This series features works on substantial topics in international law which provide authoritative statements of the chosen areas. Taken together they map out the whole of international law in a set of scholarly reference works and treatises intended to be of use to scholars, practitioners, and students.
The Law of International Watercourses
Third Edition
STEPHEN C. M c CAFFREY
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom
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This book is dedicated to my children, Kevin, Brooke, Darren, and Amanda. May their rivers run free and clean.
Preface to the Third Edition ix
Abbreviations xiii
Table of Treaties by Name of Watercourse xvii
Table of Treaties and Other Instruments by Name xxv
Table of Cases and Arbitrations xli
PART I. INTRODUCTION
1. Human Use of Fresh Water and the Era of Water Scarcity 3
2. The Concept and Reality of the International Watercourse System 28
PART II. EVOLUTION AND THEORETICAL BASES OF THE LAW OF INTERNATIONAL WATERCOURSES
3. The Evolution of the Law of International Watercourses 63
4. The Theoretical Bases of International Watercourse Law: An Examination of the Four Principal Theories 98
5. The Contribution of the Law of Navigation 161
PART III. THE MAJOR CASES AND CONTROVERSIES: A SURVEY OF STATE PRACTICE
6. The Major Cases
7. Selected Case Studies
PART IV. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS
8. Introduction: The 1997 United Nations Convention and its Precursors
A. Substantive Obligations
9. Equitable and Reasonable Utilization
10. The Obligation to Prevent Harm to Other Riparian States
11. The Obligation to Protect International Watercourses and Their Ecosystems
B. Procedural Obligations
12. Procedural Obligations 526
C. Groundwater
13. The Special Case of Groundwater 544
D. Dispute Avoidance and Settlement
14. Dispute Avoidance and Settlement: Selected Aspects 570
ANNEXES
I. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997) with Statements of Understanding regarding certain provisions of the UN Convention 581
II. International Law Commission, Resolution on Confined Transboundary Groundwater (1994) 599
Preface to the Third Edition
In the decade or so since the second edition of this book was published, humanity has not managed to address the very real, and increasing, freshwater challenges it faces with the sense of urgency that is necessary. Yes, well-intentioned resolutions have been adopted by United Nations bodies, the UN Watercourses Convention has entered into force, the ECE Water Convention has been opened to global participation, and progress has been made on giving real meaning to the human right to water. But disaster, or something close to it, hangs like a sword of Damocles over arid regions all over the world, from the Asian Subcontinent and Northern Africa to the Middle East and the Southwestern United States. Droughts—although a new term should perhaps be found for an abnormally dry state that is close to being permanent—have contributed to national upheavals, such as the tragic and seemingly interminable conflict in Syria. And this horrible maelstrom of death, dislocation, and suffering demonstrates beyond doubt how water-related conflict that was originally local can quickly become international, drawing in some of the world’s most powerful states.
In the early 1990s, researchers referred to fresh water as being “in crisis.”1 Yet twenty-five years later, the situation is arguably worse, not better. This is partly due to the inexorable march of population growth and merciless calculus of an increased population that must rely upon a quantity of fresh water that remains ever the same. But more worrying is global climate change. Our understanding of climate change and its impacts have greatly improved over the past several decades but nations, including my own at present, have not shown the resolve necessary to combat it effectively. This almost somnolent approach of some countries, and outright denial by others, will saddle future generations with difficult living conditions to which they will have to adapt but for which they are not responsible. These impacts are already palpable, not least in the water sector. And they give rise to cascading consequences.2
In California, where I live, we now have a fifth season, one more fearful than any of the others: wildfire season. Ours in the northern part of the state began earlier than usual this year (in fact, meteorologists say it is becoming a year-round phenomenon). The wildfires tend to be larger and more destructive than was formerly the case because lack of rain means tinder-dry vegetation that fuels the blazes.3 Local
1 Water in Crisis
2 See, e.g., Ivan Penn, “More Wildfires, Less Electricity,” N.Y. Times, October 17, 2018, p. B1, reporting that California utilities cut electricity to thousands of Northern Californians on October 14, 2018 because of fire alerts due to high winds in areas blackened by fires a year ago. Similar action has been taken in the southern part of the state.
