TheManyDeaths ofPeterandPaul
DAVIDL.EASTMAN
GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries
©DavidL.Eastman2019
Themoralrightsoftheauthorhavebeenasserted
FirstEditionpublishedin2019
Impression:1
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthe priorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress,orasexpresslypermitted bylaw,bylicenceorundertermsagreedwiththeappropriatereprographics rightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethescopeofthe aboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment,OxfordUniversityPress,atthe addressabove
Youmustnotcirculatethisworkinanyotherform andyoumustimposethissameconditiononanyacquirer
PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData
Dataavailable
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018965052
ISBN978–0–19–876718–3
Printedandboundby CPIGroup(UK)Ltd,Croydon,CR04YY
LinkstothirdpartywebsitesareprovidedbyOxfordingoodfaithand forinformationonly.Oxforddisclaimsanyresponsibilityforthematerials containedinanythirdpartywebsitereferencedinthiswork.
WithgratitudetoBentleyLayton, myteacherandDoktorvater, formentoringmeinthecraftofscholarshipandteaching
Acknowledgments
Iwishtoexpressmygratitudetothemanycolleagueswhohave discussedmyworkduringtheproductionofthisbook.Theirinsights andsuggestionshavemadetheprojectstronger.Iamalsogratefulto theanonymousreviewerforOxfordUniversityPressforthelearned andhelpfulcritique.Anyremainingdeficienciesareofmyowndoing. Ireceivedgenerousfundingtocompletethisprojectfromthe ThomasE.WenzlauPresidentialDiscretionaryFundatOhioWesleyanUniversityandfromanAndrewW.MellonFoundationaward totheFiveCollegesofOhio: DigitalCollections:FromProjectsto PedagogyandScholarship.IamalsogratefultotheMethodistTheologicalSchoolinOhioforprovidinganofficeandresearchsupport duringmysabbaticalinthespringof2018.
Finally,IwishtothankthreeoutstandingstudentsatOhio Wesleyan:MakennaHuffDaniels,KierstenPayne,andEleaKarras, whoprovidedexcellentassistanceatvariouspointsduringtheproject.
5.1ThestandardiconographyofPeterandPaulongoldglass. PhotoVaticanMuseums.169
5.2PeterandPaulpresentedasthenearlyindistinguishable apostolictwinsongoldglass.PhotoVaticanMuseums.170
5.3Traditionalapostoliciconographyongoldglassbut withPeterandPaulreversed.PhotoVaticanMuseums.171
Abbreviations
1Apol. Justin, Apologiai
1QMWarScroll
ABDAnchorBibleDictionary
Abd.Pass.Paul Pseudo-Abdias, PassionofPaul
Abd.Pass.Pet.Pseudo-Abdias, PassionofSaintPeter
Act.apost.Arator, Deactibusapostolorum
ActsPaulActsofPaul
ActsPet. ActsofPeter
ActsPet.PaulActsoftheHolyApostlesPeterandPaul Adv.nat. ArnobiusofSicca, Adversusnationes
Adv.pag.PaulusOrosius, Historiaeadversuspaganos
Agr.Tacitus, Agricola
AHArtHistory
AJTAmericanJournalofTheology
An. Tertullian, Deanima
Ann.Tacitus, Annales
ANRWAufstiegundNiedergangderrömischenWelt: GeschichteundKulturRomsimSpiegelder neuerenForschung
Ant.Josephus, JewishAntiquities
Ap.JohnApocryphonofJohn ApocApocrypha
Apoc.Pet.VII3 RevelationofPeter
Apocrit.MacariusMagnes, Apocriticus
Apol.Tertullian, Apologeticus
Apos.Con.Constitutionesapostolicae
ARIDAnalectaRomanaInstitutiDanici
