TheOther'68ers:StudentProtestandChristian DemocracyinWestGermanyAnnaVonDerGoltz https://ebookmass.com/product/the-other-68ers-studentprotest-and-christian-democracy-in-west-germany-anna-vonder-goltz/
TheOther ‘68ers
TheOther ‘68ers
StudentProtestandChristianDemocracy inWestGermany
ANNAVONDERGOLTZ
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ToNicoandJasper
Acknowledgements
Thisbook,mysecond,tookalotlongertoresearchandwritethanmy first. Ioriginallyconceptualizedtheideafor TheOther ‘68ers andbegantheresearchin 2008,whilestillaPrizeFellowatMagdalenCollege,Oxford.Iwasthensidetrackedbyotherprojectsandlifeevents,amongthemamovetotheUnitedStates. Alongtheway,Ireceivedsupportfromnumerousinstitutionsandindividuals.It isapleasureto finallybeabletoexpressmygratitudehere.
TheFellowsofMagdalenCollegeprovidedfundsandanintellectualhomein theproject’sveryearlystages.WhileinOxford,Ibenefitedimmeasurablyfrom collaboratingwithmycolleaguesontheoralhistoryprojectthatbecame Europe’ s 1968:VoicesofRevolt (OxfordUniversityPress,2013).Itcertainlydistractedme fromthinkingaboutthecentre-right,butthiswouldhavebeenaverydifferent and,I’mconvinced,amuchlessinteresting bookifIhadnotlearnedagreatdeal aboutdoingoralhistoryandthe1960sinEuropefrommyinterlocutors.In particular,IwanttothankRobertGildea,JamesMark,AnetteWarring,John Davis,andJulianeFürstforintellectualstimulationandtheirfriendship.
In2008,IhadthegoodfortunetomeetBerndWeisbrodataconference,who theninvitedmetobeapostdoctoralvisitingfellowattheGraduateSchoolon ‘GenerationsinModernHistory’ attheUniversityofGöttingen.Hisandthe group ’snuancedtakeongenerationalhistorieshasinfluencedmythinkingonthe topicinlastingways.Ihavebenefitedimmenselyfromhisspiritedandconstructive critiqueandfromparticipatingintheworkshopsandconferencesthatdifferent membersoftheGraduateSchoolorganizedovertheyears.Iamextremelygrateful toallitsmembers,notleasttoUffaJensen,whohelpedtoorganizemystay.
AnEarlyCareerFellowshipfromtheLeverhulmeTrustbroughtmetothe HistoryFacultyattheUniversityofCambridgeandtoWolfsonCollege,forthe betterpartof2011.There,Iprofited,inparticular,fromtheproductiveexchanges inRichardJ.Evans ’sweeklyworkshoponGermanhistoryandfromthediscussionsintheModernEuropeanHistorySeminar.
SincetakingupmypostatGeorgetownUniversityin2012,asemesterofJunior FacultyLeave,severalSummerAcademicGrants,agrantforamanuscript workshopfromtheMortaraCenter,andcontinuousresearchsupportfromthe BMWCenterforGermanandEuropeanStudies(CGES)andtheSchoolof ForeignService(SFS)helpedtofacilitatesteadyprogressonthebook.Faculty andstaffinCGES,SFS,andtheHistoryDepartmenthaveallprovidedawonderful homebase.AKlugeFellowshipfromtheLibraryofCongressallowedmetostart draftingthe firstchapterswhilelookingoutovertheUSSupremeCourt.
IamgratefultothemanycolleaguesinGermany,Britain,andtheUnitedStates, whoinvitedmetopresentmyargumentsinvariousresearchseminarsoverthe years:thefellowsattheGermanHistoricalInstitutesinLondonandWashington, D.C.,AlexanderSedlmaierinBangor,PaulBetts(then)atSussex,Dieter GosewinkelattheWZB,PaulNolteinBerlin,AndreasRödderinMainz,Frank BöschandMartinSabrowinPotsdam,NickStargardtinOxford,theorganizersof DerKreis inBerkeley,especiallyElenaKempf,JimBrophyinDelaware,Jennifer AllenatYale,and,lastbutnotleast,mycolleaguesinGeorgetown’sHistory FacultySeminar.Criticalfeedbackonnumerousconferencepresentationsfurther helpedmetodevelopandrefinemyarguments.
Variouscolleaguesreadmyoriginalbookproposalanddraftsofthismanuscript orrelatedarticlesIpublished,andtheirfeedbackhasbeeninvaluableinbringing thisbooktocompletion:MartinConway,MarioDaniels,MichaelDavid-Fox, DavidCollins,JimCollins,MichaelKazin,RichardKuisel,EricLangenbacher, JamieMartin,AvielRoshwald,JordanSand,LuSeegers,Eva-MariaSilies,Quinn Slobodian,BerndWeisbrod,JudithTucker,andThomasZimmer.Several anonymousreviewersalsoofferedcriticismthatwasalwayshelpfulanddeeply appreciated.
AtGeorgetown,Ihavetaughtvariouscoursesonthe1960sandlearnedalot fromthemanylivelyconversationswithmyterrificstudents.Specialthankstothe undergraduatefreshmeninmyproseminaron ‘1968inEurope’ andtothe graduatesin ‘The1960sinTransnationalPerspective’,aseminarIhappilycotaughtwithMichaelKazin.
SeveralGeorgetowngraduatestudentsintheMAprograminGermanand EuropeanStudiesandintheHistoryPhDprogramhelpedwithbitsofresearch, translations,andcopyediting.MysincerethankstoRobertMevissen,Rebecca Payne,HannahMorris,RickyBordelon,AlexanderFinnMacartney,Alistair Somerville,ThomLoyd,JulietKelso,andBrentMcDonnellforalltheirwork.
Oralhistoryinterviewsareonemajorgroupofsourcesforthisstudy,andIam extremelygratefultotheformercentre-rightactivistswhotooktimeoutoftheir oftenbusyschedulestotalktomeabouttheirpoliticallives.Manyofthemalso kindlyshareddocumentsintheirpossession.Eveniftheydonotagreewithallof itsanalysis,Icouldnothavewrittenthisbookwithouttheirhelp.
IthasbeenagreatexperiencetoworkwithOxfordUniversityPressagain. ThankstoCathrynSteele,StephanieIreland,KatieBishop,andThomasDevafor shepherdingthemanuscriptthroughpeerreviewandproduction.
