TheDivineIdeas TraditioninChristian MysticalTheology
MARKA.M C INTOSH
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For Anne, LizaandNate
withallmyloveandgratitude
Preface
WhenIbegantheresearchforthisbook,Ihadalreadygrownincreasingly concernedthatthehumancommunity ’sresponsetoglobalclimatechange wassadlyvitiatedbydenialsoftruth.Thousandsofourfellowbeingsare underthreatbecausehumanself-interestseemsmorethancapableof insistingthatfactssimplycannotbeagreedupon.AndasIwritethispreface weareinthemidstofaglobalpandemicwhosedevastatingeffectsare exacerbatedbypoliticalchoicestodenytherealitiesofnature.
Iraisetheseissuesbecausetheyhavepartlymotivatedmyaimsin researchingandwritingthisbook,andbecauseIhopethisbookwillassist othersinreclaimingatheologicalperspectivethathonorstruthwithprofoundreverence.Needlesstosay,noneoftheauthorsIdiscussinthiswork wereconcernedwithourpresentcrises letalonecanIsaythattheywould havecertainlystoodononesideofanargumentoranother(e.g.,about climatechangeorsystemicracism);nonetheless,Idobelievethattheyallin variouswaysweredevotedtotruthinitsdeepestandmosttheologicalsense. Andthatisnosmallgiftinourpresentmoment.
Theargumentofthebookisstraightforward:thatforatleastthreequartersofthehistoryofChristianthought,especiallyinthewritingsof Christianmysticaltheologians,truthhasbeenreveredas,ultimately,the manifestationofGod’sownself-understanding,andthatasadirectresultof thisthebeautifulintelligibilityandtruthfulnessofallcreatures findsits imperishablegroundinGod’sinfiniteknowingofGodself.Thisperspective, thedivineideastradition,hasallowedChristiantheologians,spiritual teachers,andmysticstocontemplatethedeepandoftenmysteriousreality ofourfellowbeingsintheconfidencethattheirtruthcouldneverbewholly distortedorsilencedbyhumanmendacity,never finallydestroyedbyviolenceordisease,butthattheimperishabletruthandgoodnessofeverybeing issustainedeternallyinthemindofGod.Moreoverthedivineideas traditionfosteredtheconvictionthathumankindiscalledtoacontemplativevocation,abeholdingofourfellowcreaturesandareverentsearchfor everdeeperunderstandingofthem,anunderstandingthatmustliberate itselffromallculturalbiases,allformsofprejudice preciselybecausethe
truthofall flowsdirectlyfromtheinfinitepowerandgoodnessofTruth itself,whoisGod.
InwaysthatIhadnotexpected,thisbookhasbecomerathermore personal thoughIhopenotlessaccessibleoraccurate thanIhad imagineditwouldbe.Aftermanyyearsofdevelopingtheresearch Ineededtofeelevenremotelyconfidentinexploringsorichanddiversea tradition,IwasdiagnosedwithALS,sometimescalledmotorneurondisease.Asmyphysicalincapacitiesbecamemorechallenging,Ioftenwonderedaboutthetruthofmyownlifeandhowthattruthmightbegrounded inadeeperreality.Thisisnotsodifferent,ofcourse,fromourcommonand beneficialawarenessthatthetruthofourlivesisneversimplyaprivate matterbutsubsistsintherelationshipsandexperienceswesharewith others.Insomeways,youmightsaythatthedivineideastraditionwas andisatheologicalrealizationofthisawarenessonacosmicscale the truth-bearingrelationshipswithinwhichouridentitiescometofullexpressionbeingnoneotherthanthelifeandrelationalityofGodtheTrinity.
