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TheShortOxfordHistoryofEurope
TheLaterMiddleAges
TheShortOxfordHistoryofEurope
GeneralEditor:T.C.W.Blanning
ClassicalGreece
editedbyRobinOsborne RomanEurope
editedbyEdwardBispham
TheEarlyMiddleAges
editedbyRosamondMcKitterick
TheCentralMiddleAges editedbyDanielPower
TheLaterMiddleAges editedbyIsabellaLazzarini
TheSixteenthCentury editedbyEuanCameron
TheSeventeenthCentury editedbyJosephBergin
TheEighteenthCentury editedbyT.C.W.Blanning
TheNineteenthCentury editedbyT.C.W.Blanning
Europe1900–1945
editedbyJulianJackson
Europesince1945 editedbyMaryFulbrook
TheShortOxfordHistoryofEurope
GeneralEditor:T.C.W.Blanning
TheLater MiddleAges
EditedbyIsabellaLazzarini
GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries
©IsabellaLazzarini2021
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PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica
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DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198731641.001.0001
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GeneralEditor’sPreface
TheproblemsofwritingasatisfactorygeneralhistoryofEuropearemany, butthemostintractableisdearlythereconciliationofdepthwithbreadth. Thehistorianwhocanwritewithequalauthorityabouteverypartofthe continentinallitsvariousaspectshasnotbeenborn.Twomainsolutions havebeentriedinthepast:eitherasinglescholarhasattemptedtogoit alone,presentinganunashamedlypersonalviewofaperiod,orteamsof specialistshavebeenenlistedtowritewhatareineffectanthologies.The first offersacoherentperspectivebutunequalcoverage,thesecondsacri fices unityforthesakeofexpertise.Thisnewseriesisunderpinnedbythebelief thatitisthissecondwaythathasthefewestdisadvantagesandthateven thosecanbediminishedifnotneutralizedbyclosecooperationbetweenthe individualcontributorsunderthedirectingsupervisionofthevolumeeditor. Allthecontributorstoeveryvolumeinthisserieshavereadeachother’ s chapters,havemettodiscussproblemsofoverlapandomission,andhave thenredraftedaspartofatrulycollectiveexercise.Tostrengthencoherence further,theeditorhaswrittenanintroductionandconclusion,weavingthe separatestrandstogethertoformasinglecord.Inthisthebrevitypromised bytheadjective ‘short’ intheseries’ tidehasbeenanasset.Theneedtobe concisehasconcentratedmindsonwhatmatteredintheperiod.Noattempt hasbeenmadetocovereveryangleofeverytopicineverycountry.What thisvolumedoesisashortbutsharpanddeepentryintothehistoryof Europeintheperiodinallitsmostimportantaspects.
T.C.W.Blanning
SidneySussexCollege
Cambridge
Editor’sPreface
TowriteaboutthehistoryofEuropeinthelaterMiddleAgesisachallenge: wellestablishedgrandnarrativesofdeclineoranticipatedmodernityweigh heavyonaperiodwhosemainfeatureseemstobethemosttransitional amongalltransitions,alwaysinbetweenamongmoresolidlyconstructed imagesofpastages.
Moreover,thisspecificvolumehasaverydistinctivestory:itwasdesigned intheearly2000sbyMalcomValeanditwasinheritedbymemuchlater.As aconsequence,itssecondlifehadtoadjusttoaprevious,unfinishedframe, andtothe ‘old’ themessomenewentrieshadinevitablytobeadded,partly modifyingthetraditionalschemeoftheseries.Theresult Ihope isat oncecoherentwiththe firstprojectandwiththeresearchintereststhat followed.