FamilyandfriendsonbothsidesoftheAtlantichaveprovidedmuchneeded emotionalandlogisticalsupport,notleastbyhousing,feeding,andentertaining mewhiledoingarchivalworkandinterviews.Aspecialshout-outtoHenrike Heick,SandraJasper,SarahJastram,KimKlehmet,andBirgittaAshoff.My adopted ‘DCfamily’ hashelpedmetofeelathomeinacitythatIhardlyknew beforemovingtotheUnitedStatesandremindsmealmostdailythatthereare
evenmoreenjoyablethingsinlifethanwritingbooks.Iamparticularlygratefulto BenMahlerforhishelpwithsomeoftheillustrations.
Thisstudyowessomeofitsinspirationtomyactualfamily,probablyinmore waysthantheyareaware.Ihaveoftenthoughtthatmyinterestinthesubjectof TheOther ‘68ers musthavebeenpiquedearlyon,whenobservingsomeofthe familydynamicsondisplayinmygrandparents’ houseinEssen,abuildingerected onthevisibleremnantsofaNazi-eraanti-aircraftpositionongroundsownedby theKruppdynasty.Mymother,Heide,alwaysseemedtostandoutinthese surroundings.Attheageofeighteen,shehadlefttheCatholicChurchthat meantsomuchtoherfather,whohadconsistentlyvotedfortheChristian Democratssincethewar.The firstoneinherfamilytoattenduniversity,she movedtoFreiburgtostudyEnglishandGeographyinthelate1960s,eventually becomingapublicschoolteacherinBremen.Lateron,sheworkedineducationin alocalmuseumofethnologyandnaturalhistory.Shenevermarriedandraisedme byherselfinaculturallyleft-wing,urbanmilieuwhereeverybodyrodetheirbike, evenwhenitrained.AtourannualChristmasDaygatheringinEssen,Inotonly noticedhowdifferentshewasfromherparentsinalmosteveryrespectbutwould oftenalsoseehersparwithherbrother-in-law.Likemymother,hehadbeenborn in1948,andhelatermarriedheryoungersister.Likemymother,hehadbeena first-generationstudent,andtheybothoftensharedstoriesaboutgrowingupin fairlychaoticconditionsinpostwarWestGermany.However,inmostotherways, theywerequitedifferent,includingintheirpolitics althoughneitheroneofthem wasovertlypoliticalandbothhadanargumentativestreak.Hehadstudiedlawin Marburg,joinedafraternity,pursuedathrivingcareerintheinsuranceindustry, madehishomeinaColognesuburbwithmyauntandmytwocousins,andplayed golfinhissparetime.Ialwaysfounditintriguingthatheandmymotherhadbeen borninthesameyearandbothbeenstudentsinthe1960sandyetfashionedsuch differentpersonasandlives.TheannualscenesinEssennodoubtsparkedmy interestinpostwargenerationaldynamics,buttheyalsomusthavemademe intuitivelyscepticalofoverlydeterministichistoriesofgeneration.
Afterherretirement,mymothertranscribedmanyoftheinterviewsonwhich partsofthisbookarebased.Intheprocess,wehadnumerousenlightening conversationsabouthowshehadexperiencedtheyearsaround1968.Itisone ofmygreatregretsthatIdidnotcompletethisbookduringherlifetime.Shedied in2017 fartooearlyatmerelysixty-eight.Imisshereveryday.
Luckily,Istillhavewonderfulfamilymembersinmylife:amongthemmyaunt Gaby,mymother-in-lawGisi,andChristophandSofia,mybrother-andsister-inlaw.Theyhaveallbeentremendouslysupportive,especiallyinthepastfewyears.
Thisbookisdedicatedtothetwopeopleclosesttome:myhusband,Nico,and myson,Jasper,whowasbornin2015.Nicohasbeenanenthusiasticandpatient supporterofthisworkfromtheverybeginning.Jasperremainsunimpressed, becausethebookisshorterthanthe firstvolumeofHarryPotter.Both fillmylife
Washington,D.C., July2020 x
withloveanddailylaughter.WritingthisasIam,inthemidstofaglobal pandemicthathasbroughtlifeasweknewittoanearstandstill,itisdifficultto imaginewhatthefutureholds.ButIamimmenselygratefulforeverydaythatthe threeofusgettospendtogether.
AnnavonderGoltz
1.BetweenEngagementandEnmity22
2.TalkingAbout(My)Generation75 NarratingtheWar,Postwar,andColdWar77
3.BetweenAdenauerandCoca-Cola109
4.FromBerlintoSaigonandBack143
6.The(Ir)ResistibleRiseoftheOther ‘68ers227 TheShortMarchThroughtheInstitutions229 TheOther ‘68ersandthePoliticalCultureoftheLate FederalRepublic246 Commemorating1968252 MescaleroReturns260
Conclusion:TheOther ‘68ersinGermanHistory267 Bibliography 273 Index 301
Abbreviations
ACDPArchivfürChristlich-DemokratischePolitik
ACSPArchivfürChristlich-SozialePolitik
ADSAktionskomiteeDemokratischerStudenten(ActionCommitteeof DemocraticStudents)
AHRAmericanHistoricalReview
AIAmnestyInternational
AdsDArchivdersozialenDemokratie
APOAußerparlamentarischeOpposition(ExtraparliamentaryOpposition)
ArchAPOArchivAPOundsozialeBewegungen
ARDArbeitsgemeinschaftderöffentlich-rechtlichenRundfunkanstaltender BundesrepublikDeutschland(Germany’spremierpublictelevision station)
AUSSAktionszentrumUnabhängigerundSozialistischerSchüler(Action CentreofIndependentandSocialistPupils)
BAKBundesarchiv,Koblenz
BfVBundesamtfürVerfassungsschutz(FederalOfficefortheProtectionof theConstitution)
BFWBundFreiheitderWissenschaft(AssociationfortheProtectionof AcademicFreedom)
BRDBundesrepublikDeutschland(FederalRepublicofGermany)
BSUBonnerStudentenunion(BonnStudentUnion)
CDUChristlichDemokratischeUnion(ChristianDemocraticUnion)
CIACentralIntelligenceAgency
CSUChristlichSozialeUnion(ChristianSocialUnion)
DKPDeutscheKommunistischePartei(GermanCommunistParty)
DMDemokratischeMitte(DemocraticCentre)
DpaDeutschePresseagentur(GermanPressAgency)
DSUDeutscheStudentenunion(GermanStudentUnion)
EDSEuropeanDemocratStudents
epdEvangelischerPressedienst
EZAEvangelischesZentralArchiv