3 See, e.g., Dale Kasler, “Wildfires in state will grow 77% as climate warms, study finds,” sacrameNTo Bee, August 28, 2018, p. 1, reporting on a study by California officials indicating that the amount of land that will be consumed by wildfires in an average year will increase 77% by the end of the century. For the latest authoritative report on the science, see Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5ºC, issued October 8, 2018.
and even regional cooperation can help to moderate the effects of some of these events but it cannot eliminate them. This is one of the reasons California, acting in the absence of effective action by the federal government, has enacted strong measures to combat climate change, measures which simultaneously protect the health of the state’s population. But global climate change itself can only be approached effectively through global cooperation. It remains to be seen whether international law, an inherently conservative system that develops deliberately, will be able to respond in a way that is adequate to the problem.
Cooperation is also the cornerstone of proper management of shared freshwater resources. Indeed, the most fundamental principle of law in the field, equitable and reasonable utilization, cannot function, or at best functions poorly, without regular communication and ongoing cooperation between the countries sharing the resource. Cooperation between riparian countries will also become increasingly essential since almost half of the world’s land area lies within international river basins, whose historic hydrologic character is likely to be altered by climate change.
The use of freshwater resources shared by two or more countries, and disputes concerning those resources, are governed by international law. The rules of international law relating to international watercourses—as shared rivers, lakes, and aquifers are known in the field—may be viewed as having developed along two separate tracks, one concerning navigation and the other relating to non-navigational uses. This book examines those rules and the way in which they have evolved over time. It focuses on theories, rules, and disputes concerning non-navigational uses—such as those for irrigation, hydropower production, and domestic needs—but takes into account the influence of the law of navigation and devotes a chapter to that stillimportant subject (Chapter 5).
The present edition updates its predecessor. It is inevitable, however, that some significant matters will have escaped my attention, and readers’ comments on these are welcome. A number of cases involving shared freshwater resources have been decided since the second edition was published and discussions of these are included. The two previous editions included a full chapter on the background and present status of the “Harmon Doctrine” of absolute territorial sovereignty. This has been omitted in the present edition, although the Harmon Doctrine itself is given brief coverage in Chapter 4. Interested readers can find the substance of the former chapter on the doctrine in the Natural Resources Journal. 4
The book draws on my work in the field, first as special rapporteur for the International Law Commission’s draft articles on international watercourses, and later as adviser to governments and international organizations. But it owes much to a number of people who have contributed in different ways to its preparation and to my understanding of this wonderfully complex area. Deserving of special mention in this regard is the late Robert D. Hayton, Professor Emeritus, City University of New York, who introduced me to the field and especially its physical aspects. A succession of student research assistants, now lawyers, have rendered invaluable
4 McCaffrey 1996.
support. I have benefitted repeatedly from the highly professional assistance of the Research Librarians at the Gordon D. Schaber Law Library of Pacific McGeorge, especially Paul Howard, our International Law Librarian, who has come to my rescue on many occasions. The editors at OUP have been a pleasure to work with. But it would not have been possible to complete work on the book without the warm and steadfast support of my family—my children, Kevin, Brooke, Darren, and Amanda, and especially my wife, Susan. To them I am deeply grateful.
