ListofContributors
GaryD.Badcock isthePeacheProfessorofDivinityatHuronUniversityCollege,Western UniversityinLondon,Ontario.HestudiedinEdinburgh(BD1987;PhD1991),andtaught SystematicTheologyattheUniversitiesofAberdeenandEdinburghthe1990s,latterlyas MeldrumLecturerinDogmaticTheologyatNewCollege.Hehas,amongotherworks, previouslypublishedontheEdinburghtheologicaltraditioningeneral,andonJohn McIntyreinparticular.
LindenBicket isSeniorTeachingFellowinTheologyandEthicsattheUniversityof Edinburgh.Sheistheauthorof GeorgeMackayBrownandtheScottishCatholicImagination (2017).
IanBradley isEmeritusProfessorofCulturalandSpiritualHistoryattheUniversityofSt Andrewswherehetaughtchurchhistoryandpracticaltheologyfrom1999to2017.Hewas PrincipalofStMary’sCollege,StAndrews,from2013to2017.Heistheauthorofoverforty books,includingsixonthethemeofCelticChristianity,themostrecentofwhichis FollowingtheCelticWay (2018).Aregularbroadcasterandcontributortonationalnewspapers,heiscurrentlydeeplyinvolvedinthepromotionofpilgrimageinScotland.
DavidBrown isEmeritusProfessorofTheology,AestheticsandCultureattheUniversityof StAndrewsandwaselectedaFellowoftheBritishAcademyin2002.Tworecentvolumes assesshiswork:ChristopherR.Brewer(ed.), ChristianTheologyandtheTransformationof NaturalReligion:FromIncarnationtoSacramentality (2018);GarrickW.Allenetal.(eds.), TheMovingText:InterdisciplinaryPerspectivesonDavidBrownandtheBible (2018).
CairnsCraig isGlucksmanProfessorofIrishandScottishStudiesattheUniversityof Aberdeen.AmonghisbooksdealingwiththeScottishintellectualtraditionare Intending Scotland:ExplorationsinScottishCulturesincetheEnlightenment (2009)and TheWealthof theNation:Scotland,Culture,Independence (2018).HisbooksonScottishliteratureinclude OutofHistory (1997)and TheModernScottishNovel (1999).Hewasgeneraleditorofthe four-volume HistoryofScottishLiterature (1987)andisaneditorof TheJournalofScottish Thought and TheJournalofIrishandScottishStudies.
DavidFergusson isProfessorofDivinityattheUniversityofEdinburgh.AFellowofthe BritishAcademyandaFellowoftheRoyalSocietyofEdinburgh,hehaspublished Faith andItsCritics (2009),basedonhisGlasgowGiffordLectures(2008).Hismostrecentbook is TheProvidenceofGod:APolyphonicApproach (2018).
MarleneFinlayson isanindependentresearcher,withadegreeofMasterofTheologywith DistinctioninInter-FaithStudies(UniversityofGlasgow)2009,andaPhDinChurch History(UniversityofEdinburgh)2015.Herresearchhasbeenpublishedas AProphetic Voice:DavidSmithCairns(1862–1946) (2018).Itisanintellectualbiographyofthis Scottishminister,academic,andwriter,whomadeasignificantcontributiontothe
science–religiondebatesofhisday,andtoEdinburgh1910,andpublishedthe Armyand Religion reportthatfollowedtheFirstWorldWar.Hermainareaofinterestisthehistoryof therelationshipoftheChurchofScotlandandthedifferentworldreligions.
Alexander(Sandy)Forsyth isT.F.TorranceLecturerinTheologyandMissionatNew College,UniversityofEdinburgh.Hisbook MissionbythePeople:Re-discoveringthe DynamicMissiologyofTomAllanandhisScottishContemporaries (2017)soughttoderive principlesformissionbyanhistoricalretrievalofthepost-warperiodinScotland,viewed throughthelensofpresent-daymissiology.Hisresearchinterestslieinpracticaltheology, particularlyinmissiology,pioneerministryandchurchplanting,andinfaith,church,and societyinScotland.
DougGay isaLecturerinPracticalTheologyattheUniversityofGlasgow,whereheisalso PrincipalofTrinityCollege.Heistheauthorof HoneyfromtheLion:Christianityandthe EthicsofNationalism (2013)and ReformingtheKirk:TheFutureoftheChurchofScotland (2017).
JasonA.Goroncy isSeniorLecturerinSystematicTheologyatWhitleyCollege,University ofDivinity,Australia.Heistheauthorof HallowedbeThyName:TheSanctificationofAll intheSoteriologyofP.T.Forsyth (2013),andhasedited DescendingonHumanityand InterveninginHistory:NotesfromthePulpitMinistryofP.T.Forsyth (2013),and Tikkun Olam ToMendtheWorld:AConfluenceofTheologyandtheArts (2014).
GordonGraham wasProfessorofPhilosophyandtheArtsatPrincetonTheological Seminaryfrom2006to2018,havingpreviouslytaughtattheUniversitiesofStAndrews andAberdeen.HenowlivesinEdinburghandisGeneralEditorofOxfordUniversity Press’ s HistoryofScottishPhilosophy,andeditedthevolumeon ScottishPhilosophyinthe NineteenthandTwentiethCenturies (2015)intheseries.
AdamHood isaparishministeroftheChurchofScotlandandanHonoraryResearch FellowoftheQueen’sFoundationforEcumenicalTheologicalEducation,Birmingham.He haspublishedbooksandarticlesfocusingontheworkofJohnBaillie,JohnOman,andJohn Macmurray.
BruceL.McCormack istheCharlesHodgeProfessorofSystematicTheologyatPrinceton TheologicalSeminary.HeistherecipientoftheKarlBarthPrizein1998andanhonorary doctoratefromtheFriedrichSchillerUniversityJenain2004forhisbook KarlBarth’ s CriticallyRealisticDialecticalTheology (1995).HeiscurrentlytheFrederickCrossonFellow intheCenterforPhilosophyofReligion(NotreDame)workingonaReformedversionof kenoticChristologyforCambridgeUniversityPressunderthetitle TheHumilityofthe EternalSon
WilliamMcFadden isapriestoftheRomanCatholicDioceseofGallowayinSouthWest Scotland.AfterstudyingatthePontificalGregorianUniversityinRomeandatFordham UniversityinNewYork,hetaughtFundamentalTheologyandSystematicTheologyin ScotusCollege,theNationalSeminaryinScotland,wherehewasrectorfrom2003to2008. Hehascontributedtovariouspublicationsandperiodicals.
JohnstonMcKay isawriter,broadcaster,theologian,lecturer,andChurchofScotland minister.Fornearlytenyears,hepresentedthepopularweeklyprogramme PersonalTouch onBBCRadioScotland.HehaswrittenextensivelyonScottishtheologicalhistoryandis theauthorof TheKirkandtheKingdom (2012).
PeterMatheson isaPresbyterianminister.HetaughtinNewCollege,Edinburgh;Knox TheologicalHall,Dunedin;andwasPrincipaloftheUnitingChurchCollegeinMelbourne. HispublicationsfocusontheReformation,theThirdReich,andNewZealandchurch history.HewasamemberoftheIonaCommunityand,withhisGermanwife,Heinke, stronglyinvolvedinthePeaceMovementandinenvironmentalissues.
PaulD.Molnar isProfessorofSystematicTheologyatSt.John’sUniversity,Queens,New York.Mostrecently,hehaspublished DivineFreedomandtheDoctrineoftheImmanent Trinity:InDialoguewithKarlBarthandContemporaryTheology,2ndedition(2017), Faith, FreedomandtheSpirit:TheEconomicTrinityinBarth,TorranceandContemporary Theology (2015),and ThomasF.Torrance:TheologianoftheTrinity (2009).