FAZFrankfurterAllgemeineZeitung
FCSFederationofConservativeStudents(UnitedKingdom)
FDJFreieDeutscheJugend(FreeGermanYouth)
FDPFreieDemokratischePartei(FreeDemocraticParty)
FLNFrontdeLibérationNationale(NationalLiberationFront,Algeria)
FRGFederalRepublicofGermany
FUFreieUniversitätBerlin(FreeUniversityBerlin)
GDRGermanDemocraticRepublic
GNGöttingerNachrichten
GSCGermanSubjectCollection
HIAHooverInstitutionLibraryandArchives
HISHamburgerInstitutfürSozialforschung
ICCSInternationalUnionofChristianDemocratandConservativeStudents
IfZInstitutfürZeitgeschichte
ISCInternationalStudentConference
JUJungeUnion(YoungUnion)
JusosJungsozialisten(YoungSocialists)
KSUKölnerStudentenunion(CologneStudentUnion)
LABLandesarchivBerlin
LSDLiberaldemokratischerHochschulbund(LiberalDemocraticHigher EducationAssociation)
MSBSpartakusMarxistischerStudentenbundSpartakus(MarxistStudentAssociation Spartakus)
MSUMünchenerStudentenunion(MunichStudentUnion)
NHBNationaldemokratischerHochschulbund(NationalDemocraticHigher EducationLeague)
NATONorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation
NofUNotgemeinschaftfüreineFreieUniversität(EmergencyCommunityfor aFreeUniversity)
NPDNationaldemokratischePartei(NationalDemocraticParty)
NVANationaleVolksarmee(NationalPeople’sArmy,EastGermany)
POWPrisonerofwar
RAFRoteArmeeFraktion(RedArmyFaction)
RBBRundfunkBerlin-Brandenburg
RCDSRingChristlich-DemokratischerStudenten(AssociationofChristian DemocraticStudents)
SASturmabteilung(Nazistormtroopers)
SDSicherheitsdienst(NaziSecurityService)
SDSSozalistischerDeutscherStudentenbund(SocialistGermanStudent League)
SHBSozialdemokratischerHochschulbund(SocialDemocraticHigher EducationLeague)
SLHSozialliberalerHochschulbund(Social-LiberalHigherEducationLeague)
SPDSozialdemokratischeParteiDeutschlands(SocialDemocraticPartyof Germany)
SSSchutzstaffel(Naziparamilitaryorganizationthatoversawthe Holocaust)
SZSüddeutscheZeitung
tazdietageszeitung
TUTechnischeUniversitätBerlin(TechnicalUniversityofBerlin)
UPUnidadPopular(Chile)
UNUnitedNations
VDSVereinigteDeutscheStudentenschaften(AssociationofGerman Students)
VfZVierteljahrsheftefürZeitgeschichte
VKSVerbandKritischerSchüler(AssociationofCriticalPupils) YAFYoungAmericansforFreedom
ZDFZweitesDeutschesFernsehen(Germany’ssecondpublictelevision network)
ListofIllustrations
0.1Groupphotographoftheself-described ‘Alternative ‘68ers’,Bonn,May1988.3 (J.H.Darchinger/Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung)
1.1SocialiststudentleaderRudiDutschkeandthesociologistRalfDahrendorf debateontheroofofacarinFreiburginJanuary1968.Picturedto Dahrendorf ’srightarecentre-rightactivistsMeinhardAde(facepartially covered)andIgnazBender(showninprofile). 25 (J.H.Darchinger/Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung)
1.2Coverofthestudentmagazine Semester-Spiegel (Münster)featuringthe studentdemonstrationsof ‘Action1July’ 1965withorganizerIgnaz Benderontheright. 27 (Semester-Spiegel,Münster)
1.3ChristianDemocraticactivistandfuture(West)BerlinGoverningMayor EberhardDiepgenarguingwithaleft-wingcounter-demonstratorata pro-Americancitizens’ protestnearSchönebergTownHallinWest Berlinon21February1968. 66 (ullsteinbild Rogge)
1.4Jürgen-BerndRunge,RCDSchairattheFreeUniversityinWestBerlin, speakingtothemembersoftheuniversity’ s Konvent (studentparliament) on26April1967. 70 (MichaelRuetz/Agenturfocus)
2.1Centre-rightstudentprotestsduringanSDS-runeventwithEast GermanstarlawyerFriedrichKarlKaulinBonnon6February1968.The bannersstate ‘FreedomforthepoliticalprisonersoftheGDR.Whatare youdoing,Mr.Kaul?’ and ‘Prof.Kaul:AgainstthemurderofJewsin Auschwitz infavourofmurderattheWall.’ 97 (dpaPicture-Alliance)
3.1TheBonnStudentUnion’smagazine Pop-Kurier (January1969) Onthecover:Maria-Theresia(‘Musch’)vanSchewick,BSUactivist andfutureRCDSnationaldeputychair. 117 (HooverInstitutionArchives,Germansubjectcollection,boxno.85)
3.2 ‘Typeswealsoattract.’‘TypeswhovoteRCDS.’ 122 (RCDSposter,n.d.[1970s])
3.3FormerBavarianRCDSchairUrsulaMännlespeakingatthe fiftieth anniversaryoftheHanns-SeidelFoundation,athinktankaffiliatedwiththe CSUthatshechairedfrom2014until2019(Munich,20January2017).130 (dpaPicture-Alliance)
4.1SDSactivistRudiDutschke(right)withtheSouthVietnameseAmbassador toBonnatanRCDS-organizedeventattheFreeUniversityin WestBerlininDecember1966.144 (ullsteinbild Sakowitz)
4.2YoungChristianDemocrats,includingRCDSactivists,ata demonstrationagainstcommunistaggressioninSouthVietnaminHamburg on14April1975.ThebannerscallforpeaceandhumanrightsinVietnam.160 (ullsteinbild dpa)
4.3TheFightforHumanRights...everywhere...176 EDSandRCDSposteraskingforsignaturesonacampaigntofree ChileanactivistJuanBoscoMainoCanalesandSovietdissident BorisEvdokimov. (ACSP,PlS8835[1977])
5.1RCDSchairGerdLangguth,speakingata ‘SpartakusTribunal’ atthe UniversityofHamburgon19January1972.Thewhitespecksonhisright sleevearecurdcheesethatleft-wingstudentsintheaudiencehadthrownat thestudentactivist.Stillfrom ZDFMagazin,26January1972.182 (GerdLangguthPrivatePapers)
5.2 ‘CivilServant ‘75(representingtheinterestsofthestate)’.201 CartoonfromthecoveroftheHessianRCDSpublication Campus. (RCDSFrankfurtamMain,ACDP04-046).Unnamedartist.