ArtBullTheArtBulletin
Aug.Suetonius, DevitaCaesarum.DivusAugustus
BARISBritishArchaeologicalReportsInternationalSeries BEGEBulletinofEngineeringGeologyandtheEnvironment
BETLBibliothecaephemeridumtheologicarum Lovaniensium
BibIntBiblicalInterpretationSeries BMRPBritishMuseumResearchPublication
ByzAustByzantinaAustraliensia
CahRBCahiersdelaRevuebiblique
Carn.Chr.Tertullian, DecarneChristi
xiv Abbreviations
CCSACorpusChristianorum.SeriesApocryphorum
CCSLCorpusChristianorumSeriesLatina
CDDamascusDocument
CFHBCorpusFontiumHistoriaeByzantinae
Chron. Chronicon (variousauthors)
Chron.Pasch ChroniconPaschale
Chronog. JohnMalalas, Chronographia
CMSBAVCatalogodelMuseosacrodellaBibliotecaApostolica Vaticana
Conf.AugustineofHippo, ConfessionumlibriXIII
CSELCorpusScriptorumEcclesiasticorumLatinorum
Dep.mart.Depositiomartyrum
Dial.Sav.III5 DialogueoftheSavior
Dion.Ep.Tim. EpistleofBlessedDionysiustheAreopagiteonthe DeathoftheApostlesPeterandPaultoTimothy
Doct.Apost. DoctrineoftheApostles
DOPDumbartonOaksPapers
Eccl.occ.mon.iur.Ecclesiaeoccidentalismonumentaiurisantiquissima
EMEurEarlyMedievalEurope
Ep.Epistulae (variousauthors)
Ep.Tra. PlinytheYounger, EpistulaeadTrajanum
Epist.can.9PeterofAlexandria, Epistulacanonica9
(Περὶ μετανοίας)
Exc.Hier.Pseudo-Hegesippus, Deexcidiourbis
Hierosolymitanae
Fast. Ovid, Fasti
GCSDiegriechischenchristlichenSchriftstellerderersten Jahrhunderte
GFAGöttingerForumfürAltertumswissenschaft
Glor.mart. GregoryofTours, Degloriamartyrum
Haer.Adversushaereses (variousauthors)
Hist.CassiusDio, Historiae
Hist.Aug.Marc. Historiaaugusta,MarcusAurelius
Hist.eccl.Historiaecclesiastica (variousauthors)
Hist.PaulHistoryoftheHolyApostlemyLordPaul
Hist.Shim. HistoryofShimeonKephatheChiefoftheApostles
Hom.Homiliae (variousauthors)
Hom.2Tim. JohnChrysostom, Homiliaeinepistulamiiad Timotheum
Hom.in2Cor11:1
JohnChrysostom, Inillud:Utinamsustineretis modicum
HTRHarvardTheologicalReview
Hymn.AmbroseofMilan, Hymni
ICURInscriptionesChristianaeurbisRomaeseptimo saeculoantiquiores
Ign.Eph.IgnatiusofAntioch, TotheEphesians
ILCVInscriptionesLatinaeChristianaeVeteres Inst.Lactantius, DivinaruminstitutionumlibriVII
IPInstrumentaPatristica
J.W.Josephus, JewishWar
JBLJournalofBiblicalLiterature
JRSJournalofRomanStudies
JSJJournalfortheStudyofJudaisminthePersian, Hellenistic,andRomanPeriod
JSJSupSupplementstotheJournalfortheStudyofJudaism
JTSJournalofTheologicalStudies
JTS.NSJournalofTheologicalStudies.NewSeries
Jud.gent.JohnChrysostom, ContraJudaeosetgentilesquod Christussitdeus
KNNEKontexteundNormenneutestamentlicherEthik/ ContextsandNormsofNewTestamentEthics
Laud.Paul. JohnChrysostom, DelaudibussanctiPauliapostoli Leg. Athenagoras, LegatioproChristianis
Lib.pontif.Liberpontificalis
Lin.Mart.Paul Pseudo-Linus, MartyrdomofPaultheApostle Lin.Mart.Pet.Pseudo-Linus, MartyrdomofBlessedPeterthe Apostle
Marc. Tertullian, AdversusMarcionem
Mart.Ascen.Isa.MartyrdomandAscensionofIsaiahMart.HeadPaul MartyrdomofPaultheApostleandtheDiscoveryof hisSeveredHead
Mart.PaulMartyrdomoftheHolyApostlePaulinRome (in Acts ofPaul)
Mart.Pet.MartyrdomoftheHolyApostlePeter (in Actsof Peter)
