ThereisalsoaclinicaldescriptionofwhatisnowcalledParkinson’sdisease(similarly describedbyParkinsonin1817):
Ifhisheadtrembles,hisneckandhisspinearebent,hecannotraisehismouthto thewords,hissalivacontinuallyflowsfromhismouth,hishands,hislegsandhis feetalltrembleatonce,andwhenhewalks,hefallsforward,if...hewillnotget well.
(ScurlockandAndersen2005,336–337;withScurlock2010,57)
Likewise,whatappearstobeLesch-Nyhan(describedagainin1964):“Ifhechewshis fingersandeatshisownlips”(ScurlockandAndersen2005,163).
Asimilarsystematizationofthetherapeutictexts,withamatchingseries,alsoinhead-totoeorder,seemstohavetakenplaceintheneo-Assyrianperiod(943–612BCE)(Scurlock 2014,295–336).Includedinthesetherapeutictextsareeverythingfrombandagesfor headaches,salvesforfever,dropsforsoreeyes,fumigantsforotitismedia,distillate daubsforthelungs,enemasforintestinalgas,urethralirrigationsforurinarytract problems,andtamponsforirregularmenstruation(Scurlock2005,310–312;Heeßeletal. 2010,45–162;(Scurlock2014,361–645).Makingadistillatewasdevilishlysimple.The plantmixturetobedistilledwentintoacrescent-shapeddiqārubowl,andasecond, burzigallu,bowlwithaholeboredintoitwasinvertedoverthetopandsealed roundtherimwithdoughmadefromemmerflour.Whenthebottombowlwasputovera fire,themixtureboiledanddistillatecondensedontothecoolupperbowlwhereitwas harvestedbymeansofastrawinsertedthroughthehole(Scurlock2014,465–469,480–483). (p.41)
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3.TheRoleoftheGods
Theproblem,fromourpointofview,isthatmuchofancientMesopotamiandiagnosiswas intermsofgods,ghosts,anddemonsandthatthetreatmentsincludedrecitations, prayers,amulets,andevenfull-fledgedritualsalongsidemoreconventionalmedical treatments.Theāšipualsoperformedavarietyofpurificationritualsforthecommunityin connectionwithcalendricritesorforindividualsdesiringsuccessinbusiness,anendto domesticquarrels,andotherpersonalmatters.
Weshouldnotassumethatthepresenceofsupernaturalcausesisasignofapseudoscientificapproachandthedictationofinappropriate,evenridiculous,treatmentsas,for example,havingthepatientavoidfoodtabooedbyPoseidonifyouimaginehimtohave neighedlikeahorseduringhisseizure.Thiswas,allegedly,thepracticeofancientGreek sacreddiseasespecialists(Scurlock2004a,12–13).Bycontrast,theāšipubeganby makingafullassessmentofhispatienttodeterminewhetherornothe/shehadacase thathecouldtreat.Havingdecidedthathecouldtreatit,heprescribedherbalmedicines. Thediagnosisensuredthattherightmedicinesweregoingtotherightpatientsandthat whateverwascausingtheproblemwasforcedorpersuadedbytheadministrationofthe medicinetogoawayandleaveher/himalone.Theparallelwithmoderngermtheoryis strikingand,indeed,moderngermtheorywasgreetedinsomequartersasarevivalof Babyloniandemonology.Forexample,Jastrowstates:
Thisprimitivegermtheoryhas,infact,agreatadvantageoverthemodern successor,fortotheimaginationofprimitivemanthegermisobligingenoughto takeontangibleshape.Itdoesnothideitself,asthemoderngerminsistsupon doing,soastobediscernibleonlywhenisolatedandunderthegazeofapowerful microscope,normustitsexistencebehypotheticallyassumed.Theancientgerm wasnotashamedofitself;itshoweditsteethandevenitstailanditshorns.The germwasademon,anevilspiritthatwassufficientlyaccommodatingtositforits portrait.(1917,232)
Theattributionofdiseasestogods,ghosts,ordemonswassimplytheāšipu’swayof subdividingbroadcategoriesofdiseasesuchasmentalillness,neurologicalconditions, arthritis,skindiseases,heartandcirculatoryproblems,illnessduetotrauma,andfevers. Theresultoftheāšipu’seffortswasasysteminwhichonlyalittleoverhalfofthe syndromescouldbeassignedtoalready-knownspirits.Oftheremainder,somewere attributedtoamalfunctioningbodypart,forinstance“sickliver,”bywhichtheymeant whatwecallhepatitis.Therestweregivenanamebasedonsomecharacteristic,for instance“stinking”forsyndromesinvolvingfoulsmellandgrayishlesionsinthe mouth.(Formoreonthistypeofdiagnosis,seeScurlockandAndersen2005,503–506).
Asisthegeneralruleinpolytheisticreligions,gods,ghosts,demons,malfunctioningbody parts,oranythingelsethatwascausingtroublewasbelievedtointeractwithhumansin thehopesofbeingboughtoff.Itisalsogenerallythecase,whatwecallomens(including (p.42)
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theso-calledastrologicalomens)werenotunderstoodascausalfactorstriggeringcosmic sympathiesbutasalanguage,orratherseriesoflanguages,wherebythespirits communicatedwithmankind(Farber1995,1899–1900).