5.3FriedbertPflüger,thentheRCDSdeputynationalchair,speakingatthe CDU’sannualpartyconventionon26May1976.207 (Bundesarchiv-Bildarchiv,PhotographbyUlrichWienke)
5.4CoverpageofChristianDemocraticstudentmagazine Demokratische Blätter no.14(June/July1977).Thephotographsshowsthecrimescene withthecoveredcorpsesofSiegfriedBuback(back)andhisdriverWolfgang Göbel(front),aswellastheofficialcar,inwhichbothwereshot.Thecaption reads ‘Left-wingradicals: “JoyaboutBubackmurder”’.211 (RCDS-Bundesvorstand;photographerHeinzWieseler,dpa/picture-alliance)
5.5TumultuousscenesduringanRCDS-runeventwithHelmutKohlatthe UniversityofFreiburgon19January1976.Kohl’sspeechwasdisruptedby left-wingdemonstrators.Thepoliceusedteargasandbatonstoescortthe CDUchairfromtheauditorium.219 (LutzRauschnick,dpa/picture-alliance)
6.1FormerRCDSactivistandCDUcampaignstrategistPeterRadunski (left)withCDUSecretaryGeneralHeinerGeißleratthe1986party convention.231 (Bundesarchiv-Bildarchiv,PhotographbyLotharSchaack)
6.2 ‘Comeoutofyourleftcorner’,ChristianDemocraticcampaignposter forthe1976nationalelections.233 (ACDP,Plakatsammlung,10-001-1862)
6.3FormerRCDSchairandCDUstrategistWulfSchönbohmfeaturedin
DieZeit asthe ‘LeninoftheCDU’ in1988.235 (MatthiasHorxundMarieWeinberger, ‘Die68erderCDU’ , ZeitMagazin no.33(1988),12.PhotographbyPaulSchirnhofer)
6.4FormerRCDSactivistand ‘Kohl’sKissinger’ HorstTeltschik(left)withthe newlyelectedFederalChancellorona flighttoRomeon18November1982.239 (Bundesarchiv-Bildarchiv,PhotographbyUlrichWienke)
Introduction
InMay1988,agroupofpeople,allofwhomhadbeenstudentactivistsinWest Germanyaround1968,cametogethertoreminisceaboutwhattherevoltofthose yearsmeanttotheminretrospect.Twentyyearsaftertheevents, ‘1968’ had becomeasymbolicshorthandforamajormomentofpoliticalandcultural upheaval,onethatwascommemoratedaroundtheglobeinthelate1980s.¹The formeractivists,mostofthemintheirfortiesorearly fifties,gottogetheratan educationalinstitutioninBadGodesberg,awealthyneighbourhoodinthecapital Bonn,torelivetheirpersonalexperienceswiththestudentmovementandtotake stockofthewaysinwhichithadtransformedWestGermansociety.Duringthe conference,JosefHeichrich(‘Jupp’)Darchinger,oneofthemostfamouspolitical photographersoftheFederalRepublic,documentedtheproceedingsandtook cheerfulgroupphotographs.²Moreover,thegatheringgeneratedconsiderable mediainterest.WestGermany’sprimetelevisionnewscastsshowedclipsfrom theday,andmostofthemajordailyandweeklypapersfeaturedreportsaboutthe meeting.Afewmonthslater,theZDF,oneofthecountry’spublicservice televisionchannels,showedawidelyvieweddocumentaryaboutthepolitical trajectoriesofsomeofthosewhohadattended,sparkinganotherwaveofextensivepubliccommentaryaboutthisparticulargroupofformeractivists.³
TheheightenedmediainterestwasbecausethosewhometinBonnin1988 wereunusual ‘68ers atermthathadbecomecommontodescribesocialactors whohadbeenyoungactivistsaround1968andstillembodiedthespiritofthese years.⁴ Contrarytothe ‘68erarchetypesfeaturedinmostofthecommemorative
¹TimothyS.Brown,1968.TransnationalandGlobalPerspectives,Version:1.0,in:DocupediaZeitgeschichte,11.06.2012,URL:http://docupedia.de/zg/1968?oldid=84582(accessedon10April 2014).
²AspartofitsvastJuppDarchingerphotographiccollection,theArchivdersozialenDemokratie (AdsD)holdsdozensofnegativesofphotographshetookontheday.Oneofhisgroupphotographs waspublishedonthecoverof RCDSMagazin no.5(1988);onDarchinger’ scareer,see ‘DasAugevon Bonn’ , DerSpiegel,46(1997),52–3.
³ZDF,Bonndirekt,15May1988;GunterHofmann, ‘NachlinksFlaggezeigen’ , DieZeit,21(20May 1988);OliverTolmein, ‘Die “alternativen68erSieger” treffensich’ , tageszeitung (17May1988),5; HelmutLölhöffel, ‘UnaufhaltsamerAufstiegderAlternativ-68er’ , FrankfurterRundschau (17May 1988);HeikoGebhardt, ‘WirwarenDemokraten’ , Stern (19May1988);alsoMartinStallmann, Die Erfindungvon ‘1968’:DerstudentischeProtestimbundesdeutschenFernsehen1977–1998 (Göttingen, 2017),142.HeinzHemming/WernerA.Perger, Dieanderen68er:DutschkesGegenspielerundwasaus ihnenwurde,Dokumentation,BRD1988,43’ , firstshownonZDF,4August1988,10.15p.m. ⁴ JuneEdmundsandBryanS.Turner, Generations,CultureandSociety (Buckinghamand Philadelphia,PA,2002),15–16.
TheOther
‘68ers:StudentProtestandChristianDemocracyinWestGermany.AnnavonderGoltz,
reportsaboutthestudentmovementthathadbeguntoappearintherun-uptothe twentiethanniversary,theyhadnotbeeninvolvedintheSocialistGermanStudent League(SozialistischerDeutscherStudentenbund,SDS),theradicalleft-wing groupthathadbeenattheforefrontofprotestinthelate1960s.Norhadthey livedintheinfamousKommune1,oneoftheFederalRepublic’ s firstexperiments withcommunalliving,whoseinhabitantswerehouseholdnames.⁵ Instead,they wereChristianDemocrats andprominentonesatthat.