GeorgeM.Newlands isProfessorEmeritusofDivinityintheUniversityofGlasgow.Hehas publishedwidelyintheology,including JohnandDonaldBaillie:TransatlanticTheology (2002), ChristandHumanRights (2006),and HospitableGod (withAllenSmith,2010).
PaulT.Nimmo holdstheKing’s(1620)ChairofSystematicTheologyattheUniversityof Aberdeen.Hismonograph, BeinginAction:TheTheologicalShapeofBarth’sEthicalVision, wasawardedaJohnTempletonAwardforTheologicalPromisein2009,andhehasmore recentlypublished Barth:AGuideforthePerplexed (2017),co-edited TheCambridge CompaniontoReformedTheology (withDavidFergusson,2016),andeditedthechurch resource Learn:UnderstandingOurFaith (2017).
LesleyOrr isahistorianandHonoraryFellowoftheSchoolofDivinity,Universityof Edinburgh.Heracademic,policy,andthirdsectorworkhasencompassedhistory,theology, feminism,andgenderjustice.Researchhasfocusedonwomeninthenineteenth-and twentieth-centuryScottishchurch,empireandcivilsociety,warresistanceandpeace movements,andgender-basedviolence.Herpublicationsinclude ‘AUniqueandGlorious Mission’:WomenandPresbyterianisminScotland1830 –1930 (2000)and(withBreitenbach etal.) ScottishWomen:ADocumentaryHistory1789–1914 (2013).
GeorgePattison isProfessorofTheologyandModernEuropeanThoughtattheUniversity ofGlasgow.HewasaparishpriestintheChurchofEnglandforthirteenyearspriorto holdingpostsintheUniversitiesofCambridge,Aarhus,andOxford.Heisavisiting professorattheUniversityofCopenhagenandhasbeenaFellowoftheMaxWeberCentre forAdvancedCulturalandSocialResearch.Hehaspublishedextensivelyonmodern theology,particularlywithregardtotheroleofGermanIdealismanditscritics.His booksinclude KierkegaardandtheQuestforUnambiguousLife (2013), PaulTillich’ s PhilosophicalTheology (2015),andhehasco-edited TheOxfordHandbookofKierkegaard (2013)and TheOxfordHandbookofTheologyandModernEuropeanThought (2013).
AlisonPeden wasaFellowofStHilda’sCollege,Oxford,andnowservesasCanonof StNinian’sCathedral,PerthandRectorofStModoc’sChurch,Doune.Asanhistorianof
medievalintellectualhistorystudyingtheimpactofNeoplatonismonChristianthought, shepublished AbboofFleury,CommentaryontheCalculusofVictoriusofAquitaine (2003). HercurrentresearchinterestistheScottishEpiscopaliantheologiansGeorgeGleig (1753–1840)andBertrandBrasnett(1893–1988).
JohnRiches heldtheChairofDivinityandBiblicalCriticismatGlasgowUniversitywhere hetaughtfrom1973to2003.HehaswrittenonthehistoricalJesus, Jesusandthe TransformationofJudaism (1980),ontheSynopticGospels, ConflictingMythologies (2000),andonthereceptionhistoryofGalatians, GalatiansthroughtheCenturies (2008). HewasoneofthetranslatorsofBultmann’ s GospelofJohn,editorofthetranslationofvon Balthasar’ s GloryoftheLord,andworkedcloselywithT&TClarkinthe1980sand1990s, editingtheseries StudiesoftheNewTestamentanditsWorld.Heiscurrentlyoneofthe editorsofthe ExpositoryTimes.Sinceretirementhehashadmoretimetopursuehis interestsindevelopmentandfairtradeandin2009foundedafairtradeimporting company,JustTradingScotland,whichsupportssmallholderfarmersinAfricaandAsia.
BrianStanley isProfessorofWorldChristianityintheUniversityofEdinburghandfrom 2009–19wasDirectoroftheCentrefortheStudyofWorldChristianity.Hehaspublished widelyonthehistoryofProtestantmissionsandthegrowthofChristianityasaworld religion.Hismostrecentbookis ChristianityintheTwentiethCentury:AWorldHistory (2018).
DomhnallUilleamStiùbhart isSeniorLecturerinMaterialCultureandGàidhealtachd HistoryatSabhalMòrOstaig,UniversityoftheHighlandsandIslands.AsSenior ResearcherfortheCarmichaelWatsonProjectattheCentreforResearchCollections, EdinburghUniversityLibrary,heworkedonthepapersandmaterialculturecollectionsof AlexanderCarmichael,andedited TheLifeandLegacyofAlexanderCarmichael (2008). Hehaspublishedwidelyonthehistory,literature,ethnography,andfolkloreofthe Highlandsduringtheearlymodernandmodernperiods.
TheTheologyof CarminaGadelica
DomhnallUilleamStiùbhart
CarminaGadelica,publishedastwovolumesin1900,isoneofthemostremarkableScottishbooksofitstime:aluxuryartworkwithaprice(threeguineas)to match,magnificentlyillustrated,expresslydesignedtoremindreadersofearly medievalilluminatedmanuscripts.Itscontentsarenolessremarkable:216 prayers,blessings,andcharmsrecordedintheHighlandsandprintedintheir purportedlyoriginalScottishGaelicwithfacingEnglishtranslations.The first ‘hymn’ offersagoodillustrationof Carmina’sstyle,dignified,polished,archaic, andincantatory:
RANNROIMHURNUIGHRUNEBEFOREPRAYER
OLDpeopleintheIslessingthisorsomeothershorthymnbeforeprayer. Sometimesthehymnandtheprayerareintonedinlowtremulousunmeasured cadenceslikethemovingandmoaning,thesoughingandthesighing,oftheevermurmuringseaontheirownwildshores.
Theygenerallyretiretoacloset,toanout-house,totheleeofaknoll,ortothe shelterofadell,thattheymaynotbeseennorheardofmen.Ihaveknownmen andwomenofeighty,ninety,andahundredyearsofagecontinuethepracticeof theirlivesingoingfromonetotwomilestotheseashoretojointheirvoiceswith thevoicingofthewavesandtheirpraiseswiththepraisesoftheceaselesssea.
TamilubadhmoghlunIambendingmyknee
AnsulanAtharachruthaichmi,IntheeyeoftheFatherwhocreatedme, AnsulanMhicacheannaichmi,IntheeyeoftheSonwhopurchasedme, AnsulanSpioraidaghlanaichmi,IntheeyeoftheSpiritwhocleansedme, Lecairdaguscaoimh.Infriendshipandaffection.
Tret-AonUngafeinaDhe,ThroughThineownAnointedOne,OGod, Tabhairduinntacharn’arteinn,Bestowuponusfulnessinourneed, GaolDeLovetowardsGod, GradhDe,TheaffectionofGod,
Domhnall Uilleam Stiùbhart, The Theology of Carmina Gadelica In: The History of Scottish Theology, Volume III. Edited by: David Fergusson and Mark W. Elliott, Oxford University Press (2019). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198759355.003.0001
GairDe,ThesmileofGod, GaisDe,ThewisdomofGod, GrasDe,ThegraceofGod, SgathDe,ThefearofGod, UstoilDe,AndthewillofGod
DheanamhairtalamhnanTre,TodoontheworldoftheThree, MartaainghlichusnaoimhichAsangelsandsaints Atoigheairneamh.Doinheaven; Gachduaragussoillse,Eachshadeandlight, Gachlaagusoidhche,Eachdayandnight, Gachuairannancaoimhe,Eachtimeinkindness, Thoirduinndoghne.GiveThouusThySpirit.1
The firstvolumeof Carmina hasfoursections:anextendedbiographicaland ethnographicalintroduction; Achaine/Invocations,prayersandblessingsmainly associatedwithrisingandresting; Aimsire/Seasons,mostlyitemsfromtheliturgicalyear;whileblessingsensuringtheachievementofvarioustasksarerecorded in Oibre/Labour.Therearethreepartstothesecondvolume:asubstantial selectionofhealingandprotectivecharmsandassociatedplantlore anda handfulofmaledictionstoo in Uibe/Incantations;anindiscriminateassortment ofhymns,omens,andstrayversesin Measgain/Miscellaneous;andanextensive lexiconofunusualwordsandmeaningsblendedwithhistoricalandethnographic lore,roundedoffwithanannotatedlistofreciters.Theworldof Carmina is imbuedwithasimplefaith;dignified,pious,ancientversesnowrecitedclandestinelyforfearofscornandderision;longliveslivedinharmonywithnature.