MGH.AAMonumentaGermaniaeHistorica.Auctores antiquissimi
MIÖGMitteilungendesInstitutsfürösterreichische Geschichtsforschung
Mirabil. Mirabiliana
Mort. Lactantius, Demortibuspersecutorum(Onthe DeathsofthePersecutors)
Nat.PlinytheElder, Naturalishistoria
Nero Suetonius, DevitaCaesarum.Nero
NHMSNagHammadiandManichaeanStudies
NHSNagHammadiStudies Abbreviations
xvi Abbreviations
NovTNovumTestamentum
NTSNewTestamentStudies
Od.Home, Odyssea(Odyssey)
Oppugn. JohnChrysostom, Adversusoppugnatoresvitae monasticae
Or.Orationes (variousauthors)
Or.laud.Basil.GregoryofNazianzus, Oratioinlaudemfratris Basilii
Pan.EpiphaniusofCyprus, Panarion(Adversushaereses)
Pass.Apost.Pet.PaulPassionoftheApostlesPeterandPaul
Pass.HolyPet.Paul Pseudo-Marcellus, PassionoftheHolyApostlesPeter andPaul
Perist.Prudentius, Peristephanon(Decoronismartyrum)
Pist.soph. PistisSophia
POPatrologiaOrientalis
Pol. Phil. Polycarp, TothePhilippians
Praescr.Tertullian, Depraescriptionehaereticorum (PrescriptionagainstHeretics)
Ps.-Clem.Hom.Pseudo-ClementineHomilies
Ps.-Clem.Rec Pseudo-ClementineRecognitions
PTSPatristischeTexteundStudien
REAugRevuedesétudesaugustiniennes
RelSRevReligiousStudiesReview
RLLTCRecentiores:LaterLatinTextsandContexts
Rom. Plutarch, VitaRomuli(Vitaeparallelae)
RSERRevuedelaSociétéErnest-Renan
RSRRecherchesdesciencereligieuse
SAAAStudiesontheApocryphalActsoftheApostles
Sat.Horace, Satirae
Satyr.Petronius, Satyricon
SBLHBSSocietyofBiblicalLiteratureHistoryofBiblical Studies
SCSourceschrétiennes
Scap.Tertullian, AdScapulam
Scorp. Tertullian, Scorpiace(AntidotefortheScorpion’ s Sting)
Serm. Sermones (variousauthors)
Serm.Steph. GregoryofNyssa, SermoinsanctumStephanum
SFSHJSouthFloridaStudiesintheHistoryofJudaism
SHGSubsidiaHagiographica
SibOr
SibyllineOracles
Silv.Statius, Silvae
Strom.ClementofAlexandria, Stromata
Abbreviations
T.12Patr.T.Lev.TestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs.Testament ofLevi
Teach.Shim.Rom. TeachingofShimeonKephaintheCityofRome Tract.Ps. Jerome, TractatusinPsalmos
TRuNFTheologischeRundschau NeueFolge
TUGALTexteundUntersuchungenzurGeschichteder altchristlichenLiteratur
TZTTübingerZeitschriftfürTheologie UALGUntersuchungenzurantikenLiteraturund Geschichte
Urb.cond.Livy, Aburbecondita VCVigiliaeChristianae
VIÖGVeröffentlichungendesInstitutsfürÖsterreichische Geschichtsforschung
Vir.ill. Jerome, Devirisillustribus Virginit.JohnChrysostom, Devirginitate VOHDSupVerzeichnisderorientalischenHandschriftenin Deutschland.Supplementband WGRWSBLWritingsfromtheGreco-RomanWorld WGRWSupSBLWritingsfromtheGreco-RomanWorld. SupplementSeries
WUNTWissenschaftlicheUntersuchungenzumNeuen Testament
ZACZeitschriftfürantikesChristentum/Journalof AncientChristianity
ZNWZeitschriftfürdieneutestamentlicheWissenschaft unddieKundederälterenKirche
Introduction
IntheCappellaPaolinaintheVaticanPalacehangsMichelangelo’ s CrucifixionofSaintPeter,oneofthemostrecognizableimagesin Christianart.Asacrowdofonlookerswatches,theagedandsurprisinglymuscularapostleliesnailedtoacross,hisintenseeyesglaring directlyattheviewer.Onesoldierdigsaholeforhiscross,whileseven othersstruggletoraisethecrossintopositionsothatPeterwillbe suspendedupsidedown.1 Michelangelowasoneofmanyartiststo depictthissceneofinvertedcrucifixionthatdatesbacktotheancient literaryaccountsofPeter’sdeath.
