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TheMatterofSonginEarly ModernEngland
TheMatterofSong inEarlyModern England
TextsinandoftheAir
KATHERINER.LARSON
GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
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ForLyra
Acknowledgments
Thisisabookaboutsolosongperformance,butwhenIthinkaboutthe individualsandinstitutionsthathavehelpedtobring TheMatterofSongin EarlyModernEngland tofruition,themetaphorofchoralharmonyseems muchmoreapt.
MyresearchwasmadepossiblebygrantsandfellowshipsfromtheSocial SciencesandHumanitiesResearchCouncilofCanada,theConnaught Foundation,theRenaissanceSocietyofAmerica,theBodleianLibrary,and theFolgerShakespeareLibrary.Thecompanionrecordingwasproduced thankstoaNewResearcherAwardfromtheConnaughtFoundation.Funds fromthePolanyiPrizeforLiteraturealsocontributedtotheproject. AfacultyresearchfellowshipattheJackmanHumanitiesInstituteprovided mewithinvaluablethinking,writing,andsingingtimeatacrucialpointin thebook’sgestation,aswellasaremarkableintellectualandcreativecommunitywithinwhichtopursuethatwork.ThanksalsototheUniversityof TorontoScarborough(UTSC)forresearchleaveduringwhichIwasableto immersemyselfinarchivesinOxford,London,andWashington,DC.
Thebookhasbenefitedfromfeedbackfromaudiencesatconferences largeandsmall.Iamespeciallygratefultotheparticipantsinthesessionson songandearlymodernmusicalpracticethatIco-organizedwithLeslie Dunn,LindaAustern,andSarahWilliamsattheShakespeareAssociation ofAmericameetingsin2011,2013,and2018,andwithLindaAustern, JeaniceBrooks,KendraLeonard,andAmandaEubanksWinkleratthe AttendingtoEarlyModernWomengatheringsin2009and2012.Several otherconferencesandworkshopscameatpivotalpointsfortheproject: “RenaissancePoeticForm:NewDirections ” atWolfsonCollege,Oxford (2012); “DramatizingPenshurst:Site,Script,Sidneys” atPenshurstPlace (2014); “PerformingRestorationShakespeare” attheFolgerShakespeare Library(2014);and “Reception,Reputation,andCirculationintheEarly ModernWorld” attheNationalUniversityofIreland,Galway(2017).
Thenetworkofscholarswhoareworkingonaspectsofearlymodern songandperformance-basedmusicalmethodologieshelpedtoshape TheMatterofSonginEarlyModernEngland incountlessways.Gavin Alexander,LindaAustern,LeslieDunn,ScottTrudell,SarahWilliams,and
AmandaEubanksWinklerhavebeenparticularlyimportantinterlocutors forme.Ihavebeensimilarlyupheldandinspiredbythevibrantcommunity workingonearlymodernwomen’swritingandrelatedquestionsofcirculationandperformanceinliterarystudies.ThanksespeciallytoIlonaBell, SheilaCavanagh,Marie-LouiseCoolahan,AlisonFindlay,JamesFitzmaurice, MelindaGough,thelateMargaretHannay,NatashaKorda,MaryEllenLamb, RebeccaLaroche,ClareMcManus,NaomiMiller,DavidNorbrook,Elizabeth Scott-Baumann,MartaStraznicky,MihokoSuzuki,MaryTrull,andDeanne Williams.AfortuitousencounterwithJenniferRichardsintheFolger’ s readingroomsledtoarichandongoingdialoguearoundauraltransmission. ThanksalsotoGaryTomlinson,whosefeedbackdeepenedmyanalysisofthe musicalbreath,andtoBenBurton,KatherineButler,HeatherDubrow,Tim Harrison,ElizabethLeach,ScottSchofield,WilliamShullenberger,Deanna Smid,TiffanyStern,NoraWilliams,andHenryWoodhuysenforvaluable inputandresourcesuggestions.
Iamfortunatetobeapartofanexceptionalintellectualcommunityatthe UniversityofToronto.LindaHutcheonrealizedbeforeIdidthatIwasgoing towriteabookaboutmusicandgenerouslyreadandcommentedonthe manuscriptinitsentirety;shehasalsomodelledtheverybestkindof collaborativeandinterdisciplinarywork,bothasascholarandasamentor. Thanksaswelltomyearlymoderncolleagues,especiallyDavidGalbraith, ElizabethHarvey,LynneMagnusson,MaryNyquist,PaulStevens,and HolgerSyme,andtoallofthefacultyandstaffatUTSCEnglish.