Besidesthesethematicreflections,livingwithALSalsoledtoverypracticalimpacts:Iwasincreasinglyunabletoaccessanyofmyresearchnotes, thevolumesIhadglossedwithmarginalcomments,andeveneventuallyto holdabookorturnapage.Iamprofoundlygratefultothreelong-time teachers,mentors,andfriends FrankT.Griswold,formerPresidingBishop oftheEpiscopalChurch,andProfessorsBernardMcGinnandDavidTracy oftheUniversityofChicago whoencouragedmetoforgeaheadandwrite thebookthatI could writeandnotbediscouragedbythethoughtofwhat Iwasnolongerabletoachieve.Accordinglythisbookissimplyatheological essaythatattempts,inconversationwithalimitedrangeofChristianwriters andmysticaltheologians,toelucidatethefundamentalroleandsignificance ofthedivineideastraditionacrosstherangeofChristiandoctrines.Ihad intendedandpreparedtowritealongerbook,withthe firstseveralchapters devotedtotherichhistoricalunfoldingofthedivineideas,fromthetimeof theMiddlePlatoniststothecrisisandtransformationoftheideasinthelater MiddleAgesandearlymodernity,tothenewappropriationoftheideasin theRomanticera,andconcludingwithanexaminationoftheadoptionof thistraditioninthreetwentieth-centurywriters:Bulgakov,Balthasar,and Merton.ThetheologicalessaythatIhavewrittenwasmeanttodrawupon theseearlierhistoricalchapters,whichInowhopewill findotherand undoubtedlymorecapableauthors:thereismuchmoretobediscovered andinterpreted!
MuchoftheinitialresearchforthisbookwasconductedwhileIservedas theVanMildertProfessorofDivinityatDurhamUniversityandcanon residentiaryofDurhamCathedral.Iamsogratefultomycolleaguesinthe UniversityandtheCathedral,andtomystudentsandmembersofthe Cathedralcongregation,allofwhomnotonlypatientlyboremyenthusiasmsbutencouragedmewithdeepfriendshipandwisdom.Amongmy doctoralstudentsatDurham,I’mespeciallygratefultoRachelDaviesforher devotedteachingassistanceandforherownprofoundlyinsightfulscholarshiponthesignificanceofthesufferingbodyinthespiritualityandtheology ofBonaventure.Andaboveallitgivesmegreatjoytothankanotherofmy PhDstudents,BenjaminDeSpain,forhisremarkableworkwithallmy undergraduatestudentsandforhisequallyexemplaryresearchassistance; hisowndoctoralresearchanddissertationonthedivineideasinThomas Aquinasprovidedcontinualilluminationandencouragement,nottomentionimmeasurablecomradeshipinacommonproject.
In2014LoyolaUniversityChicago,whereIhad firstbeguntoteachin 1993,invitedmetoreturnastheinauguralholderofitsEndowedChairin ChristianSpirituality,andIamenormouslygratefultomycolleaguesthere forwelcomingmebacksowarmly,andastheALSdevelopedforsuch graciousandaffectionatesupport.AlthoughIcannolongermovemy body,IcanstillspeakandsotheUniversitymostkindlyarrangedfor dictationsoftware,andfortwoofmydoctoralstudentstovisitmeregularly athome.Withouttheireruditeandendlesslypatientassistance,thisbook wouldhavebeenimpossibleformetowrite.Somydeepgratitudegoesto JohnMarshallDiamondforallhishelpandforalltheinsightsfromhisown doctoraldissertation, “TheSparkandtheDarkness:TheRelationofthe IntellectandApophaticismintheTheologicalAnthropologyofMeister Eckhart.” AndIamespeciallythankfulforalltheprofoundlyskillfuland deftassistanceofJacobTorbeck,whowentfarbeyondthecallofany doctoralstudentinassistingmywriting andwhosedoctoraldissertation hasbeenarichsourceofnewunderstandings: “TurnNotThineEyes:Holy FacesandSavingGazesinMysticalandLiberationTheologies.”