Betweenthemid-1960sandlate1970s,allthosewholatergatheredinBonnhad beenpoliticallyactiveintheAssociationofChristianDemocraticStudents(Ring Christlich-DemokratischerStudenten,RCDS),anationalpoliticalstudentgroup foundedin1951thatwascloselyaffiliatedwiththetwoChristianDemocratic sisterparties,theChristianDemocraticUnion(CDU)andtheBavarianChristian SocialUnion(CSU).⁶ TheyhadthusbeenactiveatatimewhentheradicalLeft hadquestionedtheveryfoundationsoftheFederalRepublicofGermany(FRG) andde fi edthe ‘establishment ’ inhighlyvisibleandprovocativeways.Theyhad onemorethingincommon:since1968,manyofthemhadsuccessfullyentered thepoliticalinstitutionsoftheFederalRepublic,particularlythoseinthehands oftheChristianDemocrats,whohadreturnedtopowerin1982.Thetelevision documentaryaboutthemincludedaninterviewwithChancellorHelmutKohl, inwhichhepraisedtheseparticular ‘68ersforhavingcarriedfreshideasintohis ownparty.⁷
Atthispoint,manyofthosewhogatheredinBonnindeedheldhigh-ranking postsintheCDU/CSU,inthecapital’spoliticalbureaucracy,orinoneofthestate capitals.Theyweremen foralmostallthoseinattendanceweremale likeWulf Schönbohm(b.1941),whoheadedtheCDU’spowerfulpolicyandplanning division;PeterRadunski(b.1939),whowastheparty’snumberthreeandchief campaignstrategist;PeterGauweiler(b.1949),whowasSecretaryofStateinthe StateInteriorMinistryinBavaria;Horst Teltschik(b.1940),whowasakeyaide totheChancellorandhis ‘clandestineForeignMinister ’ ;andFriedbertPfl üger (b.1955),whowasafewyearsyoungerthantheothersbutalreadyservedas presssecretarytoFederalPresidentRichardvonWeizsäcker.⁸ Thetelevision documentarynamedthem ‘Dutschke ’sadversaries’ tohighlightthefactthat,as students,someofthemhadgonefacetofacewithRudiDutschke,theiconic
⁵ DetlefSiegfried, ‘StarsderRevolte:DieKommune1’,in MedienundImagepolitikim20. Jahrhundert:Deutschland,Europa,USA,editedbyDanielaMünkelandLuSeegers(Frankfurtam Main,2008),229–45.
⁶ RCDSmemberswerenotautomaticallymembersoftheCDU/CSUandthegroupwasnominally independent,butithadacloserelationshiptotheChristianDemocrats,receivedsomepartyfunding, andwasgenerallythoughtofastheCDU/CSU’sstudentarm.Foranorganizationaloverviewwritten byaformerRCDSnationalchair,seeJohannesWeberling, FürFreiheitundMenschenrechte:DerRing Christlich-DemokratischerStudenten(RCDS),1945–1986 (Düsseldorf,1990).
⁷ Hemming/Perger, Dieanderen68er.
⁸ AndreasWirsching, AbschiedvomProvisorium:GeschichtederBundesrepublikDeutschland 1982–1990,vol.6(Munich,2006),182.
Illustration0.1 Groupphotographoftheself-described ‘Alternative ‘68ers’,Bonn, May1988.
(J.H.Darchinger/Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung)
fi gureheadofSDS.ThegroupphotographstakeninBonnshowedthemlinedup underabannerthatsaidsimply ‘Thealternative ‘ 68ers ’ ⁹
Inaspeechhegaveattheconferenceandininterviewswiththepress, Schönbohm,whohadbeennationalchairofRCDSattheheightofthestudent revoltin1967/68,justifiedwhytheyhadtherighttoclaim1968forthemselves. ‘Whetherleft-wingersorconservatives,weallhadthefeelingatthetimethat somethinghadtohappen.Thatthedreadfulsocialparalysisoftheendofthe 1960shadtocometoanend.Thatthroughcommitmentitwaspossibletochange something.’¹⁰‘Butwewerecompletelyisolatedinsidetheuniversities’,hewenton, ‘becauseweweretheonlypoliticalstudentgroupthatrejectedtherevolutionarysocialistutopiaofSDS.[...]Wewantedreformandnotarevolution’,he declared.¹¹Sincethen,theleft-wingstudentmovementhadrealizednoneofits actualpoliticalgoals,includingthesystem’srevolutionarytransformation,he opined.Instead,itseffectshadbeenmostlycultural.
⁹ Thenamewasanodtotheterm ‘alternative’ thattheyhadusedtodemarcatethemselvesfromthe Leftsincethe1960s andonethatwasalsopopularontheLeftinthe1970s.
¹⁰ Quotedin ‘Die68erderCDU’ , ZeitMagazin,33(12August1988),10.
¹¹ SchönbohmPrivatePapers, ‘Diealternativen “68er”– wasbleibtvonderAPO-Zeit?’,MS(15May 1988).
Schönbohmhadclearlydonehisresearch.Thenotionthattherevolthadseta culturalrevolutioninmotion,transformingauthoritarianandpatriarchalsocieties intooneswith flatterhierarchies,greaterpluralismoflifestyles,andmoreparticipationfrombelow,hadbeguntodominatewesterncommemorationsof1968in the1980s andithashadremarkablestayingpower.¹²Thebalancesheetofthe centre-rightwasdirectlyreversed,Schönbohmsuggested. ‘Inourcaseitisthe otherwayaround:weachievedalotpolitically,butlittleculturally.’ Invokinga famousquotationbyDutschke,hedeclaredgleefullythattheyhadbeenparticularlysuccessfulat ‘marchingthroughtheinstitutions’ oftheBonnRepublicand werenow ‘well-established’.Theirformeropponents,ontheotherhand,werein crisis,hecontended:outofpowerinBonnandovertakenbythe Zeitgeist. ‘Allthe glamourisgone’,Schönbohm,whohadoftenfeltonthemarginsaround1968, concludedwithbelatedsatisfaction.¹³Afewmonthslater,amulti-pagespreadon the ‘68ersoftheCDU’ intheweekly DieZeit featuredthebeardedformerRCDS chairinaleatherjacketandintroducedhimtothepaper’smostlyleft-liberal readersas ‘theLeninoftheCDU’.¹⁴
Whatarewetomakeoftheseretrospectivepoliticalclaimsandgenerational (self-)representationsthatsuggestthatcentre-rightstudentshadplayedmajor rolesaround1968andbeendeeplyaffectedbytheseyears?Wasthismerepolitical posturingatatimeofChristianDemocratichegemony?Abrazenattemptto appropriateoneofthekeymomentsoftheLeftandtoreinterpretdemocratic agencyinthehistoryoftheFederalRepublic?Aninventionoftraditionwithno groundsinlivedreality?Thisbookisanattempttoengagewiththesequestions. However,itisalsomuchmorethanthat.Thisisahistoryof1968anditsafterlives toldfromanewperspective.