TheexplanationforPeter’smodeofmartyrdomisalsoconsidered commonknowledge:Heaskedtobecrucifiedupsidedownbecause heconsideredhimselfunworthyofdyinginthesamewaythat Christdid.
However,theearliestdescriptionofPeter’sdeathcontradictsthis “commonknowledge.” The MartyrdomofPeter,partofthelarger ActsofPeter,wasproducednolaterthanthethirdquarterofthe secondcenturyandlikelyreflectsearlieroralandperhapseven literarytraditions.InthisaccountPeterisbroughttohisplaceof executionandthenlaunchesintoanextendedtheologicaldiatribe. Inthemidstofthis,heexplainsthatheaskstobecrucifiedupside downnotbecauseofChrist’sdeath,butasaproclamationonthe fallenstateofhumanityduetoAdam:
“Butthehourhascomeforyou,Peter,tosurrenderyourbodytothose takingit.Takeit,then,foritisyours.Iaskyouexecutioners,crucifyme
1 Thispaintinghasbeenthesubjectofextensivestudy,includingdiscussionof where themartyrdomispictured.OnepossibilityisMontorio,asarguedbyPhilipp Fehl, “Michelangelo’sCrucifixionofSt.Peter:NotesontheIdentificationoftheLocale oftheAction,” ArtBull 53.3(1971):326–43.
2 TheManyDeathsofPeterandPaul
inthisway withmyheaddownandnootherway.Iwillsaythereason tothosewhoarelistening.” Thus,theyhunghimupinthewaythathe hadrequested,andhebegantospeakagain: “Ohmen,whosedutyitis tohear,payattentiontothethingsthatIwillnowproclaimtoyouas Iamhanginghere.Understandthemysteryofallnatureandwhatwas thebeginningofallnatures.Forthe firstman,whoexistedintheform thatInowhaveandwasbroughtforthwithhisheaddown,showedan originthatdidnotexistlongago.Fornatureitselfisdead,andithas deadmovement.Therefore,becausethatonecamedownaftercasting downhisownbeginningtotheearth,heframedforhimselfthisentire formofthecosmos,inwhichheshowedthatthethingsontherightare ontheleft,andthethingsontheleftareontheright.Andallthesignsof theirnaturewereperverted,sothatgoodthingsareconsiderednot good,andtheevilthingsthatcomefromtheirnatureareconsidered noble.ConcerningthesethingstheLordsaysinamystery, ‘Unlessyou makethethingsontherightasthingsontheleft,andthethingsonthe leftasthingsontheright,andthethingsbelowasthethingsabove,and thethingsbehindasthethingsinfront,youwillnotenterintothe kingdomofGod.’ Havingpresentedthisideatous2 [ ].Theformin whichyouseemehanginghereisaperfectrepresentationofthatone whodescendedandcameasamanathisownbeginning.”3
Peterdiesupsidedownnotduetohumility,butasatheological statement.Theapostle’stheologyofAdamiccreationissomewhat obscure,butheisclearlyrepresentingthefallennessofhumanity throughthe “firstman,” whowasbroughtforthbyGodwithhis headdown.Inthisdownwardposition,oneperceiveseverything backward rightandleftarereversed,whichisemblematicofthe humancondition,inwhich “allthesignsoftheirnaturewereperverted,sothatgoodthingsareconsiderednotgood,andtheevil thingsthatcomefromtheirnatureareconsiderednoble.” ThepurportedquotationfromChristisnototherwiseknown,butthepointis clear:humanperceptionoftheworldisdistortedfrombirth,goingall thewaybacktothebirthofthe “firstman.”