Assecondand finaleditor,Iwishtothank firstofallthegeneraleditor, TimBlanning,whotrustedmetotakethevolumetocompletion:Isincerely hopethathewillbesatisfiedbytheresult.MythanksgoalsotoMalcolm Vale,whoimaginedthevolumeinthe firstplace,andtothe ‘old’ groupof authors(JohnWatts,RobertSwanson,andMatthewKempshall),who kindlyagreedtorescuefromtheirdrawersthe first,probablyhalf-forgotten contributions,andpatientlyrereadandreimaginethembyaddingnewideas andbibliographicalupdating.Weallknowhowpainfulsuchaprocesscan be.Amongthem,sadly,along-timefriendandcolleagueisnolongerwith us:Stephan(LorenzoorLarry)Epstein,whosebrillianttalentandwarm personalityaredeeplymissedbythemanywhoknewhim,diedsuddenlyon 3February2007.Hischapterhasbeenmasterfullyrereadandcompletedby ChrisDyer,towhomgoesmyheartfeltgratitude.My ‘ new ’ fellowauthors haveallmythanksaswell:CatherineHolmes,CatherineKovesi,and AlexanderLeehavebeenapleasuretoworkwith,andtheircontributions fittedsmoothlywiththerestofthevolume,addingtoita2020sdistinctive flavour.Finally,myworkaseditorhasbeengreatlyfacilitatedbythe kindness,effectiveness,andsupport throughthegoodandthebad times ofStephanieIreland,CathrynSteele,andthestaffatOUP.
IsabellaLazzarini
Edinburgh,December2019
3.Thechurchandreligiouslife79
RobertSwanson
4.Cultureandthearts109
5.Space,time,andtheworld137
6.Society,family,andgender171
Masculinity,femininity,normsofgenderandof sexualpractice184
Societyandspace188
The Querelledesfemmes 189
7.GlobalMiddleAges:theeast195
CatherineHolmes
Whystudylatemedievalhistoryglobally?196
Thelatemedievalworld:advantagesandproblemsof aglobalgrandnarrative198
Brokerageinfragmentedpoliticallandscapes205
Beyondbrokerage208
Networks,culturalcapital,andpowerintheeastern Mediterranean211
NetworksandpowerbeyondtheeasternMediterranean215
Conclusion.Intothesixteenthcentury221
IsabellaLazzarini
ListofFigures
2.1Craftguilds,ItalyandtheLowCountries60
2.2PrivatecostofcapitalinEurope,1200–150070
ListofMaps
1.Europe, c.1320268
Basedonmap5onD.Power(ed), TheCentralMiddleAges (Oxford,2006)
2.TheBlackDeath270
3.France(fifteenthcentury)
Basedonmap8inC.Almand(ed), TheNewCambridgeMedieval History,VII(Cambridge,1998)271
4.Germanyandtheempire(fifteenthcentury)272
Basedonmap6inC.Almand(ed), TheNewCambridgeMedievalHistory, VII(Cambridge,1998)
5.Italyin1454274
BasedonA.Gamberini,I.Lazzarini(eds), TheItalianRenaissanceState (Cambridge,2012)
6.TheIberiankingdoms(fifteenthcentury)275
Basedonmap13inC.Almand(ed), TheNewCambridgeMedievalHistory, VII(Cambridge,1998)
7.TheOttomanstate, c.1400276
Basedonmap20inM.Jones(ed), TheNewCambridgeMedievalHistory, VI(Cambridge,2000)
8.BalticEurope(fourteenthcentury)277
Basedonmap11inM.Jones(ed), TheNewCambridgeMedievalHistory, VI(Cambridge,2000)
9.TheSwissConfederation, c.1500278
Basedonmap15inC.Almand(ed), TheNewCambridgeMedievalHistory, VII(Cambridge,1998)
ListofPlates
Cover:HieronymusBosch, TheGardenofEarthlyDelights (1490–1510),detail,oilon panel,PradoMuseum,Madrid.WikimediaCommons
1.PaoloUccello, TheBattleofSanRomano (1438–1440),detail, temperaonwood,NationalGallery,London.WikimediaCommons
2.HartmannSchedel, LiberChronicarum (the NurembergChronicle), withwoodcutsbyMichaelWolgemutandWilhelmPleydenwurff (1493),incunabulum,Nuremberg.WikimediaCommons
3. Athree-mastedMediterraneancarrack (fifteenthcentury),print, NationalMaritimeMuseum,Greenwich.CourtesyoftheNational MaritimeMuseum,Greenwich
4.Pinturicchio, PiusIIattheCongressofMantua (1502–1507),fresco, PiccolominiLibrary,Siena.WikimediaCommons
5.JanvanEyck, TheArnolfiniPortrait (1434),oilonoak,National Gallery,London.WikimediaCommons
6.NicholasOresme, DeCoeloetMundo (fourteenthcentury),BNF, FrenchMS565,c.27r,Paris.CourtesyoftheBibliothèque NationaledeFrance
7.BernardinoLicinio, PortraitofArrigoLicinioandhisFamily,(c.1530), oiloncanvas,GalleriaBorghese,Rome.WikimediaCommons
8.AbrahamCresques(?), AtlasofMaritimeMapssaidtheCatalan Atlas (c.1375),WestAfrica,BNF,SpanishMS30,c.11,Paris. WikimediaCommons
9.RaffaelloSanzio, PortraitofBaldassarreCastiglione (1514–1515), oiloncanvas,LouvreMuseum,Paris.WikimediaCommons
ListofContributors
ChristopherC.Dyer isEmeritusProfessorofHistory,UniversityofLeicester,and heldpostspreviouslyattheUniversitiesofEdinburghandBirmingham.Heisthe authorof fivebooks,haseditedorco-editedeightothers,andpublishednumerous articlesandbookchapters,mainlyonsocial,economic,andlandscapehistoryofthe MiddleAges,andonmedievalarchaeology.HeisaFellowoftheBritishAcademy, andhasservedeightlearnedsocietiesandjournalsaseditor,secretary,chairman,or president.