TheMatterofSonginEarlyModernEngland hasbeenequallyenrichedby conversationswithmystudents.Themembersofmy “SoundingSpectaclein EarlyModernEngland” (2012)and “PlayingwithSoundinEarlyModern PerformanceTexts” (2017)undergraduateseminarsandthegraduatestudentsin “GenderandSongintheEarlyModernContext” (2012)discussed chapterdraftsasapartoftheircoursereading;theirinsightsarereflectedin severalplacesinthebook.Threetalenteddoctoralresearchassistantswere alsoinvolvedwiththisproject.JenniferMcDermottandAdeleWilson undertookcrucialtasksassociatedwithearlysections.ClaireDuncanread everywordofthe finisheddraftandwasmeticulousinthe finalstagesof proofreadingandreferencechecking;themanuscriptwasimprovedin substanceaswellasformattingasaresultofherwork.
Ioweagreatdealtothemusicianswhocontributedtothisproject.The remarkableartistryoflutenistLucasHarrisisapparentthroughoutthe companionrecording.Itwasaprivilegetoworkonthisrepertoirewith him.IalsowanttoacknowledgeourrecordingengineerRonSearles, whoproducedandmasteredthetracks,andsopranoCarlaHuhtanen,
whoservedasour “ ears ” attheGlennGouldStudio.LutenistJohnEdwards andsopranoHallieFishelcollaboratedandperformedwithmeatseveral conferences.LutenistMatthewFaulkrespondedwarmlytoanout-of-theblueemailaskingwhetherhewouldbewillingtoaccompanymysinging duringatalkinOxford;weendedupperformingandrecordingtogether thereagainayearlater.ThanksalsototheExultateChamberSingers,my choralcommunityduringthewritingofthisbook.
IthasbeenapleasuretoworkwiththestaffatOxfordUniversityPress. EleanorCollinshasbeenabrillianteditorfromourearliestcommunications. Iamdeeplygratefulaswelltothetwoanonymouspeerreaderssheselected, whorespondedtothevarieddisciplinarytexturesoftheprojectwithrigor andgenerousinsight.Thisisamuchbetterbookbecauseoftheirsuggestions.
Earlierversionsofmyargumentappearedin “‘Blestpairof Sirens ...Voice andVerse’:Milton’sRhetoricofSong,” MiltonStudies 54(2013):81–106; “PlayingatPenshurst:TheSongsandMusicalGamesofMaryWroth’ s Love’ s Victory, ” SidneyJournal 34.1(2016):93–106;and “VoicingLyric:TheSongs ofMaryWroth,” Re-ReadingMaryWroth,ed.KatherineR.Larsonand NaomiMiller,withAndrewStrycharski(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan, 2015),119–36,andarereproducedhereinrevisedandexpandedformby permissionoftheeditorsofthe SidneyJournal and MiltonStudies andof PalgraveMacmillan.Excerptsfrom “MargaretCavendish’sCivilizingSongs,” ThePublicIntellectualandtheCultureofHope,ed.JoelFaflakandJason Haslam(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,2013),109–34,and “APoetics ofSong,” TheWorkofForm:PoeticsandMaterialityinEarlyModern Culture, ” ed.ElizabethScott-BaumannandBenBurton(Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress,2014),104–22,alsoappearinrevisedformandareusedby permissionoftheUniversityofTorontoPressandOxfordUniversityPress. Forcompanionshipandsupportalongtheway,bothacademicand personal,IamgratefultoKatherineBlouin,KimberlyFairbrotherCanton, CatherineDorton,KatieHamilton,ErinHolden,AlysiaKolentsis,Lindy Ledohowski,NatalieRothman,KarinaVernon,andJackieWylde.Loving thanks,aboveall,tomyfamily:Tomyparents,whogiftedmewiththeirlove ofmusicandliterature,andmysister,withwhomIsharemanymusical memories.Tomypartner,LawrenceWiliford,whoheardmesingbeforewe everspoke,andwho,asasingerhimself,hasbeenincontrapuntaldialogue withmeaboutthisprojectsinceitsbeginnings.And finally,toLyra,whose nameencapsulatesthose “Blestpairof Sirens ...VoiceandVerse” and whose earliestmoments(andearliestsongs)overlappedwiththecreation ofthisbookanditscompanionrecording.Mayyoualwaysdelightinsinging andinthewonderwroughtbymusicandtext.