Petergoesontoaddotherlayerstohisdeaththroughallegorizing thecrossitself,andhereatlastChristcomesintoplay:Christisthe verticalbeam,thenatureofhumanityisthecrossbeam,andthenail thatintersectsthetworepresentshumanrepentance.Accordingto
2 Somemanuscriptsread “ ... toyou.” Thelacunathatfollowsinthetextmakesit difficulttodeterminetheoriginalreading.
3 Mart.Pet.8–9.
Peter,nothingabouthisdeathisasitseemsonthesurface.He admonisheshishearers:
Iwillnotconcealthemysteryofthecross,whichforalongtimehas beenclosedupandhiddeninmysoul.Donotletthatwhichisvisiblebe foryouthenameofthecross,ohyouwhohopeinChrist,foritis somethingotherthanwhatisvisibletoyou ... Separateyoursoulsfrom everythingthatseemstobeperceptiblebutisnottrue.Closetheeyesof the flesh,andcloseyourearstothesethingsdoneonlyinappearance.4
Peterdiesonacrossashedoesnotbecauseheisunworthy,but becauseonlythismodeofdeathcanreveal “themysteryofthecross” thatuptonowhehaskept “hiddeninmysoul.” Thephysicalreality ofPeter’ssufferinganddeath,soemphasizedbyMichelangelo,is ultimatelyoflittlesignificance.
Christianauthorsofthethirdandearlyfourthcenturydisplayno knowledgeofPeter’sinvertedcrucifixionatall,letaloneawarenessof hispurportedhumilityatthetimeofhisdeath.Tertullianmakes specificreferencetoPeter’smannerofdeathtwiceinhiswriting,but inbothcasesthereisnomentionofinversion.Inhis Prescription againstHeretics,heistoutingtheauthorityofchurcheswithapostolic foundations.WithregardtoRomeTertullianstates, “Howblessedisthat churchonwhichtheapostlespouredouttheirwholeteachingwiththeir ownblood wherePeterequaledthepassionoftheLord,wherePaulwas crownedwithadeathlikeJohn.”5 Romereceivesaspecialblessing becausebothPeterandPauldiedthere.Theirdeathsmirrorthoseof biblical figures.Pauldiesbydecapitation,justasJohntheBaptisthad. Peter “equaledthepassionoftheLord,” areferencetodeathbycrucifixion.TertulliansaysnothingtoindicateanythingunusualaboutPeter’ s death.Tothecontrary,theverypointisthatPeterdiedjustasJesusdied, whichwouldseeminglyunderminethenotionthatPeterintentionally alteredhisdeathinordertodistinguishhimselffromChrist.