Theeditorof CarminaGadelica,AlexanderCarmichael,claimeditssubject matter,vouchsafedtohimby ‘rareand ...reticent ’ piousrecitersthroughoutthe Highlands,reachedbackcenturies: ‘theblendingofthepaganandtheChristian religionsinthesepoems...tomanymindswillconstitutetheirchiefcharm’ (I, xxix).Foronereviewer,thepreciouscontents ‘revealstratauponstrataofreligious beliefandsuperstition,stretchingbackintopre-historicandante-Christiantimes’ (Jolly1900).Suchassessmentshavebeenechoedeversinceinenthusiastic responsesfromreadersacrosstheAnglophoneworld.Forthem,theEnglish translationsin Carmina representprimarysourcematerialrevealingalongneglected ‘Celtic’ visionofChristianity,romantic,ecumenical,mystic,contemplative,egalitarian,andnature-oriented.²Nevertheless,Carmichael’sbookraises
¹Carmichael(1900:I,2–3).
²Thecentralityof Carmina tothecontemporaryCelticChristianitymovementisexploredinMeek (2000: passim,esp.60–78).
manyquestions. CarminaGadelica iscertainlyoneofthemostmagnificent volumesofitstime.Itisalsooneofthemostcontroversial.
ThelifeofAlexanderCarmichael(1832–1912)isasremarkable,andcontentious,ashisbook.Forcontemporaries,Carmichael’sreputationwasboundup with CarminaGadelica,describedbyanotherreviewerasa ‘splendidconsummationofthelove-labourofawholediligentlife-time...agreatreligiouswork, piouslyperfectedbyaman,every fibreofwhosebodyandbeingvibratestothe beautyofholiness,and,asonemightsay,totheholinessofthebeautywhichhe foundinthelifeofeventhemosthumbleofhisownpeople ’ (Gillies1900). Carmina representedtheculminationofalifetime’scollectingthroughoutthe Highlands.InCarmichael’swords,thebookrequiredthreesacrifices: ‘the sacri ficeoftime,thesacrificeoftoil,andthesacrificeofmeans’ (1900–71:I, xxxii).Inlessexaltedterms,itscompilationcosthimoveradecadeofhard work,anditspublicationcosthimwhatlittlemoneyhehad.
Carmichael ’sbookexcitedadmirationfarbeyondScotland.AmongGaelic scholars,however,discreetdissentprevaileduntilanirascibleacademicdispute overitsauthenticitybrokeoutinthelate1970s, ‘adebate’,accordingtoRonald Black, ‘akininsomewaystotheOssianiccontroversy200yearsbefore’ (1999: 711).Theuncomfortablefactwasthatoral fieldworkbyCarmichael’scontemporariesandsuccessorsaffordednothingcomparableinlengthorelaborationto theitemsprintedin Carmina.Intheapparentabsenceoforiginal fieldnotes,the scopeofeditorialinterferencecouldbeinferred,butnotassessed.
Carmichael ’ s fieldrecordingswerenotmissing.Thequestfor field notes (that is,papersheets),aswellasCarmichael’srebarbativehandwriting,ledscholarsto overlooksometwenty-six fieldnotebooksofferingin-depthdescriptionsofhis collectingactivitiesoverhalfacentury.Theirrediscoveryallowsustoreassess Carmichael’slifeandhiscontributionto CarminaGadelica,tounderstandhowits textswerepolished,regularized,archaicized,extended,re-presented,andeven recreatedbyaneditorcollaboratingwithfamilymembersandawidercircleof friendsandassistants(Stiùbhart2008:23–32).
Undoubtedly,Carmichael’svisiondrawsuponhisownexperiencesofthe spiritualityoftheverypoorestislanders,thosewhohadbeenleftbehindinthe dramatictransformationsofHebrideansocietyandeconomyduringhislifetime. ButfarfromofferingfadingechoesofanearlyCelticchurch,asubstantialportion of CarminaGadelica sharesmuchincommonwithvernacularChristianityacross Europe:thatis,itrepresentssecularappropriations,translations,andelaborations ofbenedictions,exorcisms,supplications,andblessingsmostlikelyderivedfrom latemedievalCatholicism,fromearlymodernCatholicmissionaryendeavours, andmaybeevenfrommorerecentlyprintedtractsandprayerbooks.Theroleof theIonaclergyindisseminatingtheearliermaterialishintedatbytheprominence inthesetextsofStColumba intheestimationofoneofCarmichael’sinformants, ‘arddhotairAlbaguleigheasduineagusbeothach’ (‘thegreatestdoctorin
Scotlandforhealingmanandbeast’)(EULCWMS7fo.38v) andunexpectedly corroboratedbyevidenceinawitchcrafttrialof1592:
itwesAuldMackellarofCruachanthatlernithirhischarmisandthatthesaid M’EllarlernitthematthepryorisofIcolmkill[Iona]...(MacPhail1914:166)³
Asthischapterwilldemonstrate,wider,nationalandinternationalnineteenthcenturycontextsinfluencedtheediting,presentation,andveryconceptof CarminaGadelica.Mostobviously,therearetheinfluentialopinionsofMatthew Arnold,baseduponErnestRenan’stheoriesconcerningCelticChristianity,mediatedthroughthecontemporary ‘CelticRenascence’ andinflectedbylateVictorian organicevolutionisttheoriesandruralcommunitarianideals.Butthereisanother, perhapslessimmediatelyapparent,theologicalinfluencetobereckonedwith:in itsritualisticnostalgia,itslinkingofprivateandcommunaldevotion,itsaesthetic design,itsoppositiontocontemporaryevangelicalism,andeveninitspresentationofCarmichaelintheguiseofpoet-priest, CarminaGadelica canbereadasan unexpectedlateHighland floweringofTractarianliturgicalideals aninspiration derivingnotsomuchfromAlexanderCarmichaelhimselfasfromhiswife,Mary FrancesMacBean.
AlexanderCarmichael,AlasdairMacGilleMhìcheilinhisnativeGaelic,wasborn intheIslandofLismorein1832(Stiùbhart2008:2–22,30–3).Inthelate1850s Carmichaelcommencedhislongcareerintheexcise;healsobegancollecting folkloreinIslayandinSkyeforJohnFrancisCampbell’ s PopularTalesoftheWest Highlands (1860–2).AftertwoyearsinCornwall,Carmichaelvolunteeredfora postingtothesouthernOuterHebrides,therichestareaforfolkloreinthe Highlands.Hisoccupation,huntingillegalwhiskystillsandgatheringlocal taxes,mayappearinauspiciousforanaspiringfolklorist.ButCarmichaelwas requiredtotravelsystematicallyaroundtheremotestcornersoftheislands, becomingacquaintedwitheverycommunityunderhissupervision.Hehadto knowthepeople,andthelandscape,thoroughly.Healsohadthebureaucratic expertisenecessarytoproduceandmanagefolklore files aswellasanessential supplyofpaper.Carmichaelconscientiouslyavoidedprosecutingmiscreant islandersexceptasalastresort,inatacitmutualagreementthatsurelyassisted hiscollecting.DuringthenearlytwodecadeshespentintheHebrides,Alexander Carmichaelwouldmatureascollector,antiquarian,andnaturalist.