StephanR.Epstein (1960–2007)becameProfessorofEconomicHistoryin2001at theLondonSchoolofEconomics.Epstein’ s fieldofexpertisewastheeconomic historyofmedievalandearlymodernEurope.Heistheauthorofdozensofarticles injournalsandbooks,andhisbooksinclude AnIslandforItself:Economic DevelopmentandSocialTransformationinLateMedievalSicilyPastandPresent (1992)and FreedomandGrowth.MarketsandStatesinEurope,1300–1750 (2000). Heeditedfourvolumesincluding TownandCountryinEurope,1300–1800 (2001).
CatherineHolmes isProfessorinMedievalHistoryattheUniversityofOxford.Her researchhasfocusedprincipallyonByzantinepoliticalandculturalhistorybetween thetenthandfourteenthcenturies,onrelationsbetweenByzantiumandneighbouringsocieties,andonglobalhistory.Sheistheco-editor(withNaomiStanden)ofa recentcollectionofessaysinthis field: TheGlobalMiddleAges, PastandPresent Supplement13(2018).Sheisalsooneoftheeditorsof TheEnglishHistoricalReview.
MatthewS.Kempshall istheCliffDaviesFellowandClarendonAssociateProfessor inHistoryatWadhamCollege,UniversityofOxford.Heistheauthorof The CommonGoodinLateMedievalPoliticalThought (1999)and Rhetoricandthe WritingofHistory,400–1500 (2011).
CatherineKovesi isahistorianattheUniversityofMelbourneandChairofthe AustralasianCentreforItalianStudies.Sheresearchesthediscoursessurrounding luxuryconsumptioninearlymodernItaly;clothing,textiles,andgender;Florentine andVenetianfamilyhistory;andthehistoryofwomenreligiousinAustralia.Sheis theauthorof SumptuaryLegislationinItaly,1200–1500 (2001),editorof Luxuryand theEthicsofGreedinEarlyModernItaly (2018),andco-GeneralEditorofthe forthcoming ACulturalHistoryofLuxury (Bloomsbury).
IsabellaLazzarini isProfessorofMedievalHistoryattheUniversityofMolise.Her researchinterestsfocusonthepolitical,social,andculturalhistoryoflatemedieval
Italy,withanemphasisonRenaissancediplomacyandthegrowthofdifferent politicallanguagesindocumentarysources.Hermostrecentworksinclude CommunicationandConflict:ItalianDiplomacyintheEarlyRenaissance (1350–1520) (2015),andtheeditedvolumes TheItalianRenaissanceState (with AndreaGamberini,2012)and SocialMobilityinMedievalItaly(1100–1500) (with SandroCarocci,2018).
AlexanderLee isafellowintheCentrefortheStudyoftheRenaissanceatthe UniversityofWarwick.Hisbooksinclude PetrarchandSt.Augustine:Classical Scholarship,ChristianTheology,andtheOriginsoftheRenaissanceinItaly (2012); HumanismandEmpire:TheImperialIdealinFourteenth-CenturyItaly (2018);and Machiavelli:HisLifeandTimes (2020).