Africa Treaties
Abbreviations
United Nations, Treaties concerning the Utilization of International Water Courses for Other Purposes than Navigation, Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. 13, UN Doc. ST/ESA/141, 1984
Aitchison C. V. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads relating to India and Neighbouring Countries, Government of India Central Publications Branch, Calcutta, 1933
AJIL American Journal of International Law
Annual Digest Annual Digest of Public International Law Cases, A. McNair & H. Lauterpacht, eds., Longmans, London
BCM billion cubic meters
BFSP British and Foreign State Papers
Bevans Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America 1776–1949, compiled under the direction of Charles I. Bevans
CDEM Consejo de Desarrollo Economico de Mexicali
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CERDS Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States
FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
Foreign Relations Foreign Relations of the United States
FWS Fish and Wildlife Service
GERD Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
GERDP Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Project
GLWQA 1978 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between Canada and the United States
GMR Great Man-Made River
IBWC
International Boundary and Water Commission between the United States and Mexico
Abbreviations
ICAS Interstate Council for the Aral Sea
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICPR International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine
ICSID International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes
ICWC Interstate Commission on Water Coordination
IFAS International Fund for the Aral Sea
IIL Institute of International Law or Institut de Droit International
IJC International Joint Commission
ILA International Law Association
ILC International Law Commission of the United Nations
ILM International Legal Materials
ILR International Law Reports
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
JWC Joint Water Committee
Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic
Legislative Texts Legislative Texts and Treaty Provisions concerning the Utilization of International Rivers for Other Purposes than Navigation, UN Doc. ST/LEG/SER.B/12, 1964
LNTS League of Nations Treaty Series
Malloy
W.M. Malloy, Treaties, Conventions, International Acts, Protocols and Agreements between the United States of America and other Powers, 1776–1909, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1910
Martens G.-F. de Martens, Noveau Recueil général de traités, 3d ser., Librairie Dieterich, Leipzig, 1909–1944
MCM million cubic meters
MDPA Mines de Potasse d’Alsace
MEAs multilateral environmental agreements
Moore, Int’l Arb. John Bassett Moore, History and Digest of international arbitrations to which the United States has been a Party, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1898
MOU memorandum of understanding
MPT Major Peace Treaties of Modern History, 1648–1967, Fred L. Israel ed., Chelsea House, New York, 1967
MRC Mekong River Commission
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
NGO non-governmental organization
Nile-COM Nile Council of Ministers
NRBC Nile River Basin Commission
OECD Council of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OERS Organization of the Senegal River States
Abbreviations
PCIJ Permanent Court of International Justice
QSA Quantification Settlement Agreement
RGDIP Revue générale de droit international public
SADC Southern African Development Community
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SEIS Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement
SWP California State Water Project
TECCONILE Technical Cooperation Committee for the Promotion of the Development and Environmental Protection of the Nile Basin
UNRIAA United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards
UNTS United Nations Treaty Series
US Digest Digest of United States Practice in International Law, U.S. Department of State publication, Washington, D.C., 1974
Wg working group
WHO World Health Organization
WWF World Wildlife Fund for Nature
Y.B. Int’l L. Comm’n Yearbook of the International Law Commission
Aral Sea
Table of Treaties by Name of Watercourse
Agreement on Joint Efforts to Resolve the Problems of the Aral Sea and Surrounding Area and on Environmental Mitigation and Ensuring the Socio-Economic Development of the Aral Region (1993)
Art 2
Aras and Atrak Rivers
Agreement between the Soviet Union and Iran for the Joint Utilization of the Frontier Parts of the Rivers Aras and Atrak for Irrigation and Power Generation (1957) Art 1
Chad Agreement Establishing the Lake Chad Basin Commission Development Fund (1972) 303–4 Convention and Statutes relating to the Development of the Chad Basin (1964) Art 7
145, 303–4
Colorado Agreement approving Minute 242 of the International Boundary and Water Commission Setting Forth a Permanent and Definitive Solution to the International Problem of the Salinity of the Colorado River (1973) (United States and Mexico) (see also Colorado, Tijuana, Rio Grande Treaty (1944)) 103, 388–90, 549
Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act (1974) 388–90, 394–95
Colorado River Interstate Compact between Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming (1922) 382–84, 385–86, 388
Art III(a)
383
Art III(b) 383
Art III(d) 383
Colorado River Water Delivery Agreement: Federal Quantification Settlement Agreement (QSA) (2003) .
Colorado, Tijuana, Rio Grande Treaty relating to the Utilization of the Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers, and of the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) from Fort Quitman, Texas to the Gulf of Mexico (1944) (United States and Mexico) .
Art 2
Art 4
388
54, 57, 146–47, 380, 382, 384–87
380, 382, 386–87, 390–91, 392–93, 540–41, 575
Art 4(B)(c) 380
Art 4(B)(d) 380
Art 10 392–94
Art 10(a) 387
Art 10(b) 385–86, 387
Art 11 393–94
Art 11(a) 393–94
Art 12(a)
Art 24(d) .