InJanuary1868CarmichaelmarriedMaryUrquhartMacBean(1838–1928), thedaughterofanexciseman,borninKirkiboll,Sutherland,andbroughtupin MontroseandDundee.Afterhermotherdiedoftyphusin1847,herfather
³SeeBárth(2013);Pócs(2013);alsoHyde(1906);Franz(1960).
returnedtohisnativeBlackIsle.FamilylorerecordsthatMarywasadoptedfora whilebyheruncletheRev.ArthurRanken,EpiscopalianpriestofOldDeer,with whosedaughterssheattendedthenewlyopenedStMargaret’sEpiscopalCollege forGirlsatCrieff,sisterschoolofTrinityCollege,Glenalmond(Carmichael 1900–71:IV,xli–xlii).Ifshedidso,itwasformonthsratherthanyears:Maryis recordedworkingasaninnkeeper’sservantinRosemarkieinthe1851census. Arestlessandrootlessupbringing,punctuatedbyaseriesofcatastrophes,helps explainMary’slaterdrive,resourcefulness,andstrengthofcharacter.
OneoftheteachersatStMargaret ’ swastheclergymanscholartheRev. GeorgeHayForbes(1821– 75);Maryappearsinthe1861censusemployedasa schoolmistresslivinginBurntislandparsonagewithForbesandhiswife. Today,GeorgeHayForbesisbestknownforthePitsligoPress,basedinthe parsonage,whichunderhispainstakingsupervisionissuedaneclecticselection ofjournals,polemicaltracts,sermons ,andaboveallhigh-qualityliturgical worksdistinguishedbyoutstandingscholarship,freefrommisprints,andset inabewilderingvarietyoffonts.AlthoughForbesemployedaprinter,hewas assistedinhisworkbyseveralwomencompositors,aswell,itseems,asthe olderboysandgirlsoftheChurchschool(Skene1876;Perry1927,1939; Carnie1955–71;Primrose1955 – 71;Strong2004).
Asayoungwoman,MaryMacBeanwasemployedbyaclergymandrivenbyan obsessiveinterestinliturgy,spurredbytheacrimoniouscontroversyoverthe EpiscopalianPrayerBookbetweenthe ‘Scottish’ and ‘English’ wingsofthechurch, thelatterheadedbyGeorgeHayForbes’ brotherBishopAlexanderPenrose Forbes(1817–75).Fundamentaltothisdisputewerequestionsconcerningthe missalsusedinthemedievalScottishchurch:wasitsliturgicaltraditionprincipally influencedbytheEnglishchurch,ormightsomeofitsfeaturesderivefrom GallicanandGreekmodels?ThestoryofScottishEpiscopalianengagementwith theOxfordMovementisacomplexone,buttheinfluenceofTractarianritualism andvenerationofpre-Reformationliturgiesisclear(Nockles1996;Strong2002: 26–32,235–63;Brown2012:61–71).
MaryMacBeanlivedintheparsonagewhilethebrothersForbespreparedfor thepresstheireditionofthemagnificentlyillustratedArbuthnottMissal(1864), theonlycompleteservicebookknowntosurvivefrompre-ReformationScotland, prefacedbyapanoramicsurveyofextantearlymedievalliturgiesfromBritainand Ireland(Forbes1864).ItissurelysignificantthatAlexanderCarmichaellaterdrew spuriousparallelsbetweenArbuthnott’spatronsaint,Ternan,andasupposed BenbeculasaintTorranan,inanextendedessayin CarminaGadelica (1900–71:II, 80–3).Carmichaeldrawsdirectlyuponthisedition,aswellasuponBishopForbes ’ later KalendarofScottishSaints (1872),innoteshemadeonStRonanprobably datingfromearly1886(EULCWMS120fo.86).Inadditiontoeditingwork, GeorgeHayForbeswascommittedtoaGaelicministryforHighlandEpiscopalians,establishingtheGaelicTractSociety ‘forthepurposeofeducatingand
maintainingHighlandchurchpeoplein fidelitytotheirChurch’ andalsoprinting aGaelictranslationoftheScottishCommunionOffice(Perry1927:29,31; Nockles1996:675).
MaryCarmichaelspentatleastsevenyearsworkinginthehouseholdofGeorge HayForbes,butthisperiodremainsobscure.Herhusbandlaterwrotethat ‘[s]he injuredherhealthpastrecallIfearintheschoolatBurntisland ’,thoughshewas ‘muchattached’ toForbes’ wifeEleanor.⁴ Itisnotablethatalthoughlaterfamily traditionmadeBishopAlexanderForbesa ‘guardianofherearlylife’,forwhom sheworkedas ‘housekeeperandsecretary’,andofwhom,withDeanRanken, ‘she oftenspokewithaffectionandregard’,hererstwhileemployerwentunmentioned (Carmichael1900–71:IV,xli–xlii).Nevertheless,itisunthinkablethattheyearsshe spentinahouseholdfocuseduponresearchingandprintingpre-Reformation missalsandhagiographiesdidnotinfluencetheconceptionandcreationof CarminaGadelica asalostGaelicliturgyofprayersandblessings.Itsinspirationmay thusoweasmuchtoeastcoastEpiscopalianism and,indirectly,tothesacramentalismoftheOxfordMovement asitdoestowestcoastHebrideanCatholicism.
MaryenteredGeorgeHayForbes ’ householdasMaryUrquhartMacBean;she leftasMaryFrancesMacBean.Thisintriguingreinventionmaybeatributeto Forbes ’ cousin,theTractariannovelistandphilanthropistFeliciaMaryFrances Skene(1821–99)whosebrotherthehistorianWilliamForbesSkenewouldplayan importantrolefurtheringherhusband’scareer.Ifso,FeliciaSkenenotonly suppliedMarywithanewidentity;shealsogaveherapracticalvocation. Mary’ssubsequenttireless,self-abnegatingcharityworkamongtheislandpoor maydrawupontheexampleofFeliciaSkene,andofcontemporaryTractarianinspiredAnglicansisterhoods(Rickards1902;Mumm1999:93–156;Sanders 2004).SuchexemplarsmayalsohaveinfluencedtheCarmichaels’ laterquietist ‘moderateconservatism’,theirshunningofradicalactivisminfavourofapreferencetoeffectchangebyexample.
ItwasasanindirectresultofhisimpendingmarriagethatAlexanderCarmichael firstbecameinterestedincharms.On16October1867hevisitedAnna MacIsaac, née MacLellan(c.1808–83),inCeannLangabhat,ant-Ìochdar,South Uist.SheandherhusbandHector(c.1797–1878),oneofthemostcelebrated seanchaidhean orstorytellersinUist,hadeffectivelyadoptedtheyoungexciseman followinghisarrivalinUist.Inalaterreminiscence,CarmichaelrecountedhowMrs MacIsaacpresentedhimwitha EàrnaMhoire orMoluccaBean,atropicalnut carriedontheGulfStreamtotheOuterHebrides,cherishedforitspowersin safeguardingwomeninchildbirthaswellasprotectinghousesandboats.This particularobject ‘hasbeeninthefamilyformanygenerationsperhapsformany centuriesandhasalwaysbeenprizedasapreciousheirloom’ :
⁴ NationalRecordsofScotlandGD1/126/8/1/128(CarmichaeltoW.F.Skene,3February1879).
ChaidhanArnabheannaichtesoabheannachadhairanaltairleisant-sagairt agusannansuileanDhiaagusdhaoinethainaomh.
ThisblessedbeanwasblessedonthealtarbythepriestandintheeyesofGod andthepeopleitissacred.