RobertSwanson iscurrentlyaResearchFellowoftheInstituteforAdvancedStudyin HumanitiesandSocialScienceandProfessorintheResearchCenterforSocial HistoryofMedicineintheSchoolofHistoryandCivilizationatShaanxiNormal UniversityinChina,andalsoEmeritusProfessorofMedievalEcclesiasticalHistory oftheUniversityofBirmingham,UK.Hisbooksinclude ReligionandDevotionin Europec.1215–c.1515 (1995), IndulgencesinLateMedievalEngland:Passportsto Paradise? (2007),and(aseditor) TheRoutledgeHistoryofMedievalChristianity, 1050–1500 (2015).
JohnWatts isProfessorofLaterMedievalHistoryattheUniversityofOxfordand FellowandTutorinHistoryatCorpusChristiCollege,Oxford.Heistheauthorofa numberofbooksandarticlesonpoliticsandpoliticalcultureinlatermedievalBritain andEurope.HeiscurrentlyworkingonabookfortheNewOxfordHistoryof Englandseries,provisionallytitled RenaissanceEngland,1461–1547.
Plate1. PaoloUccello, TheBattleofSanRomano (1438–1440),detail
Introduction
IsabellaLazzarini
Anendoranewbeginning?
AssoonastheFlorentineGiovanniVillanidiedin1348,hisbrotherMatteo tookoverhis Cronica andcontinuedituntilhisowndeath,fromaresurgenceofplague,in1363.Matteo’selevenbooksarenotonlyevenmore moralisticthanthoseofGiovannibutalso unsurprisingly darker. Giovanni,accordingtohisownwords,hadstartedwritingin1300after hisjourneytoRomeforthejubilee,inspiredbywhathehadseen,inorderto celebratethegloryofFlorence,Rome’sonlyandlegitimateheir.Matteo openshis firstbookunderthegloomyspelloftheBlackDeath.Although veryawareofthefallibilityofhumanlives,heneverthelessglimpsedtracesof renewal:
Becauseinthatplaguediedtheauthorofthechronicleentitled Cronica, GiovanniVillani,citizenofFlorence,andbecauseIwasstrictlylinkedto himbothbybloodandbylove,aftermanymisfortunes,andwithmore knowledgeofthecalamityoftheworldthanofitsprosperity,Idecidedin mymindtobeginourvariedandcalamitoussubjectatthistimeasa momentofrenewaloftimeandthecentury.¹
Inthe firstdecadesofthesixteenthcentury,FrancescoGuicciardinislowly butclearlyrealizedthatanerawascomingtoanend,andthatunexpected
*IwishtothankChristineShawforpolishingmyEnglishwithherusuallighttouch, respectfulatonceoftheEnglishlanguageandtheauthor’swritingstyle. ¹G.Villani, Cronica, conlecontinuazionidiMatteoeFilippo,ed.GiovanniAquilecchia (Turin,1979),p.294(‘Nellaqualemortalitàavendorendutal’animaaDiol’autoredellacronica nominatala Cronica diGiovanniVillanicittadinodiFirenze,alqualepersangueeperdilezione fuistrettamentecongiunto,dopomoltegravifortune,conpiùconoscimentodellacalamitàdel mondochelaprosperitàdiquellononm’aveadimostrato,propuosinell’animomiofarealla nostravariaecalamitosamateria cominciamentoaquestotempo,comeaunorinnovellamentodi tempoesecolo’:mytranslation).
TheLaterMiddleAges. IsabellaLazzarini,OxfordUniversityPress(2021).©IsabellaLazzarini. DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198731641.003.0001
dangersandwonders,changesandchallengesweretransformingtheworld heusedtoknow.Politicsandwarfarewerenolongerthesame:withthe Frencharmiesin1494 ‘thereenteredintoItalya flameandaplaguethatnot onlychangedthestates,butalsothewaysofgovernment,andthewaysof war ’.²OutsideanoldEuropeboundedbytheMediterraneanandthedistant butfamiliarworldsofAfricaandtheEast,thediscoveryofanewlandmass, America,inGuicciardini’swordswas ‘oneofthemostmemorablethings whichhappenedintheworldformanycenturies ’,anunambiguoussignthat humans,inthebigschemeofthings,werenotinfallible.