ListofFigures
P1RecordingSessionfor TheMatterofSonginEarlyModern England (perf.KatherineR.Larson,soprano,andLucasHarris,lute), GlennGouldStudio,Toronto,January2015.Photocredit:Ron Searles,GlennGouldStudio.12
P2RecordingSessionfor TheMatterofSonginEarlyModern England (perf.KatherineR.Larson,soprano,andLucasHarris,lute), GlennGouldStudio,Toronto,January2015.Photocredit:Ron Searles,GlennGouldStudio.13
P3JohnMilton, “ThouGodofMight,” inSirWilliamLeighton, The TearesorLamentacionsofaSorrowfullSoule (London:William Stansby,1614),sigsf2v–gr.©TheBritishLibraryBoard. 16
P4 “StopsupontheTheorbo,” MSDon.c.57,fo.155v.TheBodleian Libraries,TheUniversityofOxford.17
P5Detailofvocalornamentationfrom “Dovedovecorrimiocore?” MS Broxbourne84.9,fo.11r.TheBodleianLibraries,TheUniversity ofOxford.18
P6RobertJones, “Myfatherfaine,” in TheMusesGardenfor Delights... (London:WilliamBarley,1610),sig.E2r,RB62107. TheHuntingtonLibrary,SanMarino,California. 28
1.1DetailfromGeorgePuttenham, TheArteofEnglishPoesie (London:RichardField,1589),70,RB56460.TheHuntingtonLibrary, SanMarino,California. 43
1.2Anon.settingofMarySidneyHerbert,Psalm51,BritishLibrary,MS Add.15117,fos4v–5r.©TheBritishLibraryBoard. 56
1.3Anon.settingofMarySidneyHerbert,Psalm130,BritishLibrary, MSAdd.15117,fo.5v.©TheBritishLibraryBoard. 59
2.1DetailfromHelkiahCrooke, Mikrokosmographia:ADescriptionofthe BodyofMan... (London:WilliamJaggard,1615),635,RB53894. TheHuntingtonLibrary,SanMarino,California. 69
2.2Detailofvocalornamentationfrom “HearemyPrayer,” ChristChurch MSMus.87,fo.3r.ReproducedbypermissionoftheGoverningBody ofChristChurch,Oxford.80
2.3CharlesColeman, “BrightAurelia,” LambethPalaceLibraryMS1041, fo.53r.ReproducedbypermissionofLambethPalaceLibrary. 83
3.1JohnWilson, “Lovegrowneproud,” MSMus.b.1,fo.18r.The BodleianLibraries,TheUniversityofOxford. 129
5.1ModerntranscriptionofHenryLawes, “SweetEcho.” 190 E1CantuspartofJohnAttey, “Resoundmyvoice,” in TheFirstBooke ofAyres... (London:ThomasSnodham,1622),sig.F2v,RB83690. TheHuntingtonLibrary,SanMarino,California.204
TrackListforCompanionRecording
<www.oup.com/larson>
1. “Myfatherfainewouldhavemeetakeamanthathathabeard” (RobertJones)
2.Psalm51(Anon.)
3.Psalm130(Anon.)
4. “BrightAurelia” (CharlesColeman)
5. “Gothyway” (Anon.)
6. “Ifeverhaplesswomanhadacause” (JohnBartlet)
7. “Mrs M.E.herFuneralltearesforthedeathofherhusband” (JohnDanyel)
8. “Come,myLucatia” (HenryLawes)
9. “Invaine,faire Cloris” (HenryLawes)
10. “Ohmeethetimeiscometopart” (Anon.)