TheOther ‘68ers shedslightonaneglectedaspectofoneofthemajormoments ofGermany’slatetwentiethcentury.Atthecoreofthisstudyareyoungactivists fromRCDSandfromgroupsaffiliatedwiththeGermanStudentUnion(Deutsche Studentenunion,DSU),acentre-rightumbrellagroupfoundedoncampuses acrossthecountryin1967/68.Assuch,itisabookaboutapoliticalminority, albeitavocalone.Evenatthismomentofpoliticalupheaval,onlyasmallminority ofstudents(around5percent)waspoliticallyactive.Evenfewerweremembersof studentgroupsofthecentre-right.Therewereapproximately300,000studentsat WestGermanuniversitiesinthesecondhalfofthe1960s,andonlyabout2,300of themweremembersofRCDS lessthan1percentofthestudentpopulation.¹
¹² ‘Wir68erwarenalleganzanders’,interviewwithTilmanFichterandWulfSchönbohm,conductedbyWernerA.Perger, DeutschesAllgemeinesSonntagsblatt,10April1988;KristinRoss, May ‘68 anditsAfterlives (Chicago,IL,2002);SiljaBehre, BewegteErinnerung:Deutungskämpfeum ‘1968’ in deutsch-französischerPerspektive (Tübingen,2016).
¹³ SchönbohmPrivatePapers, ‘Diealternativen “68er”– wasbleibtvonderAPO-Zeit?’,MS(15May 1988).
¹⁴‘Die68erderCDU’ , ZeitMagazin,33(12August1988),10.
¹⁵ RenéAhlberg, ‘DiepolitischeKonzeptiondesSozialistischenDeutschenStudentenbundes’ , BeilagezurWochenzeitung DasParlament B20/68(15May1968),3–4;KonradJarausch, Deutsche Studenten1800–1970 (FrankfurtamMain,1984),232.
Muchthesamecanbesaidoftheirmainopponents,however.Thestrengthof thestudentLeftshouldnotbeoverestimatedeither,inspiteoftheimportance muchofthescholarshiphasaccordedtothem.SDSmayhavecometosymbolizestudentprotestaround1968,bu t,priorto1967,itwasonlythethird largestpoliticalstudentgroupinWestGermany.BeforeJuneofthatyear,SDS hadmerelyaround1,200members.Evenattheheightofitspopularityin1967/ 8,themembershipofSDSneverexceeded2,500,meaningthatfewerthan1per centofWestGermanstudentsbelongedtotheradicalgroup.¹ ⁶ Intermsof membership,then,RCDSandSDSwereapproximatelythesamesizearound 1968.Despitethis,weknowhardlyanythingabouttheformer ’ sroleduring theseyears.
ThisisnotanorganizationalhistoryofRCDSandlike-mindedgroups.Itisa broaderculturalhistoryofpoliticsaround1968.Itssubjectsarecentre-right activists theirideas,experiences,andmemories.Thebookexaminesbothwhat theydidaround1968andwhattheylaterthoughttheyhaddoneinthoseyears.It interweavesindividualvoiceswiththearchivalrecord;itcombineselementsofa ‘collectivebiography’ ofagroupofpeople,whodedicatedmuchoftheirlivesto politics,withanin-depthstudyoftheideasandrepertoiresofcentre-right studentsinthe1960s,1970s,andbeyond.¹⁷ Inlinewithmuchoftherecent literature,itthusadoptsanextendedperiodizationof1968.Whileeschewing fixedchronologicalmarkers, ‘1968’ heredenotesroughlytheperiodbetweenthe mid-1960sandthelate1970s,whencentre-rightactivistsengagedmostclosely, indeedoftenobsessively,withthestudentLeft.¹⁸ Similarly,itdoesnotusea fixed agebracket e.g.thecohortbornbetween1938and1948thatisoftenusedto establishwhocountsasa ‘68er¹⁹—todeterminewhotheother ‘68erswere.It studiesactivistswhoplayednotablerolesincentre-rightgroupsduringthe extended1968moment,withaspecialfocusonthosewholaterclaimedthat theseyearshadmeantsomethingtothem.²⁰
¹
⁶ Ahlberg, ‘politischeKonzeption’;AndreaWienhaus, Bildungswegezu ‘1968’:EineKollektivbiografie desSozialistischenDeutschenStudentenbundes (Bielefeld,2014).
¹⁷ PaulSturges, ‘Collectivebiographyinthe1980s’ , Biography 6,4(1983),316–32;forGermany, DorotheeWierling, GeborenimJahrEins:DerJahrgang1949inderDDR.Versucheiner Kollektivbiographie (Berlin,2002);CatherineEpstein, TheLastRevolutionaries:GermanCommunists andTheirCentury (Cambridge,MA,2003).
¹
⁸ ThisissimilartoTimothyBrown’speriodization,whodefines1968aslastingfrom1962–78. TimothyS.Brown, WestGermanyandtheGlobalSixties: TheAntiauthoritarianRevolt,1962–1978 (NewYork,2013).InFrenchhistoriography,thenotionofthe ‘“68years” lastingfromtheendofthe AlgerianwaruntilFrançoisMitterand’selectionissimilarlyinfluential.SeePhilippeArtièresand MichelleZancarini-Forunel(eds.), 68:UneHistoireCollective(1962–1981) (Paris,2008).
¹
⁹ HeinzBude, DasAlterneinerGeneration:DieJahrgänge1938bis1948 (Frankfurt,1997);Christina vonHodenberg, DasandereAchtundsechzig:GesellschaftsgeschichteeinerRevolte (Munich,2018).
²
⁰ Thoseinterviewedforthisbook,likethosewholaterdefinedthemselvespubliclyas ‘68ersofthe centre-right werebornbetween1937and1955andthusincludedseveraldifferentmicro-cohorts.On theroleofmicro-cohortsinsocialmovements,seeNancyWhittier, ‘PoliticalGenerations,MicroCohortsandtheTransformationofSocialMovements’ , AmericanSociologicalReview,62(1997), 760–78.