In AntidotefortheScorpion’sSting,anothertextfocusedoncombattingheresy,TertullianagainmentionsPeter’sdeath.Heclaimsthat imperialrecordsconfirmthehistoricalclaimsmadebyChristians: “If ahereticwantstoplacefaithinarecord,thenthearchivesofthe empirewillspeak,aswillthestonesofJerusalem.Wereadthelivesof theCaesars.Nerowasthe firstwhostainedwithbloodtherisingfaith inRome.AtthattimePeterwasboundaroundthebodybyanother 4
whenhewasboundtothecross.”6 TertullianseemsprimarilyconcernedwithdescribingPeter’sdeathinlinewithJohn21:18–19,where JesuspredictsafuturedeaththatwillinvolvePeter’sbeingboundand takenagainsthiswill.Thereisnoreferencetoupsidedown crucifixion.
Writingatthebeginningofthefourthcentury,PeterofAlexandria alsoreferstothemartyrdomsofPeterandPaulinRome.Withregard toPetertheapostle,theAlexandrianbishoprecords, “Thusthechief oftheapostles,Peter,whohadoftenbeenarrestedandthrowninto prisonandtreatedpoorly,was finallycrucifiedinRome.” Theauthor thenmovesontoPaul’sdeathwithoutanyallusiontoaspecialmode ofcrucifixion.AsfarasPeterofAlexandriaisconcerned,Peterthe apostlediedbytypicalcrucifixion.
Lactantiusproduceshiswork OntheDeathsofthePersecutors between313and316 CE,earlyintheprincipateofConstantine.His goalistodescribehoweverypersecutingemperoruptohisown timehadultimatelymethisdemise.LactantiussaysthatPetercame toRome,performedmiracles,andtogetherwithPaulconverted manytofaithinChrist.WhenNerolearnedthattheapostleswere turningmanytowardanewreligion, “he beinganabominableand wickedtyrant sprangforthtoteardowntheheavenlytempleand abolishrighteousness.Hewasthe fi rstofalltopersecutetheservants ofGod.HenailedPetertoacrossandkilledPaul. ” 7 Lactantius’ descriptionofthedeathsisconcise.Heknowsthetraditionof Peter ’ scruci fi xionbutdoesnotmentionanythingunusualinthe carryingoutofthissentence.
Theseauthorsofthethirdandearlyfourthcenturyallnotethat PeterdiedbycrucifixionbutmentionnothingaboutPeter’sinversion;andcertainlythereisnoreferencetoalackofPetrineworthiness.Theirsilenceisnonethelesssignificant.
Peter’sinvertedcrucifixionasasignofhumilitymay firstappearin theworkofEusebiusofCaesarea,althoughtheallusionmaybetraced backtoOrigen.InsummarizingthecareerofPeter,Eusebiusasserts, “PeterseemstohavepreachedinPontus,Galatia,Bithynia,Cappadocia, andAsiatotheJewsoftheDiaspora.Afterhe finallycametoRome, hewascrucifiedwithhisheaddownward,ashethoughtitproper forhimtosuffer.”8 AfterareferencetoPaul’sdeathatthehands
6 Tertullian, Scorp. 15.3. 7 Lactantius, Mort. 2.5–6.
8 Eusebius, Hist.eccl.3.1.
ofNero,Eusebiusgoesontostate, “Origenspeaksaboutthesethings inwritinginthethirdbookofhiscommentariesonGenesis.” Eusebiusacknowledgesthelimitationsofhisinformation—“Peter seems to havepreached ... ” (Πέτρος ... κεκηρυχέναι ... ἔοικεν) butisthe firsttorecordthatPeter “wascrucifiedwithhisheaddownward,as hethoughtitproperforhimtosuffer” (ἀνεσκολοπίσθηκατὰ κεϕαλῆς, ο
ὐτὸ
ἀξιώσαςπαθεῖ ν).Eusebiusdoesnotexplain why Peter thoughtthiswasproper.WasPeterhighlightingthefallenhuman condition,ordidheconsiderhimselfunworthy?Orwasthere anotherreason?Eusebiusdoesnotsay.Thechronicleraddsthat Origenhasalreadywrittenabout “ thesethings ” inacommentaryon Genesis.Unfortunately,thiscommentaryhassurvivedonlyinfragments;thus,itisnotclearwhat “ things ” areincluded.DidOrigen refertotheapostolicm annersofdeathspecifi cally,anddidhe expandonwhatitmeansthatPeterdid “ ashethoughtitproper forhimtosuffer ” ?GivenOrigen’ spenchantformetaphoricalreadings,itispossiblethatheknewandappreciatedtheallegorical explanationinthe MartyrdomofPeter andconsideredthattobe “ proper. ”
AsthetextstandsinEusebius,Peter ’ sdeathisonsomelevel appropriate( ἀξιώσας ),butitisnotexplicitlytiedtohumility. ReadinganymorethanthatintoEusebiuswouldbegoingbeyond theevidence.