11. “Lovegrowneproud” (JohnWilson)
12. “WasItoblame” (AlfonsoFerrabosco)
13. “SweetEcho” (HenryLawes)
14. “Resoundmyvoice” (JohnAttey)
Abbreviations
ACMRSArizonaCenterforMedievalandRenaissanceStudies
AHRCArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil
CUPCambridgeUniversityPress
EBBAEnglishBalladBroadsideArchive
ELREnglishLiteraryRenaissance
EMWEarlyModernWomen:AnInterdisciplinaryJournal
HLQHuntingtonLibraryQuarterly
MLAModernLanguageAssociation
MLQModernLanguageQuarterly
MRTSMedievalandRenaissanceTextsandStudies
NYPLNewYorkPublicLibrary
OEDOxfordEnglishDictionary
OUPOxfordUniversityPress
PMLAProceedingsoftheModernLanguageAssociation
RETSRenaissanceEnglishTextSociety
RQRenaissanceQuarterly
SELStudiesinEnglishLiterature,1500–1900
UTSCUniversityofTorontoScarborough
NoteontheText
Quotationsfromearlymodernsourceshavenotbeenmodernized,withthe exceptionofu/v,i/j,andthelong “ s. ” Abbreviationshavebeenexpanded, andbooktitleshavebeencapitalizedthroughout.Finaldateofaccessforall URLscitedinthebookwasMarch27,2019.
Prologue
Earlyintheunpublishedsecondpartof TheCountessofMontgomery’ s Urania (c.1621–30),LadyMaryWrothpresentsherreaderswithanextraordinarymusicalscene.TheKingofMoreainvitesPamphilia,Amphilanthus,andUraniaintoa “delicateandpleasant ” gardencelebratedas “theCrowneofallpleasure.”¹Chiefamongthegarden’ s “curiosities ” are itsacousticandmusicalqualities:thespaceresoundswith “Musick...ofall sorts” (2.29).MusicalmomentsappearthroughoutWroth ’sromance,but thisscenestandsoutforitsscrutinyofthephenomenonofwomen’ ssong performance.Wroth’scharactersengageinanextensivedebateprobingthe relativeaestheticmeritsandsoniceffectsofwomen’ssingingvoices, promptedbyAmphilanthus’ commendationofthevoiceasthemost “heavenly” ofinstrumentsandhisardentdefenseof “stronge” femalesingers: “Ilovealadythatwhensheputtsforthhervoicemakestheroomerattle” (2.29–30),heextols.
Amphilanthus’ relishforrattlingroomsaddsadistinctchargetothe scene ’sexplorationoftheaffectivescopeandgenderedimplicationsof vocalperformance.Giventhatthediscussionhingesontheconnection betweenthebeautyofthesingingvoiceanditsacousticimpactonauditors, wouldaladywho “puttsforthhervoice” inthis “stronge” waybringpleasure ordismaytoherauditors?Thepotentialeroticismofsuchrattlingisalsoat playinthepassage,whenSelarinateasesAmphilanthusforarticulatinga preferencefor “Chapell” musicgivenhiswontedloveof “aladysChamber” (2.30).Untilthispoint,thegarden ’sinstrumentalmusichasbeenabackdroptotheinterchange,butthesceneculminatesinasolosongperformancebyPamphilia.Shesingsseveralpieces,includingasettingofapoem
¹LadyMaryWroth, TheSecondPartoftheCountessofMontgomery’sUrania,ed.Josephine A.Roberts,completedbySuzanneGossettandJanelMueller(Tempe,AZ:RETS/ACMRS, 1999),29.Subsequentreferenceswillbetothisedition,citedparentheticallybypartandpage number.
composedbyAmphilanthus, “HadIlovedbuttatthatrate” (2.30–1).Asthe garden fillswiththesoundofhervoice,thedebateshiftsfromtheoryto practice.The “naturallperfections” ofPamphilia’ s “ rare ” performanceare clearlycelebratedbyWrothandbythegardenaudience(2.30).Still,the impactofhersongsiscomplex,particularlywhenreadontheheelsofthe precedinginterchange.Sheis “commend[ed]” and “admire[d]” byAmphilanthusasshebeginstosing(2.30).Attheconclusionofherperformance, however,the “excellency” ofhervoicebecomessynonymouswith “[d]elicacy” ratherthanstrength,andPamphiliaabruptlyretreatsfromhersoloturn intocommonplacesabouthersilenceandhumility(2.31–2).
Pamphilia’sremarkableperformance,whichwillbediscussedinmore detailinChapter3,bringstotheforeaseriesofquestionsthatlieattheheart ofthisbook:Whataretheimplicationsofconsideringthesongsthat pervadeearlymodernliterarytextsasamusical,acoustic,andembodied practice?Howdidearlymodernsunderstandtherhetoricalfunctionof songsandofsingingbodies?Whatistheaffectivesignificanceofthese overlookedmusicalmomentsforreadersandaudiencemembers?And, finally,howandwithwhateffectsdidwomenengagewiththesonggenre aswritersandasperformers?