Art 25
Minute 242 (1973)
Minute 308 (2002) .
Minute 319
of Treaties by Name of Watercourse
388–90, 575
Minute 323 392
Columbia
Columbia River Treaty: Treaty relating to Cooperative Development of the Water Resources of the Columbia River Basin (1961) 57, 90, 334, 400, 401–2, 460–61
Art II(1)
Art II(2)
Art IV(2) .
Art V(2)
Art VI
Art XII(1)
Art XIX(2)
Congo River Congo Navigation Act Preamble
Danube
Convention concerning Fishing in the Waters of the Danube (1958) 208
Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the Danube River (1994)
Art 1(b)
Art 1(c)
Art 2(3)
Art 6
Art 6(e) 518
Convention regarding the Regime of Navigation on the Danube (1948)
Art 1
Art 3
Navigation Act (1857) (Danube)
Treaty concerning the Construction and Operation of the Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros System of Locks (1977) (Hungary and Czechoslovakia) 204–6, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211–12, 214, 215, 353–55, 441, 552
Art 15
Art 19
Art 20
Devil’s Lake
208, 209, 212
208, 209, 212
208, 209, 212
Joint Declaration on the Devil’s Lake Diversion Project (2005) (United States and Canada) 396, 399
Drava
Convention between Yugoslavia and Austria concerning Water Economy Questions relating to the Drava (1954)
Preamble
Art 4
Art 5
Table of Treaties by Name of Watercourse xix
Framework Agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan on the Use of the Water and Energy Resources of the Syr Darya River Basin (1998)
Art 2
Art 12
Gambia
Convention relating to the Status of the River Gambia (1978)
Art 4 519
Ganges
Agreement on Sharing of the Ganges Waters (1977) 106, 343–44
Treaty on Sharing of the Ganges Waters at Farakka (1996) 106, 146–47, 343, 344–45
Art I
Art II(ii)
Art II(iii)
Art III
Art IV
Art VI
Art VII
Great Lakes
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (1972) (Canada and the United States)
Annex 3
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) (1978 as amended by Protocols of 1983 and 1987) (Canada and United States)
Art II
Gut Dam
344–45
344, 539
90, 93–94, 517
397, 517
Agreement concerning the Establishment of an International Arbitral Tribunal to Dispose of United States Claims Relating to Gut Dam (1965) 264
Indus
Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement (1960) (Australia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the World Bank)
Annexure D 268–69, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277–80, 340–42
Annexure F 268, 271, 577–78
Annexure G 273, 276, 578
Lake Constance
Treaty between the Bishop of Constance and Switzerland concerning Lake Constance (1554) .
Convention entre la Suisse, le Grand-Duché de Bade et L’Alsace-Lorraine arrêtant des dispositions uniformes sur la pêche dans le Rhin et ses affleuts, y compris le Lac de Constance, Lucerne, May 18, 1887, Legislative Texts, Treaty No� 113 (1964) .
67–68
. 88–89
Convention between Austria-Hungary, Baden, Bavaria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland and Württemberg Laying Down Uniform Provisions concerning Fishing in Lake Constance, with Protocol, July 2, 1893 92
Lake Ladoga
Treaty between Sweden (Finland) and the Principality of Novgorod (Russia) concerning Lake Ladoga (1312) 67–68
Lake Titicaca
Agreement between Bolivia and Peru concerning a Preliminary Economic Study of the Joint Utilization of the Waters of Lake Titicaca (1957)
Art 1
Lake Victoria
Convention for the Establishment of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (1994) . . .