Somemonthspreviously,CarmichaelhadmetMaryFrancesMacBean;thecouple wouldmarryinEdinburghon13Januarythefollowingyear.TheMoluccabean wasthusAnnaMacIsaac ’sweddingpresenttoAlexanderCarmichael.Thenuminousobjectdidnotcomebyitself,however;ithadaninvocationattached, describedbyMrsMacIsaacasa laoidh orhymn:
FaicaMhoireabhean
Usieirfòdabhais
FaicfeiniaMhic
O ‘sannagadatha
Achomasathoirtdha’nleana Agusabheanabhithslan.et al.Ceartasathoirtdha’nleana al.Comasathoirdhanleana.
See,oMary,thewoman Onthebrinkofdeath. Seeher,oSon, Foryouareable Togivetheinfanthispower Andtomakethewomanwell. andothers:Togivetheinfantjustice others:Togivetheinfantpower.
ThisistobesaidthreetimesplacingtheTearnatothelipsandtheninthehandofthe parturientwomanwhopressesithardinthepalmofherhandwhilethechildisbeingborn(EUL CWMS87fos.17r–v).5
GiventheimportanceofMaryCarmichael’slatercharitableworkinallowingher husbandaccesstosomeofhisbestinformantsfromtheverypooreststratumofisland society suchinteractionseffectivelyinitiatinghimintoaparticular ‘gifteconomy’ , obtainingcharmsforcharity itisrevealingtoseehowevenbeforemarriagetheir relationshipenabledhimtorecordsuch items.Again,bearinginmindAlexander Carmichael’sextensive ‘re-creation’ ofsuchinvocationsinhis CarminaGadelica volumes,itistellingthatthevery firstcharmherecordedcamewithvariants.
Overthefollowingdecade,asawell-known figureinlocalcommunitiesanda respectablemarriedfamilymanwithawifeheavilyinvolvedinlocalcharitywork, AlexanderCarmichaelwasabletorecordfromislanderspersonal,private,even confidentialmaterialsuchasblessings,prayers,charms,andincantations,items sometimesinaccessibletooutsidecollectors.HisinterestwaspiquedbynewspapercolumnswrittenonthesubjectbyhisfriendtheRev.AlexanderStewart (1829–1901), ‘Nether-Lochaber’,aswellasarelocationofhisgrowingfamilyto ÌochdarinSouthUist,thentoCreagGoraidhinBenbecula,bytheSouthFord:an
⁵ SeealsoEULCWMSS7fo.36v;116fo.6;andCarmichael(1900–71:I,70–1).
idealplaceforafolklorecollector,perfectlysituatedtobuttonholepotential intervieweesastheyawaitedthetidestochange.IntheseoverwhelminglyCatholic districtsvernacularblessings,prayers,andcharmswererecitedmoreopenlythanin ProtestantNorthUist.Carmichael’snewcircumstancesspurredhisinterestin popularpietyinallitsforms:duringhis firstyearamongCatholictenantryhe recordedseventeenitemsrelatingtopopularspiritualityandcalendarcustoms, considerablymorethanhehadpreviouslycollected(Stiùbhart2013).
Despitethefactthatduringhis finalyearsinUistCarmichaelrecordedfew charmtexts,hisinterestinandappreciationofthegenrecontinuedunabated.Ina draftreplytoaletterconcerningfolklorein TheHighlander in1881,Carmichael beginsbymentioninghisworkcollectingcharms:
Ihavealwaysthoughtthatafaithfulaccountofthesecharmsandincantations wouldbeinteresting,and,properlyconsidered,mayhapinstructive.Ihavenot hithertohowever,feltmyselfequaltothetaskcongenialtomeofgivingthemto thepublic,althoughmanyscores,ifnothundredsofthem,liescatteredupand downmymanuscriptsamongmassesofotherrubbish....Thesemysticalbeliefs andobservanceswiththeirhoaryoriginfarbackthestreamoftime,probably containinterestpossiblywisdom,hadweonlytheindustryofthebeetoseekand extracttheirtreasures.(EULCWMS230fo.176)
Ifnot ‘ manyscores ’,farlesshundreds,duringhispostingtotheHebrides AlexanderCarmichaelneverthelessmanagedtocollectatleastsixtyspecific charmtexts,aswellasnumerousotherprayersandblessings:aremarkable store.Barelyayearafterdraftingthepieceabove,Carmichaellefttheislandsfor good,movingtoanewexcisepostinEdinburgh.Henceforthhewoulddo fieldworkeitherduringsummerexpeditionsorthroughcorrespondents.
InNovember1878thebrotherofthenovelistFeliciaSkene,thehistorianWilliam ForbesSkene(1809–92),recruitedAlexanderCarmichaeltocomposeachapteron traditionalagriculturalpracticessurvivingintheHebridesforthethird ‘Landand People’ volumeofhistour-de-force CelticScotland.Throughhisexcisework, Carmichaelcollectedagriculturalreturns;throughhis fieldwork,heknewcommunityhistory.Theresultingaccountwasof crucialimportanceforhislatercareer (Skene1876–80:III,378–93).Adocumentdatingfromtheearly1890sinthearchive oftheGaelicscholarAlexanderMacbainclaimsthatCarmichael’spaperforSkene:
wasthemeansofturningthelateLordNapier’sattentiontotheconditionofthe Croftersaswellasofincreasinghisinterestinmeasureswhichhavegreatly alleviatedtheirburdens.(EULCWMS510n.f.)
When,threeyearslater,NapierwasnominatedtochairtheparliamentaryRoyal CommissionofInquiryintotheConditionofCroftersandCottarsintheHighlandsandIslands,hewrotetoCarmichaelaskinghimtocompileasimilarpaper fortheCommission ’sReport.Carmichaelrecappedhispreviouspiece,adding,at Napier’srequest,twoprayers,twocharmblessings,twomilkingsongs,andalove song:veryunorthodoxadjunctsinaparliamentarypaper(Carmichael1884: 452–82).TheseitemsunderlinedtheeirenicmessageofCarmichael’ s ‘Grazing andagresticcustoms’:islandershadthestrengthandrefinementofcharacterto governthemselves.
Carmichael ’saccountprovidedanunexpectedspiritualoasisinwhatproveda verycontentiousreport.Whatevertheirpoliticalbeliefs,readerscouldagreeupon theallureofthegraciousversespresentedbyCarmichael:
AtthelastmeetingoftheCrofterRoyalCommission,themembersdiscussedthe variouspapersthathadcomebeforethem. “Somepraisedonepaperandsome another”,saidProfessorMackinnon, “buttherewasonlyoneopinionamongus allthatyourpaper,Mr.Carmichael,isthepaperoftheCommission – apaper whichliveaslongastheEnglishlanguagelasts.Iwasaskedtotellyouthis,andto thankyouforit”.(EULCWMS510n.f.)
ThediscreetlydiplomaticroutethatCarmichaelhadchosenforhissubmission, stressingislanders’ innatepiety,cooperation,andself-regulation,incontradistinctiontocommonprejudicesdepictingHighlandersasbarbaric,uncouth,andslavish intheiresteemforauthorityandtradition,wasapowerfulone.Butadoptingthis approachentailedlossesaswellasgains.Againsthisfriends’ counsel,Carmichael eschewedanactiveroleinthecrofters’ struggle.Rather,hebecameanadvocateand mediatorofGaelicculturetoEnglish-speakingaudiences.
On24December1888AlexanderCarmichaeldeliveredtotherecentlyformed GaelicSocietyofGlasgowperhapsthemostimportantpaperofhiscareer: ‘Old UistHymns’,anextensionofhisNapierCommissionpaper(Carmichael 1887–91).Thearticlewascomposedatatimeofhecticdebateconcerningradical landredistribution,whenitseemedasiftheFreeChurch,whohadrecentlyheld theirGeneralAssemblyinInverness,mightadoptaleadingroleadvocatingthe causeofHighlandcroftersandcottars(Cameron1996:47–56,62–76;MacColl 2006:179–211;Newby2007:146–62).Carmichael’ srefinedUistversessuitedthe cause:notonlyfortheirliteraryvaluebutalso atatimewhentheHighland congregationsoftheFreeChurchwerewidelychargedwithbigotry,dogmatism, andSabbatarianism toillustratehow,fortheircomposers,religion ‘wasnot intendedmerelyforchurchonSundays,butwasonecontinuedroundofreligious aspirations,fromthetimewhentheywoketilltheysoughtreposeatnight’ (Carmichael1887–91:46).