Thesevoyageshavemadeitclearthattheancientsweredeceivedinmany waysintheirknowledgeoftheearth[...]Thesevoyageshavenotonly refutedmanythingswhichhadbeenaffirmedbywritersaboutterrestrial matters,butbesidesthis,theyhavegivensomecauseforalarmtothe interpretersoftheHolyScriptures.³
Arenewalandanend:or,moretraditionally,anendandarenewal.Ofall thesub-periodsinwhichEuropeanmedievalhistoryhasbeendividedover time,thelaterMiddleAgesispossiblytheoneonwhichtheburdenofpast andcurrentgrandnarrativesweighsthemost.Itschronologicalandgeopoliticalboundariesareinfactshapedbyaheavynarrativeofdeclineor transition,andconsequentlythisperiodisofteninterpretedthroughthe lensesofpreviousorfollowingdevelopments,becominginturnthetail-end ofthe ‘feudal’ , ‘communal’ , ‘imperialversuspapal ’ eraortheannouncement ofmodernity.Chronologicalboundariesareblurred:whentalkingaboutthe laterMiddleAges,literatureoscillatesbetweenwiderornarrowerframes (1300–1600,1700oreven1800;1350–1550,andsoon).Suchanuncertainty derivesfromtheopacitycreatedbythemanyoverlappingoldgrandnarrativeswhoseimpactmustbedisassembled.Tofreethisperiodfrom thisburden,andfromtheinfluenceofotherages,researchmustboth recognizetheartificialityofanychosenandrigidchronologyandstickto aconvenienttime-span ‘inwhichchangescanbetrackedindifferentwaysin differentplaces,withoutthemhavingtoleadteleologicallytosomemajor
²F.Guicciardini, Storie fiorentinedal1378al1509,in Opere,ed.E.ScaranoLugnani(Turin, 1970),vol.2,p.117(‘eraentratainItaliauna fiammaeunapestechenonsolomutòglistati,ma e ’ modiancoradelgovernargliede’ modidelleguerre’:mytranslation).
³F.Guicciardini, TheHistoryofItaly,trans.anded.,withnotesandanintroduction,by S.Alexander(Princeton,NJ,1969),VI.9,pp.177,182.
eventattheend’ . ⁴ Geopoliticalboundariesarenotclearer.Europeisnota straightforwardconcept,apartfromitsgeographicalnatureasapeninsulaof Eurasia,evenifthisperiodsawagrowinglevelofcommondevelopmentin practicesandlanguagesofpoliticsandsociallife.Thecontinentwasstillfar frombeingasingleunit.Byadoptingaconsciousapproachtowardstemporalandspatialvariety,andbybreakingthetraditionalandunitary narrativeofdeclineandtransitionintooneofmanychangesandcontinuities,thelatermedievalEuropeanexperiencecanopenuptodifferent politicalculturesandsocieties,thrownewlightonolderconcepts,andreveal analogiesanddifferencescomparedwithothergeopoliticalcontexts.
Thereisthereforeanurgentneedtoreviseandrewritethestoryofthe laterMiddleAgesand,inordertodoso,toforgenewcriticalandtechnical vocabulariesnotderivedfromthestudyofotherperiods.Toquotefrom JohnWatts ’ s TheMakingofPolities,thisisanageforwhich ‘reinterpretation ispreciselywhatisneeded
Modelsandnarratives
ThelaterMiddleAgesinEuropehaslongfacedtwograndnarrativeswhose impactandweightstillresurfacehereandthere,havingoftenundergone onlyasuperficialrestyling.
The firstisdecline:theBlackDeathof1347–52oreventheHundred YearsWarareeventswhoseimpactisdifficulttounderestimateasan indicatorofchange,andofchangefortheworse.Aswewillseeinthis volume,LarryEpsteinsummarizesthetraditionalnarrativeabouteconomicsbydividingtheagebetween1300and1500intothreedistinctsubperiods.Fromtheearly1300sonwards,thetailofasecularwaveofgrowth cametoanend,followedbyacenturyormoreofdemographic,economic, andsocial ‘crisis’ , ‘involution ’ or ‘depression’.Suchstructuralchangeending intheearlytomid-1400sgavewaytothe firststagesofanew,more dynamic,market-orientedupswingthatlastedtotheearly1600s.John Wattsemphasizestheimpactofthethemeofdecline,crisis,and ‘muddle’ inthepoliticalhistoryofthecontinent,whichapparentlywaspreyto ‘ amass
⁴ C.Wickham, MedievalEurope:FromtheBreakupoftheWesternRomanEmpiretothe Reformation (NewHaven,CT,2016),p.5.
⁵ J.Watts, TheMakingofPolities:Europe1300–1500 (Cambridge,2009),p.10.