The firstthreeofthesequestionsmeritexplorationinrelationtoawide rangeofliterarygenres,notleastthevoluminousarrayoftheatricalsongs thatwereperformedonLondon’sindoorandoutdoorstages.Indeveloping aperformance-basedapproachtothesongswrittenandsungbywomenin earlymodernEnglishliteratureandculture,however,thisbookanimates songswhosemusicalandembodiedtracesareperhapslessimmediately obvious: “literary” psalmtranslations;thesongsscatteredthroughoutsonnet sequences;andlyricslabeledas “ songs ” inversemiscellaniesorrepresented assunginromance.Inthelatersectionsofthebook,Iprobethecentralityof songwithinhouseholddramaandthemasque.Allofthesearegenresto whichwomenactivelycontributedaswriters,aspatrons,andasperformers, andwhosemusicalandacousticfacetshavetendedtobemuffledinliterary scholarship.
SoundingEarlyModernSong
Particularlytomusiciansreadingthisbook,itmightseemunsurprising tosuggestthatearlymodernsongneedstobeconsideredassung.The soundscapesofsixteenth-andseventeenth-centuryEnglandwerealive
withsong.²Streetsrangwiththemusicalcriesofmarketvendorsandof balladmongerssingingsamplesoftheirwares.Churcheslargeandsmall echoedwiththeploddingtonesofcongregationalpsalmsinging.Ballads, catches,andairsricochetedoffthewallsoftavernsanddomesticdining rooms,whilepsalmsettingsandlullabiesemanatedfromthemoreintimate spacesofbedchamberandcloset.InLondon,menandwomenacrosssocial classes flockedtothetheatrestoenjoyanarrayofsingingcharactersand song- filledinterludesandentertainments.Songswereequallycentraltothe elaboratemasquesperformedatcourtandataristocraticestates.Inmore ruralareas,meanwhile,songseasedthetediumoflaborandwereahallmark ofritualfestivities.Althoughthesonicimpactofthese “ songscapes ”³has longsincedissipated,wecontinuetoexperiencesongsfromtheperiodas readersandaudiencemembers,and,insomecases,assingers.Whilea significantbodyofscholarshiphasbeendevotedtomusical–poeticrelations inearlymodernEngland,however,alltoooftenthisworkhasprioritized whatLeslieC.DunnandNancyA.Joneshavecalledsong’ s “verbaland textualdimensions.”⁴
Theburgeoningofearlymodernsoundstudieshaspavedthewayfor renewedacousticattentiontosong.⁵ ScholarssuchasErinMinear,Joseph
²SeeBruceR.Smith, TheAcousticWorldofEarlyModernEngland:Attendingtothe O-Factor (Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999),esp.168–205;andJessieAnnOwens (ed.),“Noyses,soundsandsweetaires”:MusicinEarlyModernEngland (Washington:Folger ShakespeareLibrary,2006).
³Thistermistheinspirationbehindanintermediadigitalinitiativeforthestudyof sixteenth-andseventeenth-centurysong,developedbyScottTrudell,SarahWilliams,and myself.ThebetaversionofthesitewaslaunchedonFebruary9,2019,andcanbeaccessedat songscapes.org.IdiscusstheEarlyModernSongscapesplatforminmoredetailintheEpilogue.
⁴ LeslieC.DunnandNancyA.Jones(eds),introductionto EmbodiedVoices:Representing FemaleVocalityinWesternCulture (Cambridge:CUP,1994),6.Forvaluableoverviewsof literaryscholarshiptreatingtheinterplaybetweenmusicandpoetryinearlymodernEngland, seeLouiseSchleiner, “RecentStudiesinPoetryandMusicoftheEnglishRenaissance,” ELR 16/1 (Winter1986),253–68,andLeslieC.Dunn, “RecentStudiesinPoetryandMusicoftheEnglish Renaissance(1986–2007),” ELR 38/1(Winter2008),172–92.Especiallyfoundationalforthis studyareEliseBickfordJorgens, TheWell-Tun’dWord:MusicalInterpretationsofEnglish Poetry,1597–1651 (Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1982),andLouiseSchleiner, TheLivingLyreinEnglishVersefromElizabeththroughtheRestoration (Columbia:University ofMissouriPress,1984).