Mahakali
Mahakali River Treaty (1996)
Art 1
Art 1(2)
Art 2
Art
Art 3(1)
Art 7
Art 9(1)
of Treaties by Name of Watercourse xxi
Art 9(2)
Art 9(3)(a)–(e)
Art 11
Art 12(1)
Treaty Concerning the Integrated Development of the Mahakali River Including Sarada Barrage, Tanakpur Barrage and Pancheshwar Project see Mahakali River Treaty (1996)
Mekong
Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin see Mekong Agreement (1995)
Declaration Concerning the Interim Committee for Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin (1978) 337–38
Joint Declaration of Principles for Utilization of the Waters of the Lower Mekong Basin (1975) 337–38
Mekong Agreement (1995)
Arts 1-10
Art 1
Art 2
Art 3
Art 5
91, 335–36, 441, 510, 516, 533–34
335–36
336, 337–38
337–38
Art 5(A) 337–38
Art 6
Art
Art 8 336, 496
Art 9 336
Art 10 336
Arts 11–33 335–36
Art 24(C)
Art 26
Art 31
Art 36
Art 39
Statute of the Committee for Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin (1957) 337–38
Meuse
Agreement on the Protection of the Meuse (1994) 510 Treaty between Belgium and the Netherlands to Establish the Regime of Diversions of Water from the Meuse (1863) 128, 201–2
Art 1 201
Treaty of Peace and Alliance between France and the Batavian Republic (1795)
Art 18
Niagara
Treaty between the United States and Canada relating to the Uses of the Waters of the Niagara River (1950)
142, 173–74
Art 6 145
Niger
Act regarding Navigation and Economic Cooperation between the States of the Niger Basin (1963) 165–66
Art 1 165–66
Art 3 145, 165–66
Art 4 519
Nile
Table of Treaties by Name of Watercourse
Agreement on Declaration of Principles on the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) (2015) (Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia) .
. 119–20, 316–18, 320, 321, 322
Agreement between Egypt and Ethiopia, establishing a framework for cooperation in the utilization of the waters of the Nile River (1993) 308–9
Agreement between the United Arab Republic and the Republic of Sudan for the Full Utilization of the Nile Waters (1959) 109–10, 118–19, 308–9, 312–15, 316, 317, 321, 322, 423–24
Preamble 128–29, 312–13, 315–16
Art I 313–14
Art I(1) 118–19, 128–29, 310–11
Art II(1) .
Art II(2)
Art II(3)
Art II(4)
Art III(1)
Boundary Treaty between the United Kingdom and Sudan (1902)
314, 315–16
Exchange of Notes between the United Kingdom and Egypt in regard to the Use of the Waters of the River Nile for Irrigation Purposes (1929) 94, 128–29, 308–9, 310–12, 313–14, 315–16, 317
Annex A
Headquarters Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Uganda and the Nile Basin Initiative (2002)
Nile River Basin Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) (2010)
Art 14
Art 14(a)
Art 14(b)
Art 15
110, 118–19, 319
Nile Waters Agreements see Exchange of Notes between the United Kingdom and Egypt in regard to the Use of the Waters of the River Nile for Irrigation Purposes (1929) and Agreement between the United Arab Republic and the Republic of Sudan for the Full Utilization of the Nile Waters (1959)
Treaties of May 15, 1902 between the United Kingdom and Ethiopia, and between the United Kingdom, Italy, and Ethiopia, relative to the Frontiers between the Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea, G�B� Treaty Ser�, No� 16 (1902), Cmd� 1370
Owen Falls Dam
Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the U K and Egypt regarding the Construction of the Owen Falls Dam (1949–1953) 118–19, 311–12, 317
Paraná
Agreement between Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay on Paraná River Projects (1979) 129–30, 356–57, 533
Plate or Plata
Joint Declaration of the Foreign Ministers of the States of the Plata River Basin (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay) .
Treaty on the River Plate Basin (1969) 90, 355
Art 1
Rhine
Agreement for the Protection of the Rhine Against Chemical Pollution (1977)
Berne Convention (1963)
Berne Convention (Convention for the Protection of the Rhine) (1999)
3
6
Convention on the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine Against Pollution (ICPR) (1963) see Berne Convention (1963)
Convention on the Protection of the Rhine Against Pollution by Chlorides (1976) see Rhine Chlorides Convention
Rhine Chlorides Convention (1976)
Art 13
Protocol (1991)
Treaty between Austria and Switzerland concerning the Rhine River (1588)
Treaty of Peace and Alliance between France and the Batavian Republic (1795)
Art 18
Rhone
Convention between France and Switzerland for the Development of the Water Power of the Rhone (1913)
352–53
352–53, 510
67–68
142, 173–74
Art 5 145
Rio Grande
Convention concerning the Equitable Distribution of the Waters of the Rio Grande for Irrigation Purposes (United States of America and Mexico) (1906)
Art 4
95, 103, 115–16, 132, 344, 379
460–61
see also Colorado, Tijuana, Rio Grande Treaty relating to the Utilization of the Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers, and of the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) from Fort Quitman, Texas to the Gulf of Mexico (1944) (United States and Mexico)
Scheldt
Agreement on the Protection of the Scheldt (1994) 510 Treaty of Peace and Alliance between France and the Batavian Republic (1795)
Art 18 142, 173–74
Senegal
Convention establishing the Organization for the Development of the Senegal River (OMVS) (1972) .