ManuscriptevidencesuggeststhatCarmichaelwasgalvanizedbyhispaper’ s enthusiasticreception(EULCWMSS1,fos.1–11;124fos.27–30,32v–34v). Duringthefollowingdecade,however,ratherthanmakinglengthyexpeditions totheHighlands,helivedinEdinburgh,carryingoutundemandingexcisework, whilespendingsummersinarentedhouseinTaynuilt.Hehadembarkedupon themammothtaskofresearching,collating,editing,andrecreatingtextsgathered overthirtyyearsinseveralthousandfolios.GiventhedifficultiesCarmichaelhad facedincompilingevenrelativelyconcisepiecesforForbesandNapier,the psychologicalandintellectualchallengesnowconfrontinghimwereforbidding. Itishardlysurprisingthathisoriginalpublishingcontract,signedwiththe ClarendonPress,fellthrough(Campbell1978–81:183).Carmichaelwouldpublishonhisown;buthewouldnotworkonhisown.
InEdinburghAlexanderCarmichaelbecameaVictoriansage:amature,authoritativepersonality,possessedofgreatexperienceandendowedwithatreasure-trove ofanecdotesfromthedecadeshespentintheHebrides;acentral figureintheGaelic diasporacommunityinEdinburgh,andalinktoanincreasinglyremotepast. Aroundhimgatheredaseriesofassistantsandadvisersreadytoassistwith composition,andtopublicizehisworkwherenecessary.Forthem,Carmichael wasnotonlyasage,butaguru,whosearduouslifeintheHebrides,crownedbyhis beingentrustedwitharchaic,esotericritualsandlorebyancientislanders,mayhave suggestedintriguingparallelswiththedemandingritesofinitiationintotheexclusivesecretsocietiesofoccultadeptsthatproliferatedin findesiècle LondonBohemia (Verter1998:205–74;Owen2007:1–185;Walters2007:1–112).⁶
CarmichaelkeptupacorrespondencewiththetwoothermajorHighland cleric-folklorists:theRev.JohnGregorsonCampbell(1834–91)ofTiree,and, followingCampbell’sdeath,FatherAllanMcDonald(1855–1905),thennewly transferredtotheIsleofEriskay(Campbell2005:668–9,674–81,685,687).Father Allan,himselftobecomeaniconoftheCelticRevivalmovementbeforehis untimelydeath,issignificantnotonlybecausehecollectedcomparablelorein thesamedistrictsasCarmichael asthelatteracknowledged, ‘youandIhave takendownmanythingsincommon,showingthatmanythingsinterestedusin common’—butbecauseofhisGaelicHymnalof1893, Comh-chruinneachadh deLaoidheanSpioradail.Thisunassuminglittlevolumeofspiritualverseby McDonaldandearlierbards,leavenedbyahandfulofprayersculledfromoral tradition,wasaprecursorto CarminaGadelica regardingitscontent,andsomethingofanegativeexampleregardingitsaustereappearance(McDonald1893). AlthoughCarmichael’sacolyteGeorgeHendersonfound ‘muchtobepraised’ withthehymns,particularlytheir ‘verypleasingattimes,andverybeautiful’ phraseology,hecensuredtheausterepresentation,thetextslackingintroduction
⁶ ForYeats’ contemporaneousCelticMysticalOrderproject,seeFoster(1998–2003:I,101–7,186–7, 196–7);andKalogera(1977).
andcontext,aswellasthebook’soverallappearance: ‘[t]hecoveristoomeagre andlacksthedignityworthyofit’ . ⁷ LiketheRev.JohnGregorsonCampbellbefore him,FatherAllanwaswaryofcommittinghimselftoCarmichael’sproject,not onlybecauseofitsambition hewasthenrecoveringfromanervousbreakdown broughtonbyoverwork butalsobecauseofCarmichael’sromanticizedperspectiveonislandinformants,verydifferentfromhisownrathermorescepticaland worldlystandpoint(Black2002:8–9,39–46;Hutchinson2010:127–9;Roberts 2010:218–19).
GeorgeHenderson(1866–1912)wasprobablythemostableGaelicscholarof hisgeneration.Duringtheyearsthathismentorcreated CarminaGadelica,he undertookadoctoralthesisattheUniversityofVienna,thenpostdoctoral researchatJesusCollege,Oxford.Henderson’sextensivelexicographicalassistanceaddedscholarlydepthandhistoricalperspectivetoCarmichael’svision;he relentlesslyencouraged,chivvied,andpromotedtheolderman;thework’ svery titlearosefromoneofHenderson’scharacteristicallyquirkysuggestions (Campbell1978–81:214–16).OneotherGaelicscholarwasinvolvedincreating CarminaGadelica:Carmichael’sdaughterElla(1870–1928),newlymatriculated asastudentofCeltic,oneofthe firstwomenundergraduatesattheUniversityof Edinburgh(Carmichael1900–71:I,xxxi;III,xxi–xxiii).EllaCarmichael’shandis visiblethroughoutthesurvivingfragmentsof CarminaGadelica editingpapers.In fact,AlexanderCarmichaelhadbecomeabrand,withfamilyandfriendsrevising andrewritingpiecesunderhisownname.
Fiveyearsintotheeditingprocess,Carmichaelcameintocontactwiththecircle ofthecharismaticpolymathPatrickGeddes(1854–1932).InFebruary1894 CarmichaelwrotetoFatherAllanMcDonald:
ProfessorGeddesisdesiroustogetupCelticlecturesinconnectionwithhis UniversitiesExtensionclasses.Hehasaskedmetoanalysemanyforhisproposal. WeareanxioustobringCeltictothefront... ⁸
Embarkingonanambitiouspublishingventure,Geddeshadseizeduponthe notionofCelticcultureasavehicleforhiscommitmenttospiritualrenewal througharts,crafts,andnature,asanantidotetotheanomieofurbanindustrial life(Macdonald2005;Cumming2006:4–12,30–46;PittockandJack2007; Ferguson2011;Shaw2015).TheartisticdesignandCelticornamentationof Geddes’‘CelticLibrary’ publications,suchashisseasonaljournal TheEvergreen (1895–7),themiscellany LyraCeltica (1896),thecentenary PoemsofOssian (1896),and SongsandTalesofSaintColumbaandHisAge (1897),gave
⁷ GeorgeHendersontoAlexanderCarmichael,15August1893.
⁸ AlexanderCarmichaeltoFatherAllanMcDonald,CH2/1/1/13/110,15February1894(typescript copy,CannaHouse).