Thisbookasksanumberofsimplebutimportantquestionsaboutthese individualsandthisperiod:whatwasitliketoexperience1968ontheother sideofthepoliticalspectruminWestGermany?Didcentre-rightactivistsshare theNewLeftcritiqueofadvancedindustrialsocietyandGermanauthoritarianism,andhowdidtheyrelatetoactivistsoftheLeftandtothebroaderstudent movement?Whatweretheirviewsoftheoldergeneration,whomyoungNew LeftistsoftencondemnedfortheirassociationwiththeNazipastandwhatthey regardedastheirfailuretobuildatrulydemocraticsocietyafter1945?Howdid theseyoungactivistsrespondtothebroadersocialandculturaltransformationsof thisdynamicdecade?HowdidtheyviewWestGermany’ s andtheirown place inthewiderworldatatimewhenactivists ’ politicalimaginationswereincreasinglyglobal?WhatwastheirrelationshiptotheCDU/CSU,andwhatrolehave theyplayedin(West)Germanpoliticssince1968?Andinwhatwayshavethey shapedthememorywarsthatcontinuetowageaboutthisperiodinGerman history?
1968andHistoriesoftheFederalRepublic
Theyearsaround1968areamongthemostcloselyexaminedperiodsin Germany’stwentiethcentury.In2018,the fiftiethanniversarydemonstrated onceagainthatpublicandscholarlyinterestintheprotestmovementsofthis eraremainshigh.Awaveofnewpublicationsappeared,andnumerouspublic commemorationswereheld.Asinpreviousyears,however,thefocuswaspredominantlyontheroleoftheLeft.²¹Historicalresearchon1968beganinearnest inthe1990s,andwenowhaveavastinternationalliteratureonthesubject,one thathasexaminedtherevoltthroughanumberofdifferentframeworks,ranging frompoliticalandsocialhistoriesthathaveplaced1968inbroadertemporaland societalcontexts,tohistoriesofgender,culturalhistories,historiesofemotions, andtransnationalandglobalhistories.²²Thescholarshiphasextendedbeyonda
²¹HeinzBude, AdornofürRuinenkinder:EineGeschichtevon1968 (Munich,2018);Wolfgang Kraushaar, DieblindenFleckender68erBewegung (Stuttgart,2018).Earlierexamplesofotherwise exhaustivemonographson1968thatdonottouchoncentre-rightactivistsareBrown, WestGermany andtheGlobalSixties;andGerd-RainerHorn, TheSpiritof ‘68:RebellioninWesternEuropeandNorth America,1956–1976 (Oxford,2007).However,onemajorrecentcontributiontotheliteratureexplicitly includes ‘other’ experiencesof1968.Itshiftsthefocustouniversitiesbeyondthetwocapitalsofthe revolt,FrankfurtandWestBerlin,looksatolderpeople’sattitudestowardthestudentmovement,and discussestheroleof(left-wing)women.vonHodenberg, DasandereAchtundsechzig.
²²ChristinavonHodenbergandDetlefSiegfried(eds.), Wo ‘1968’ liegt:ReformundRevolteinder GeschichtederBundesrepublik (Göttingen,2006);AxelSchildt,DetlefSiegfried,andKarl-Christian Lammers(eds.), DynamischeZeiten:Die60erJahreindenbeidendeutschenGesellschaften (Hamburg, 2000);KristinaSchulz, DerlangeAtemderProvokation:DieFrauenbewegunginderBundesrepublik undinFrankreich1968–1976 (FrankfurtandNewYork,2002);UteKätzel, Die68erinnen:Porträteiner rebellischenFrauengeneration (Berlin,2002);JoachimScharloth, 1968:EineKommunikationsgeschichte (Munich,2011);JoachimHäberlen, TheEmotionalPoliticsoftheAlternativeLeft:WestGermany
solefocusonstudentsandthedynamicsofprotest,withresponsesbyothersocial actorsandthestatetakingcentrestageinmorerecentstudiesoftheseyears.²³
The firstwayinwhichthisbookcontributestothisrichliteratureisby redirectingourhistoricalgazetotakeinthespectrumofpoliticaldiversity characterizingtheWestGermanstudentexperienceof1968.Indoingso,itshifts attentionbacktothestudentmovementandthepoliticalconflictsoftheseyears.It thusreturnstofamiliarterritory.However,itexaminesahistorythatwethinkwe alreadyunderstandfullyfromaperspectivetowhichweareunaccustomed, therebyopeningupnewvistas.Whereaswehave fine-grainedanalysesofthe WestGerman(student)Leftaround1968,includingcollectiveportraitsand individualbiographiesofsomeofitsprotagonists,therehavebeenveryfewstudies ofactivistsoftheright.²⁴ Thefewexceptionsthatexisttodateareintellectual historiesthattracethereinvigorationandrealignmentofWestGerman conservativethoughtthroughitsleadingthinkers’ oppositionto1968.These workshaveshownthatthestudentrevoltsparkeda flurryofactivityamong conservativeintellectuals,includingthefoundingofanumberofinfluentialnew publications,suchasCasparvonSchrenck-Notzing’ s Criticón andKlaus Motschmann’ s Konservativheute, aswellasofinfluentialconferencesanddiscussioncircles.²⁵ Forthemostpart,existingstudiesfocusonpolitical figureswho
1968–1984 (Cambridge,2018);NorbertFrei, 1968:JugendrevolteundglobalerProtest (Munich,2008); MartinKlimke, TheOtherAlliance:StudentProtestinWestGermanyandtheUnitedStatesinthe GlobalSixties (Princeton,NJ,2009);QuinnSlobodian, ForeignFront:ThirdWorldPoliticsinSixties WestGermany (Durham,NC,2012);Macartney,AlexanderFinn, WarinthePostwar:JapanandWest GermanyProtesttheVietnamWarandtheGlobalStrategyofImperialism (PhDdissertation, GeorgetownUniversity,2019).
²³KnudAndresen, GebremsteRadikalisierung:DieIGMetallundihreJugend1968bisindie1980er Jahre (Göttingen,2016);KlausWeinhauer, SchutzpolizeiinderBundesrepublik:ZwischenBürgerkrieg undInnererSicherheit:DieturbulentensechzigerJahre (Paderborn,2003);KarrinHanshew, Terrorand DemocracyinWestGermany (NewYork,2012);RichardVinen, TheLong ‘68:RadicalProtestandIts Enemies (London,2018).