⁵ BruceR.Smith, AcousticWorld,and “ListeningtotheWildBlueYonder:TheChallengesof AcousticEcology,” inVeitErlmann(ed.), HearingCultures:EssaysonSound,Listening,and Modernity (Oxford:Berg,2004),21–41;WesFolkerth, TheSoundofShakespeare (London: Routledge,2002);KennethGross, Shakespeare’sNoise (Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress, 2001);KeithM.Botelho, RenaissanceEarwitnesses:RumorandEarlyModernMasculinity (NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2009);andGinaBloom, VoiceinMotion:StagingGender, ShapingSound (Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2007).Althoughitdoesnot focusonmusic,Bloom’ s VoiceinMotion isofparticularsignificancetothisbookbecauseofits
4
Ortiz,PatriciaFumerton,andGavinAlexanderhaveinfluentiallyelucidated song ’sauditoryandproteanworkingsinsixteenth-andseventeenth-century England;ScottTrudell’srecentlypublishedmonographonsongandmedia isanotherexcitingcontributioninthisarea.⁶ Thesonicimportoftheatrical songiscomingtolifethankstoworkbyLucyMunro,DavidLindley, KatherineSteeleBrokaw,andSimonSmith,alongwithrecordingsand performancescoresdevelopedbyRossDuf finandCatherineHenze.⁷ Arecentspecialissueof NewLiteraryHistory ,meanwhile,testifiesto increasinginterestinthefunctionofsongacrosshistoricalperiods.⁸ Despite thisexcitingcriticalcrescendo,attentiontothemusicalandperformative texturesofsongisbynomeansagiveninliteraryanalysis.Whenaliterary criticencountersasonginasonnetsequence,romance,andevenamasque oraplay,thetendency,ifitisnottoskipoveritaltogether notanunusual emphasisonvocalproductionasamarkerofgenderedsubjectivity.Seealso “Shakespearean Hearing,” aspecialissueof TheUpstartCrow,29(2010),ed.LeslieC.DunnandWesFolkerth.
⁶ ErinMinear, ReverberatingSonginShakespeareandMilton:Language,Memory,and MusicalRepresentations (Farnham:Ashgate,2011;repr.London:Routledge,2016);Joseph M.Ortiz, BrokenHarmony:ShakespeareandthePoliticsofMusic (Ithaca,NY:Cornell UniversityPress,2011);PatriciaFumerton(ed.), BroadsideBalladsfromthePepysCollection: ASelectionofTexts,Approaches,andRecordings (Tempe:ACMRS,2012);PatriciaFumerton, BalladsandPerformance:TheMultimodalStageinEarlyModernEngland (SantaBarbara,CA: EMCImprint,<http://scalar.usc.edu/works/ballads-and-performance-the-multi-modal-stagein-early-modern-england/index>;GavinAlexander, “SonginShakespeare:Rhetoric,Identity, Agency,” inJonathanF.S.Post(ed.), TheOxfordHandbookofShakespeare’sPoetry (Oxford: OUP,2013),247–64;ScottTrudell, UnwrittenPoetry:Song,Performance,andMediainEarly ModernEngland (Oxford:OUP,2019).SeealsoSarahIovan, “PerformingVoicesintheEnglish LuteSong,” SEL 50/1(Winter2010),63–81.
⁷ SeeLucyMunro, “MusicandSound,” inRichardDutton(ed.), TheOxfordHandbookof EarlyModernTheatre (Oxford:OUP,2011),543–59;DavidLindley, “Song,” in Shakespeareand Music (London:ArdenShakespeare,2006),141–98,and “Shakespeare’sProvokingMusic,” in JohnCaldwell,EdwardOlleson,andSusanWollenberg(eds), TheWellEnchantingSkill:Music, Poetry,andDramaintheCultureoftheRenaissance (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1990),79–90; KatherineSteeleBrokaw, StagingHarmony:MusicandReligiousChangeinLateMedievaland EarlyModernEnglishDrama (Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,2016);SimonSmith, MusicalResponseintheEarlyModernPlayhouse,1603–1625 (Cambridge:CUP,2017);Ross W.Duffin, Shakespeare’sSongbook (NewYork:W.W.Norton,2004)and SomeOtherNote:The LostSongsofEnglishRenaissanceComedy (Oxford:OUP,2018);andCatherineA.Henze, RobertArminandShakespeare’sPerformedSongs (London:Routledge,2017).SeealsoLinda PhyllisAustern, Music inEnglishChildren’sDramaoftheLaterRenaissance (Philadelphia: GordonandBreach,1992).Althoughlessfocusedonsound,PeterJ.Seng, TheVocalSongsin thePlaysofShakespeare:ACriticalHistory (Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1968),is alsoaninvaluableresource.