Onlyinthelastquarterofthefourthcenturydoesanauthor explicitlydescribePeter’smannerofdeathasaresultofaperception ofpersonalunworthiness.Thepseudonymous MartyrdomofBlessed PetertheApostle wasproducedunderthenameofLinus,ofthe traditional firstbishopsofRome.TheworkisaLatinreworkingof the MartyrdomofPeter,withsomeexpansionsandrevisionsthatbelie itshistoricalcontext.Pseudo-Linusincludesmuchoftheesoteric Petrineteachingfromthecrossaboutthenatureoffallenhumanity anditsrelationshiptohismodeofdeath.Theseconsiderationsare secondary,however,totheprimaryreasonsfortheinversion:
Healsoentreatedthemastersoftheexecutioners,speakingtothemand prevailinguponthem, “Ibegyou,nobleministersofmysalvation,that whenyoucrucifyme,positionmewithmyheaddownwardandmyfeet upward.ItisnotproperthatI,theleastofallservants,shouldbe crucifiedinthesamewayastheLordoftheuniversedeemedworthy tosufferforthesalvationofthewholeworld,forheshouldbeglorified bymypassion.ThisisalsosothatImayalwaysbeabletocontemplate
withafocusedgazethemysteryofthecross,andsothatwhatIsayfrom thecrossmaybemoreeasilyheardbythosestandingaroundme.”9
Peterbegshisexecutionerstocrucifyhimupsidedown firstand foremostasasignofhisownworthiness.Thisliterarilyconstructed PeterhastoborrowfromPaultoexplainhisdeath,forhecalls himself “theleastofallservants”10 andunworthytodieasJesus did.PeterintendstoglorifyChristbyhispassion,notdrawattention tohimself,andhanginginvertedwillallowhimtodothisandto contemplatethecrossmoreperfectly.Thesecondreasonismore practical:IfPeter’sheadislowertotheground,thenthosestanding aroundcanhearhimbetter.Thus,eventheapostle’sappealto humilityissupplementedbyapracticalconcern.
AsPetercontinuesinhislongdiscoursefromthecross,hereturns totheformofcrucifixionanditsmeaning:
Youalone,Lord,wereworthilycrucifiedwithyourheadraisedonhigh, youwhoredeemedthewholeworldfromsin.Ihavesoughttoimitateyou alsoinmypassion.ButIdidnotpresumetobecrucifiedupright,because wewhowerebornfromAdamareonlyhumanbeingsandwereborn sinners,whileyouindeedareGodfromGodandtruelightfromtruelight beforeallages.11
OnlyChristmeritsthehonorofbeingcrucifiedwithhisheadupright, forhesavedthewholeworld.Peter,however,asafallenhuman beingdeservestodieintheoppositeorientation.Thispassagethen leadsintoPseudo-Linus’ retellingoftheconfusionofleftandright thatappearsintheearlier MartyrdomofPeter.Thepotential tensionsbetweenthevariousexplanationsforPeter’srequesttothe executioners unworthiness,acoustics,andanallegoryforthehuman condition areneveraddressed.