Carmichael’sprojectanewimpetus.Hecouldthusreimaginehisbooknotonlyas astorehouseoftraditionalprayersandcharms,butalsoasanaestheticizedwork ofartillustratingGeddes’ ideal,influencedbytheorganicevolutionismofHerbert Spencer,ofcommunitieslivinginaharmoniousrelationshipwithnature andas atextbookforGeddes’ admonitionthat ‘itisnotforLondontoeducateIona,but forIonatoeducateLondon’ (UniversityofStrathclydeArchivesT-GED5/2/7, ‘KelticArt’:8;Ferguson2011:136;alsoMacdonald2008:143–4;Renwick2009). SuitablyinspiredbyavisittoIona,EllaCarmichael’scompanionJaneHay (1864–1914)hadwritteninthe ‘Summer’ issueof TheEvergreen how ‘itisonly whenmenhavegrownawayfromNature,whentheyhaveshutthemselvesincities andgrownaliensintheirproperhome-landthattheyceasetofeelthemselvesher children,andfeartomeetherindeath’ (Hay1896:35).ThestimulusGeddes’‘Celtic Renascence’ gaveCarmichael’sprojectcomesthroughinthefrequentquerieshe subsequentlydirectedtoFatherAllanMcDonaldinEriskayconcerningthenames, natures,andusesofislandplants:naturewasnowtothefore.⁹ Itisalsoseeninthe aestheticredirectionof CarminaGadelica underthesupervisionofMaryFrances Carmichael,responsiblenotonlyforthebasicliturgicalconceptofthebook,but also,inherdesigningandtracingitsdecoratedinitials,forits finalappearance (Carmichael1900–71:VI,xxxi–xxxii;Macdonald2008:136–41).¹⁰
On27December1895,apaperonCelticartwasreadattheCelticUnion,the studentassociationfoundedbyEllaCarmichael: ‘ThetyinganduntyingofaCeltic knot’ byJamesArchibaldCampbellofBarbreck(1854–1926),mystic,acquaintanceofJohnRuskin,andclosefamilyfriendofPatrickGeddes.Itsthemewas particularlytopicalgiventhatCelticartwasalsothesubjectofArthurEvans’ recentRhindLectures.Campbell,however,wentbeyondfarbeyondarthistory. HeoutlinedanartisticeducationprogrammeteachingHighlandchildrenaCeltic decorativestyleestablishedbeforetheReformation,evenbeforethecomingof Christianity;andalso:
thebeautifulnamesandlegendsandusagesconnectedwiththeplantsthus broughtintoservice,asmuch ‘superstition,’ orsen[s]eofunseenpresencesand powers,asstilllingersamongthehills.And,outoftheconcentrationand stimulationoffeelingwhichspringfromlivingart,Iamsanguineenoughto believe,wouldariseoncemoresomedayanexultinganddignifiedreligious ritual,expressive,notofdoctrinesanddogmas,butoftheaffectionsandreverenceswhichunderliealldoctrine,andasimplelife,fullerthanatpresent,bothof sacredmemoryandofgoodcheer.(Campbell1895)
⁹ CorrespondenceofAlexanderCarmichaelwithFatherAllanMcDonald,CH2/1/1/13/1101893–9 (typescriptcopies,CannaHouse).
¹⁰ NotehowcontemporaryIrishGaelicliteraturewasstillusuallyprintedinGaelicratherthan Romancharacters,thusdisplayingvisualcontinuitywiththemanuscripttraditionwithoutrequiring illustrated ‘Celtic’ initialstodoso:ÓConchubhair(2009:145–68).
Suchavision,aspiritual,Highlandinflectionofthecommunitariantenetsofthe ArtsandCraftsMovement,leftadeepimpressionupon CarminaGadelica.
Thelong-awaitedcompletionof CarminaGadelica waseventuallytakenin handbyWalterBiggarBlaikie(1847–1928),aclosefriendoftheCarmichaels. BlaikiehadassistedinthedesignofGeddes’ Evergreen,andarrangeditsprinting byhis firmT.&A.Constable,thenpossessedof ‘someofthehighestdesignand productionvaluesintheworld’ (Macdonald2008:135–6,142).Aswellasbeing engagedinCelticRenascencecircles,Blaikie’sinterestinJacobitisminvolvedhim inGaelicscholarship;indeed,AlexanderCarmichaelforwardedhimislandtraditionsforhis ItineraryofPrinceCharlesEdwardStuart (1897)(Blaikie1897:xii, 53n).Blaikiemayalsohavehadfamilyreasonsfortakingup CarminaGadelica. Hisfather,theRev.Prof.WilliamGardenBlaikie(1820–99)isbestknowntoday asapaternalistsocialcommentatorandcampaigner;FreeChurchProfessorof ApologeticsandPastoralTheologyatNewCollegefrom1868untilhisdeath,in 1892heservedasthelastModeratorwhohadtakenpartintheDisruption (Cheyne1983:119–22).ThislastdistinctionmayhaveowedmuchtotheconciliatorystanceadoptedbyBlaikieSenioratatimewhentheFreeChurch,perhaps thecentralinstitutioninVictorianScottishintellectuallife,wasbeingtornasunderinalong-deferredinternecinestruggle,wagedagainstabackgroundof dramaticsocialchangeandtheriseofhighercriticismandDarwinianevolutionarytheory,betweenconservativeevangelical,Gaelic-speakingministersandelders ontheonehand,and,ontheother,liberal,urban,middle-classEnglish-speaking clergy.OverandaboveissuesregardingthestrictSabbatarianismandaustere worshipespousedbyGaeliccongregations,andHighlanders’ growingdisquiet regardingtheperceivedmanipulationofecclesiasticaladministrationbysuperciliousadversaries,theconfrontationtookshapearounddoctrinalquestionsof scripturalinfallibilityandthetraditionalauthorityoftheWestminsterConfession. IntemperatedebatesatFreeChurchGeneralAssemblies,particularlyconcerning thepassingofthe1892DeclaratoryActduringWilliamGardenBlaikie’ sown moderatorship,broughtabouttheprecipitoussecessionoftwooverwhelmingly Highlandbreakawaydenominations:theFreePresbyterianChurchinthe ‘Second Disruption’ of1893,andthedissenting ‘continuingFreeChurch’ whoparted fromthemajorityinthewakeofthelatter’sunionwiththeUnitedReformed Churchin1900(MacLeod2000:14–22,125–78,231–50;Ross1989:27–41, 154–254,298–300).
IntheliturgyofGaelicfolkbeliefpresentedin CarminaGadelica,Carmichael offeredarebuttaltocontemporarystereotypesofHighlandbeliefsaseithermired inprimitivesuperstitionorelsecharacterizedbyharsh,bigoted,joylessauthoritarianism,dogmaticSabbatarianism,andanuncompromisinglyliteralapproach tobiblicaltruth.HehimselfhadbeenbroughtupinanislandwheretheestablishedchurchministerhadretainedhiscongregationduringtheDisruption;early experiencesinSkye,wherehiscollectingwasfrustratedbyanevangelicalrevival
backedbyclergywho ‘aremuchagainst seansgeulachdan [oldstories]and denouncethemas “ungodly” &c.’,werecompoundedbylaterincidents,in particularadismalvisittoastaunchLewishouseholdwherehewasinformed that ‘[t]hepeoplehaveforsakentheirfolliesandtheirSabbath-breaking,andthere isnopipe,no fiddleherenow’ (NationalLibraryofScotlandAdv.MS50.1.12fos. 123r–v;Carmichael1900–71:I,xxvi).
DrawinguponthespeculationsofErnestRenan,asmediatedthroughthe romanticprimitivismofCelticRenascencecircles,CarmichaelsetforthanalternativegenealogyforthedeeppietyassociatedwithHighlandworshipwithinthe latenineteenth-centuryFreeChurch.Thisgenealogystretchedbackcenturies beforetheonsetofevangelicalismovermuchoftheHighlandsduringtheearly nineteenthcentury,toaspiritualitygroundedinasupposedlyindigenous,heterodoxinterpretationofChristianityinfusedwitholderpagannature-beliefs.In thisperspective,theDisruption,andeventheReformationitself,weremilestones onScottishGaeldom’slongdeclineintoculturaldecadence,self-alienation,philistinism,andignorance.IfCarmichael’sbookwaspurposelyconceivedtoremind itsreadersofearlyGaelicChristianmanuscripts,soalsoitscreatordeliberately presentedhimselfasfollowingtheexampleofRenan’sHibernianmonks:a dedicatedtranscriber,keepingthe flamealiveinatimeofdarkness: ‘letravailde laplumedevintune œuvresainte’ (Renan1859:441;alsoBalcou1997:63–72; Leerssen2006;Balcou2017:136–8).