⁸ JahanRamazaniandHerbertF.Tucker(eds), “Song,” specialissue, NewLiteraryHistory, 46/4(Autumn2015).SeealsoMarkW.Booth, TheExperienceofSongs (NewHaven,CT:Yale UniversityPress,1981).
occurrenceinbothpedagogicalandresearchcontexts istoengagewithit aspoemratherthanasmusicalperformance.
Thiskindofimbalanceisnotlimitedtoliterarystudies.Untilrelatively recently,musicologistshavelikewiseshiedawayfromthesonicandvisual facetsofearlymodernvocalrepertoire,focusinginsteadonthenotational frameworkofextantscores.Thiscaninpartbeattributedtodisciplinary trendsandmodesoftraininganalogoustothoseinliterarystudiesthathinder afullintegrationofhistoricallysituatedtextual,musical,andperformance analysis.AsNicholasCookobserves,musicology “isbuiltonthepremisethat musicisabranchofliterature:likepoetry,musiccanberenderedinperformance,butthatisn’tessentialforcriticalengagementwiththemeanings embodiedinthenotatedtext.”⁹ Thisresistancetoperformance-basedanalysis hasbeenshifting,asCook’sscholarship,alongwithvitalworkinearlymodern studiesbyLindaPhyllisAustern,BonnieGordon,RebeccaHerissone,Richard Leppert,andChristopherMarshpowerfullyattest.¹⁰ Performance-oriented interventions,however,stillwrestlewithdisciplinaryinertiaaswellasrelated questionsaboutthevalueandobjectivityofperformanceanalysis.Lesstangible,butnolesssignificant,methodologicalchallengesarisefromthetransientnatureofsongasaperformancemedium.Tograpplewithsongasthe musicalproductofthesoundingbodyis,ineffect,tograpplewiththeinvisible capriciousnessoftheair.
Inthecaseofearlymodernsongs,thisevanescenceisfurthercompoundedbyatemporaldistancingoffourcenturies.Despitethehotly
⁹ NicholasCook, “BridgingtheUnbridgeable?:EmpiricalMusicologyandInterdisciplinary PerformanceStudies,” inNicholasCookandRichardPettengill(eds), TakingittotheBridge: MusicasPerformance (AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,2013),71.
¹
⁰ SeeNicholasCook, BeyondtheScore:MusicasPerformance (NewYork:OUP,2013); “BridgingtheUnbridgeable?”;and “BetweenProcessandProduct:Musicand/asPerformance,” MusicTheoryOnline,7/2(April2001);LindaPhyllisAustern, “WordsonMusic:TheCaseof EarlyModernEngland,” JohnDonneJournal,25(2006),199–243;BonnieGordon, Monteverdi’ s UnrulyWomen:ThePowerofSonginEarlyModernItaly (Cambridge:CUP,2004);Rebecca Herissone, MusicalCreativityinRestorationEngland (Cambridge:CUP,2013);Richard Leppert, TheSightofSound:Music,Representation,andtheHistoryoftheBody (Berkeleyand LosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1993);andChristopherMarsh, MusicandSocietyin EarlyModernEngland (Cambridge:CUP,2010),whichbringssixteenth-andseventeenthcenturypopularmusictolifewithitsaccompanyingCD.SeealsoMaureenEppandBrian E.Power(eds), TheSoundsandSightsofPerformanceinEarlyMusic:EssaysinHonourof TimothyJ.McGee (Farnham:Ashgate,2009;repr.London:Routledge,2016).Althoughnot focusedontheearlymoderncontext,LawrenceKramer’sinfluentialnotionof “melopoetics” advancesthepossibilityofamoreproductivedisciplinaryrelationshipbetweenmusicand literarycriticism.Hiswork,however,focusesonquestionsofstructureandsignification,as wellascompositionalprocess,ratherthansound.See “DangerousLiaisons:TheLiteraryTextin MusicalCriticism,” 19th-CenturyMusic,13/2(Autumn1989),159–67.