MostofthesubsequentreferencestoPeter’smartyrdomexplicitly mentiontheapostle’ssenseofunworthiness.12 Jeromerecordsthat Peter “wasnailedtoacrossbyNeroandcrownedwithmartyrdom, withhisheadturnedtowardtheearthandhisfeetliftedskyward,for
9 Lin.Mart.Pet.12. 10 1Cor15:9;Eph3:8.
11 Lin.Mart.Pet.13.TheChristologicalimageryhere,whichistakenfrom passagesintheNiceno-ConstantinopolitanCreedof381butnotpresentintheNicene Creedof325,contributestothedatingofthistexttotheendofthefourthcentury.
12 Severalauthorsfromthe fifthcenturyandlatermentionthedeathbutnotthe inversion:SulpiciusSeverus, Chron. 2.29;MacariusofMagnesia, Apocrit. 4.4,4.14; Orosius, Adv.pag. 7.7; Dion.Ep.Tim.4.
heclaimedthathewasunworthyofbeingcrucifiedinthesamewayas hisLord.”13 AsteriusofAsameapenshishomily OntheHolyPrinces oftheApostlesPeterandPaul aboutacenturylaterandagreeswith Pseudo-LinusandJerome:
[Nero]passedovertheothermethodsoftortureanddecidedtonailthe triple-blessedonetothewoodofacross,sothatPetermightimitatehis Lordnotonlyinwalkingonthesea,butalsoinhangingonatree. Nevertheless,asapiousandwiseman,eveninatimeofsuffering, heknewthedifferencebetweenamasterandhisservant,andheasked onefavorfromhisenemies:thattheyplacehimonthecrossnotinthe sameposition[astheLord],butwithhisheadtowardthebottomofthe cross,foritisnotpropereveninsufferingthattheservantshouldbe equaltohismaster.Hespokeandithappenedasherequested.14
Asterius’ PetertakeshiscuefromJesus’ statementaboutaservantnot beingequaltohismaster.15 Eventhepressureofpersecutiondidnot causetheapostletoloseasenseofhisproperplace.
Inmartyrdomaccountsproducedinthe fifthcenturyandlater, Peter’smotivationofhumilitytakescenterstage,andtheallegoryof thehumanconditiondropsoutentirely.Inthe PassionoftheHoly ApostlesPeterandPaul,Peterexplainshisdeathastheexactopposite oftheChristmodel:
“BecausemyLordJesusChrist,whodescendedfromheaventothe earth,wasraisedonanuprightcrossandhasdeignedtocallmefrom theearthtoheaven,mycrossoughttoplacemyheadtowardtheearth andmyfeetdirectedtowardheaven.Therefore,becauseIamnot worthytobeonacrossinthewaythatmyLordwas,turnmycross upsidedown.” Andtheyturnedoverthecrossandattachedhisfeet upwardandhishandsdownward.16
13 Jerome, Vir.ill.1. 14 AsteriusofAmasea, Hom. 8.16.
15 Matt10:24;John13:16;15:20.
16 Pass.HolyPet.Paul 60.TheaccountisthesameinthecloselyrelatedGreek Acts oftheHolyApostlesPeterandPaul 81.Thedescriptionofhis “handsdownward” may presentPeteras fixedtothecrossnotinthetraditionalcruciformshape(crux immissa),butwithhishandsandfeetatfullextensioninoppositedirectionsona woodenbeam(cruxsimplex)oronaT-shapedcross(cruxcommissa).Severalrecent studieshaveaddressedthevariousformsofancientcrucifixion,e.g.JohnGranger Cook, CrucifixionintheMediterraneanWorld,WUNT1/327(Tübingen:Mohr Siebeck,2014);Cook, “EnvisioningCrucifixion:LightfromSeveralInscriptionsand thePalatineGraffito,” NovT 50(2008):262–85;Cook, “CrucifixionasSpectaclein RomanCampania,” NovT 54(2012):68–100;GunnarSamuelsson, Crucifixionin Antiquity:AnInquiryintotheBackgroundandSignificanceoftheNewTestament