Itfollowedfromthisthattheapparentomensrepresentedbywhatwestillcallmedical signsandsymptomswereacodewherebyaparticularspiritcouldidentifyher-orhimself andhisorherspecificdesiresforofferings—whatwecallmedicines.Inotherwords,ifa particularspirithadaparticularcraving,heorshemadesomeoneillthroughaparticular setofsymptomsknowntotheāšipu.Translatedintoourown“naturalcauses”idiom, whatishappeningineithercaseisthatbyproducingsymptoms,thebodyistellingyou, asitwere,insignlanguage,whatiswrongsothatyou(oryourdoctor)cantake appropriateaction.
Theuseofwhatwecall“magic”wasalsoofmedicalusetopatientsinthatittreatedthe illnessandthedisease.Inadditiontodiagnosingdiseasesandapplyingmedicines, ancientMesopotamianphysiciansalsoperformedhealinginawaythatallowedthe patienttoseethedoctorandhismedicinesinactionandtopersonallyparticipateinthe healingprocess.Sinceitisthehumanbodyaidedbythemindthatisthesinglemost importantfactorinmedicine,thisapproachisnottobefrownedupon.
Magicisaself-consistentsystem.ThemagicalelementsofMesopotamianmedicinewere demonicmagic(fordetailsseeScurlock2004a,16–20).Demonicmagicispredicatedon thenotionthatwhatmakesritualsworkisthemoreorlesswillingparticipationof sentientbeingswhooperatebyhumanlogicandwhosewaysmaybediscernedby observationandexperiment.Demonicmagicis,then,asystemofthoughtthat,like polytheisticreligionandmodern“hard”science,isempiricallyrational,andahuman universalinitsgeneraloutlines.Mesopotamianphysiciansthussawnocontradiction(nor indeedwasthereany)inenlistinginthehealingprocess,alongsidemoreobviously medicalpills,potions,bandagesandenemas,alsodemonic“magic”and“religion.”The former(magic)includeditemssuchashistoriolae(magicoriginstories),threatsand forcedoaths,addressesinarchaicorinventedlanguages,andtheemploymentofmagical analogies.Thelatter(religion)involvedsacrificesandrespectfuladdressesinprayer askingforassistancetogodsincludingpatronsofmagicalandmedicalhealing,suchas thegoddessGulaandthetriadofgodsEa(godoffreshwaterandwisdom),Asalluḫi(god ofmedicine,equatedwithMardukofBabylon)andŠamaš(sungodandgodofjustice).
Indeed,preservedrecitationsareamixofwhattousisscientificknowledgeandanononsenseapproachtotreatment,withsillynonsense—addressingtheindwellingspiritsin whatweconsiderinanimateobjectsasiftheywerepeople,andappealingtogodsin whoseexistencewedonotbelieve.Witnessthefollowingcharmingrecitationsthat describe(1)theprocessofdigestioninruminants,(2)humanintestinalmovement (peristalsis)inapatientwithintestinalbloatingwithgas,and(3)thenecessityfor applyingmedicineandnotjust“magic”tomedicalproblems.
(p.43)
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Thesheep,whenitvomitsup[thegrass],themouthgivesittothekaršu-stomach, thekaršu-stomachtotheriqitu-stomach,theriqitu-stomachtotherear;itfallsas meredungandthegrassreceivesit.Grasswhichreceiveseveryevilreceivemine frommeand,grass,carryoffmyevil!
(ScurlockandAndersen2005,117)
Humanintestinalmovements:
The[...arecontinually]loosened;thestomachistwisted;intestinesare knotted...thedarkness.Itsfaceislikeditchwatercoveredwithalgae.[Wind] fromthesteppeblowsin,isputdown,androamsthesteppe.Itseyes(i.e.,the greaterandlesseromentum)arefull;its“lips”continuallydryout.Itwriggleslike afishandmakesitselfbiggerlikeasnake.WhenGula,giveroflife,brought mankindtothetempleofAsalluḫi,mercifulMarduklookedupontheyoungman andhebelchedandtheyoungmangotwell.Eitherletthewindcomeoutofthe anus,orletitsendoutabelchfromthethroat.
(ScurlockandAndersen2005,117–118)
Theneedformedicine:
Theshe-goatisyellow;herkidisyellow;hershepherdisyellow;herchief herdsmanisyellow;sheeatsyellowgrassontheyellowditch-bank;shedrinks yellowwaterfromtheyellowditch.Hethrewastickatherbutitdoesnotturnher back;hethrewaclodatherbutitdidnotraiseherhead.Hethrewathera mixtureofthymeandsaltandthebilebegantodissolvelikethemist.The recitationisnotmine;itistherecitationofEaandAsalluḫi,therecitationofDamu andGula.Recitationforpašittu.
(Scurlock2005,313)
Inshort,thewaytocurepašittuwasnottothrowsticksandclodsatimaginarygoatsbut toapplymedicinereinforcedbyanappropriaterecitation.
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