Convention on the Status of the Senegal River (1972)
Convention relating to the Development of the Senegal River (1963) .
Convention Relating to the Legal Status of Common Works (1978)
146–47, 323–24
323–24
323
323–24
Water Charter of the Senegal River (2002) 323–24, 325
Art 4 325
Art 14
Tigris and Euphrates
Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighbourly Relations between Iraq and Turkey (1946), Protocol 1 on Flow Regulation of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and of their Tributaries
Art 3 .
Tijuana
Table of Treaties by Name of Watercourse
see Colorado, Tijuana, Rio Grande Treaty relating to the Utilization of the Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers, and of the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) from Fort Quitman, Texas to the Gulf of Mexico (1944) (United States and Mexico)
Tresa
Treaty between Milan and Switzerland concerning the Tresa River (1604) 67–68
Uruguay
Agreement between Argentina and Uruguay relating to the Utilization of the Rapids of the Uruguay River in the Area of Salto Grande (1946)
Art 1
Statute of the Uruguay River (1975) (Argentina and Uruguay)
Agreement for the Utilization of the Waters of the Yarmuk River between Jordan and Syria (1953) 145
Table of Treaties and Other Instruments by Name
Bold face references denote where an Instrument or part thereof has been reproduced in full
Act of Asunción (1971) see Declaration of Asunción Act of Santiago concerning Hydrologic Basins (1971) 42, 109 Act regarding Navigation and Economic Cooperation between the States of the Niger Basin (1963) 165–66
African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1968)
Art 5 548
Art 5(2) 548
Agreement approving Minute 242 of the International Boundary and Water Commission Setting Forth a Permanent and Definitive Solution to the International Problem of the Salinity of the Colorado River (1973) (United States and Mexico) (see also Colorado, Tijuana, Rio Grande Treaty (1944)) 103, 388–90, 549
Agreement between Argentina and Uruguay relating to the Utilization of the Rapids of the Uruguay River in the Area of Salto Grande (1946)
Art 1
145
Agreement between Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay on Paraná River Project (1979) . . . . . . . 129–30, 356–57, 533
Agreement between Austria and the Elector Palatinate (1779) 142, 173–74
Agreement between Belgium and the United Kingdom regarding Water Rights on the Boundary between Tanganyika and Ruanda-Urundi (1934) 49
Art 3 .
Art 4
Agreement between Bolivia and Peru concerning a Preliminary Economic Study of the Joint Utilization of the Waters of Lake Titicaca (1957)
Art 1 144
Agreement between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia (1958)
Art 1(2)(f) .
Art 1(3) . . .
548
548
Agreement between Egypt and Ethiopia, establishing a framework for cooperation in the utilization of the waters of the Nile River (1993) 308–9
Agreement between France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Switzerland establishing the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution (1963) . . . . . 146–47
Agreement between Hungary and Yugoslavia (1955)
Art 1(3)
Agreement between Iraq and Syria (1990) .
548
548
374–75
Agreement between Namibia and South Africa on the Establishment of a Permanent Water Commission (1992)
Art 1 143–44
Art 1(2) 143–44
Agreement between Nigeria and Niger concerning the Equitable Sharing in the Development, Conservation and Use of their Common Water Resources (1990)
Art 1
82
82
143–44
Art 1(3) 550
Art 2 143–44
Art 9(b) 550
Agreement between the Soviet Union and Iran for the Joint Utilization of the Frontier Parts of the Rivers Aras and Atrak for Irrigation and Power Generation (1957)