²
⁴ BelindaDavis, TheInternalLifeofPolitics:ExtraparliamentaryOppositioninWestGermany, 1962–1983 (Cambridge,forthcoming);AribertReimann, DieterKunzelmann:Avantgardist,Protestler, Radikaler (Göttingen,2009);MichaelaKarl, RudiDutschke:RevolutionärohneRevolution (Frankfurt amMain,2003).AfewGermanlanguagestudiesandeditedcollectionshavebeguntoexaminethe right,thoughrarelyinwaysthatputactivistsatthecentre.Seee.g.MassimilianoLivi,Daniel SchmidtandMichaelSturm(eds.), Die70erJahrealsschwarzesJahrzehnt:Politisierungs-und MobilisierungsprozessezwischenrechterMitteundextremerRechterinItalienundder Bundesrepublik1967 –1982 (Bielefeld,2010);ManuelSeitenbecher, ‘ DieReformalsRevolutionin verträglicherDosis:DerRingChristlich-DemokratischerStudenten(RCDS)währendder68erJahreanderFUBerlin ’ , ZeitschriftfürGeschichtswissenschaft 6(2010),505 – 26;OlafBartz, KonservativeStudentenunddieStudentenbewegung:Die ‘ KölnerStudenten-Union ’ ,in: WestfälischeForschung ,48(1998),241 – 56;and,mostimportantly,NikolaiWehrs, DerProtest derProfessoren:Der ‘ BundderFreiheitderWissenschaft ’ inden1970erJahren (Göttingen,2014),a studyofconservativeacademicsaround1968.Onthecontrary,thereisaveryrobustliteratureon USconservativemovements,inthe1960sandbeyond,andthisbooktakesimportantcuesfrom someoftheseworks.AnearlyexamplewasDavidFarberandJeffRoche(eds.), TheConservative Sixties (NewYork,2003).AFrenchexam ple,thoughnotfocusedonstudents,isFrançoisAudigier, HistoireDuSAC:LaPartD ʼ ombreDuGaullisme (Paris,2003).
²⁵ JerryZ.Muller, ‘GermanNeoconservatismandtheHistoryoftheBonnRepublic,1968to1985’ , GermanPoliticsandSociety,18,1(2000),1–32;AxelSchildt, ‘“DieKräftederGegenreformsindauf
turnedrightinthewakeof1968 liberalintellectualswhobecameliberalconservativesbecausetheyrejectedthe ‘ excesses ’ ofthestudentmovementor moreclearlyreactionary figures,whobegantoembracearadicalizedandexplicitly anti-liberalconservatismduringtheseyears.Somerecentworkshavealsodealtwith politicaloppositiontothe1968Leftonthefarrightandtracedtheintellectualroots ofthepresent-dayEuropeanradicalRightallthewaybacktothe1960swhenits fierceoppositiontoegalitarianismandmulticulturalismbegantotakeshape.²⁶
Thisbooktellsadifferentstory:notjustoneofconservativeresistanceand reaction,butalsooneofparticipation,engagement,andinteraction.Itfocuseson youngactivistsofthecentre-right,whowereoftencloselyinvolvedinthestudent movement.Theirviewsrepresentedasignificantportionofthestudentbodyof thelate1960s,and,especiallyduringtheearlyKohlera,theywerefarmore politicallyinfluentialthantheradicalRight.Theprotagonistsofthisbookwere apartof1968.Theyparticipatedinmanyofthekeyprotesteventsandembraced someofthecharacteristicpracticesoftheseyearsand,inmorethanoneinstance, weresweptalongbytheanti-authoritarianspiritthatanimatedthebroaderrevolt. Theseother ‘68ers,astheyarecalledhere,reactedtotheLeftbutwithout necessarilychampioningareactionarypolitics,especiallyintheearlyphaseof studentunrest.
Second,byforegroundingtheroleofcentre-rightstudentsaround1968,this bookjoinsrecentworksthathaverevisitedtheextraordinaryrolethatChristian DemocracyplayedinthehistoryofpostwarEurope.²⁷ Itwouldindeedbedifficultto overstatetheinfluenceofChristianDemocratsinthecontinent’shistoryafter1945, especiallyintheFederalRepublic.ApartfromtheSocial-Liberalinterludebetween
breiterFrontangetreten”.ZurkonservativenTendenzwendeindenSiebzigerjahren’ , Archivfür Sozialgeschichte,44(2004),449–7;StefanWinckler,FelixDirsch,andHartmuthBecker(eds.), Die 68erundihreGegner:DerWiderstandgegendieKulturrevolution,(GrazandStuttgart,2004);Riccardo Bavaj, ‘Turning “LiberalCritics” into “Liberal-Conservatives”:KurtSontheimerandtheRe-Codingof thePoliticalCultureintheWakeoftheStudentRevoltof “ 1968”’ , GermanPoliticsandSociety ,27, 1(2009),39 – 59;DominikGeppertandJensHacke(eds.), StreitumdenStaat:IntellektuelleDebattenin derBundesrepublik1960–1980 (Göttingen,2008);foraFrenchexampleofthisapproach,seeSerge Audier, Lapenséeanti-68:Essaisurlesoriginesd’unerestaurationintellectuelle (Paris,2009).
²
⁶ ForFranceandItaly,TamirBar-On, WhereHaveAlltheFascistsGone? (Ashgate,2007);Andrea Mammone, TransnationalNeofascisminFranceandItaly (NewYorkandCambridge,2015);for Germany,QuinnSlobodian, ‘Germany’s1968andItsEnemies’ , AHR,123,3,(2018),749–52;Volker Weißhasrecentlycautionedagainstthetendencytowritethehistoryoftherightasasimplereactionto 1968.Heemphasizesthat(West)Germany’ s ‘NewRight’ hadmuchdeeperrootsinGermanhistory. VolkerWeiß, DieautoritäreRevolte:DieNeueRechteundderUntergangdesAbendlandes (Stuttgart, 2017),28and37.
²⁷ TomBuchananandMartinConway(eds.), PoliticalCatholicisminEurope1918–1965 (Oxford, 1996);FrankBösch, DieAdenauer-CDU:Gründung,AufstiegundKriseeinerErfolgspartei1945–1969 (Stuttgart,2001);WolframKaiser, ChristianDemocracyandtheOriginsofEuropeanUnion (Cambridge,2007);FrankBösch, ‘DieKrisealsChance.DieNeuformierungderChristdemokraten indensiebzigerJahren’,in DasEndederZuversicht?DiesiebzigerJahrealsGeschichte,editedbyKonrad Jarausch(Göttingen,2008),296–309;MartinaSteber, DieHüterderBegriffe:PolitischeSprachendes KonservativeninGroßbritannienundderBundesrepublikDeutschland1945–1980 (Berlin,2017);James Chappel, CatholicModern:TheChallengeofTotalitarianismandtheRemakingoftheChurch (Cambridge,MA,2018),182–226.