Carmichael ’sideaofCelticChristianitymaybetracedbacktoRenanbut,ashas beensuggested,theconceptof CarminaGadelica asaliturgyofGaelicfolkbelief mayowerathermoretoOxfordTractarianism. CarminaGadelica partookina broad,burgeoninginterestinliturgicalhistoryandthenatureofthe ‘Primitive Church’,andareclamationofScotland’spre-Reformationtraditionsofworship, manifestedintheTractarian-inspired ‘Scoto-Catholic’ reformmovementinthe ChurchofScotland.Carmichael ’sgreatworkbearscomparisonnotonlytothe successiveeditionsoftheChurchServiceSociety’seclectic Euchologion,oraBook ofCommonOrder,butalsotoProfessorThomasJ.Crawford’scollectionof PrayersforSocialandFamilyWorship (1859),andeventotheseriesofhymn bookspublishedbyallmainPresbyteriandenominations,culminatinginthejoint ChurchHymnary of1898(Barkley1977;Rees1980:87–439;Murray1997;Brown 2012:71–7).Indirectly, CarminaGadelica drawsupontheecclesiasticalliberalism andinnovationthatatthesametimewereinstigatingtensions,andeventual schisms,amongFreeChurchHighlandcongregations.Indeed,withitsveneration of ‘ancientforms’ ofritual,anditsregulated,repetitive,dignified,andemotionally soothingverses, CarminaGadelica bespeaksofadissatisfactionwithexisting patternsofworship particularlythegrowthofevangelicaldissent thatis stronglyreminiscentofVictoriandevotionalpoetry(Blair2012:85–121).
Appreciatingcontemporarypolitical,religious,andartisticcontexts,andrecognizingthecontributionsofaclose-knitgroupoffamilyandyoungerdevotees,
assistusinunderstandinghowandwhyCarmichael’sbookcametobe.Intheend, however,itsspiritualvisionwasonemediatedthroughAlexanderCarmichael himself.Acandid,empathetic,dedicatedinterviewer,duringtwodecadeshehad beenvouchsafedprivate,esotericlorebyagedislanders.Butthemanyprayers, blessings,andcharmshenoteddownfrequentlyappearedincomplete,imperfectly remembered,patchedup,andcrowdedwithvariantreadings.ForCarmichael, ‘[t]hefragmentsrecalledbytheirfamilies,likethefragmentsofGreekorEtruscan vases,indicatedtheoriginals’ (Carmichael1900–71:I,xxviii).Usinghisunparalleledknowledgeofhisnativelanguageandculture,aswellasimagination, romanticism,andhistoricalpreconceptions,AlexanderCarmichaeltookitupon himselftosynthesizethevariousdifferentversionshehadgatheredinthe field, creativelyreworkingandreimaginingthem,beforeassemblingtheresulting longer,morepolished,archaic ‘originals’ intoanancientlostliturgy.
In CarminaGadelica readershaveatreasure-troveoftraditionallore,amagnificentartwork,andacrucialmodernisttext.But,ascontemporaryreviews suggest,duringitsdecade-longgestationthebooktravelledfarfromitsoriginal conceptionasapremeditatedinterventionataspecificpoliticaljuncture,relying upontheagriculturalcredentialsandtechnicalexperienceofitsauthor.Affected bythespiritualconcernsandartisticaspirationsoftheCelticRenascence,the ferventreligiousdebatesthenrackingtheFreeChurch,andtheviewpointsofwellwishersanddisciplesintheurbanmiddle-classGaelicdiaspora, CarminaGadelica,andtheauthorialpersonaofAlexanderCarmichaelhimself,werereworked, aestheticized,spiritualized,andabstracted. Subspecieæternitatis,histhree-guinea masterworkcertainlywonanextensive,enduring,globalreadership butthat readershipdidnotincludetheislandcroftersandcottarswhohadentrusted Carmichaelwiththeirstoreinthe firstplace.
Bibliography
Balcou,Jean(1997). Renan:UnCelterationaliste.Rennes:PressesUniversitairesde Rennes.
Balcou,Jean(2017). ErnestRenan:Unebiographie.Paris:ChampionClassiques. Barkley,JohnM.(1977). ‘TheRenaissanceofPublicWorshipintheChurchof Scotland,1865–1905’ , StudiesinChurchHistory 14:339–50.
Bárth,Dániel(2013). ‘BenedictionandExorcisminEarlyModernHungary’,inJames AlexanderKapalóetal.(eds.), ThePowerofWords:StudiesonCharmsandCharminginEurope.Budapest:CentralEuropeanUniversityPress,199–210.
Black,Ronald(ed.)(1999). AnTuil – TheFlood:Anthologyof20th-CenturyScottish GaelicVerse.Edinburgh:Polygon.
Black,Ronald(ed.)(2002). Eileinnah-Òige:ThePoemsofFrAllanMcDonald. Glasgow:MungoBooks.
Blaikie,WalterBiggar(1897). ItineraryofPrinceCharlesEdwardStuart.Scottish HistorySociety,vol.23,Series1.Edinburgh:T.&A.Constable.
Blair,Kirstie(2012). FormandFaithinVictorianPoetryandReligion.Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress.
Brown,StewartJ.(2012). ‘ScotlandandtheOxfordMovement’,inStewartJ.Brown andPeterB.Nockles(eds.), TheOxfordMovement:EuropeandtheWiderWorld 1830–1930.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,56–77.
Cameron,EwenA.(1996). LandforthePeople?TheBritishGovernmentandthe ScottishHighlands,c.1880–1925. Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress.
Campbell,J.A.(1895).Letter. Scotsman,30December,p.10.
Campbell,JohnGregorson(2005). TheGaelicOtherworld,ed.RonaldBlack.Edinburgh: Birlinn.
Campbell,JohnLorne(1978–81). ‘CarminaGadelica:GeorgeHenderson’sCorrectionsandSuggestions’ , ScottishGaelicStudies XIII:183–218.
Carmichael,Alexander(1884). ‘GrazingandAgresticCustomsoftheOuterHebrides’,in ReportoftheCommissionersofInquiryintotheConditionoftheCroftersandCottarsin theHighlandsandIslandsofScotland. ParliamentaryPapersof1884,xxxiii–xxxvi.
Carmichael,Alexander(1887–91). ‘UistOldHymns’ , TransactionsoftheGaelicSociety ofGlasgow,vol.I:34–47.
Carmichael,Alexanderetal.(eds.)(1900–71). CarminaGadelica,6vols.Edinburgh: T.&A.Constableetal.
Carnie,RobertHay(1955–71). ‘ThePitsligoPressofGeorgeHayForbes:Some AdditionsandCorrections’ , EdinburghBibliographicalSocietyTransactions,vol. IV:233–43.
Cheyne,A.C.(1983). TheTransformingoftheKirk:VictorianScotland’sReligious Revolution. Edinburgh:SaintAndrewPress.
Cumming,Elizabeth(2006). Hand,HeartandSoul:TheArtsandCraftsMovementin Scotland.Edinburgh:Birlinn. Ferguson,Megan(2011). ‘PatrickGeddesandtheCelticRenascenceofthe1890s’.PhD thesis,UniversityofDundee.
Forbes,GeorgeHay(ed.)(1864). LiberEcclesiæBeatiTerrenanideArbuthnott. Burntisland:PitsligoPress.
Foster,Roy(1998–2003). W.B.Yeats:ALife,2vols.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. Franz,Adolph(1960[1909]). DiekirchlichenBenediktionenimMittelalter,2vols. Graz:AkademischeDruck-undVerlaganstalt.
Gillies,DrHughCameron(1900).Reviewof CarminaGadelica, HighlandNews, 8December.
Hay,Jane(1896). ‘TheDanceofLife’ , TheEvergreen:ANorthernSeasonal 3:32–5. Hutchinson,Roger(2010). FatherAllan:TheLifeandLegacyofaHebrideanPriest. Edinburgh:Birlinn.