Since2014ourfamilyhashadthegreatjoyofbeingmembersofthe ChristiancommunityofSt.Luke’sEpiscopalChurch,Evanston,andIcan neversuf ficientlyexpressourgratitudeforalltheirkindness,care,and support.Thisisequallytrueofallthecolleagues,formerstudents,and friends,bothintheUKandtheUS,whosemanyexpressionsofprayer andaffectionateencouragementhavemeantsoverymuch.
CaringformydailyneedshasgrownintoquiteajobandIcouldnever have finishedthisbookwithoutthegraciouscaregivingofChristine OgunbolaandEvangelistEmekaOkere.Foroverayearnow,Emekahas beenwithmeeverydayandhispatience,skill,goodhumor,andChristian friendshiphavemadeallthedifferencetomeandourfamily.
Theexistenceofthisbookisduetotheendlessloveandcompanionship ofmyfamily:mybrothersandsisterandtheirspouses GibandSylvia, BruceandPriscilla,KathyandTom,youhavebeenwithmeeverystepof theway.
Andaboveall,Iamgratefulbeyondallwordstomybelovedwife,Anne, andourtwowonderfulchildren,LizaandNate.Annehasmadelifepossible formeandhasbeenmydearestfriendsincewe firstmet;hergenerouslove hasgivenmelifeandthewilltocompletethiswork.Toallthreeofthem Idedicatethisbook,fortheyhavebeenthemostintimateandconstantsign ofwhatGod’slovemustbelike.
Inaseasonofconsiderablechallengeforourworldandforsomanyofus individually,IhopemorethanIcansaythatreadersmay findwithinthese pagesgoodcausetoseekallthatistrue,andjust,andbeautiful.
Acknowledgments
Duringthecourseofmyresearchforthisvolume,Iwasabletodevelop initialargumentsforseveralaspectsofthework.Portionsofthisbook appearedintheseearlierformsandIamgratefultobeabletodrawupon themhere.Thesewereoriginallypublishedasthefollowing:
“MysticalTheologyattheHeartofTheology,” chapter2 inTheOxford HandbookofMysticalTheology,co-editor(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, 2020),pp.25–44.
“TheFather’sVindicationoftheWord,” chapter6in ChristianDying,ed. GeorgeKalantzisandMatthewLevering(Eugene,OR,CascadeBooks, 2018),pp.124–133.
“TheContemplativeTurninFicinoandTraherne,” in TheRenewalof MysticalTheology:EssaysinMemoryofJohnN.Jones,ed.BernardMcGinn (NewYork:Crossroad,2017),pp.162–176.
“BeautifulIdeas:TheVisibilityofTruth,” in TheRecoveryofBeauty,ed. CorinneSaunders(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2015),pp.21–34.
“TheMaker’sMeaning:DivineIdeasandSalvation,” ModernTheology, vol.28/3(July2012):365–384.
WhilecontinuingtheresearchforthisbookIwasalsohonoredtodeliver thefollowinglectures,allofwhichwereimportantstepsinthedevelopment ofmythinkingandinterpretation,andIamverygratefultotheoriginal audiencesfortheirconversationandinsights.
“GreenTrinity:Creation’sMendingandTrinitarianLifeinanAgeof EnvironmentalCrisis,” TheDuBoseLectures2017,endowedlectureseries, threeplenaryaddresses,TheUniversityoftheSouth,theSchoolof Theology,Sewanee,TN,September27–28,2017.
“MysticsandtheMindofGod,” The2015BelkLecture(Plenary Address),WesleyanCollege,Georgia,September22,2015.
“DivineIdeasandtheIncarnation,” PaperforTempletonFoundation Colloquium,Copenhagen,2011.
“TheArtisan ’sDesign:CreationintheMindofGod,” PlenaryAddress, BritishPatristicsSociety,DurhamUniversity,September2010.
Introduction
Sometimesoldacademicdebates,seeminglyconsignedwithrelief(onall sides)tothedustyrealmsofhistoricalcuriosities,springastonishinglytolife. Ibelieveweareinoneofthosemoments.Thegoodnessandbeautyofour planethavebeenexploitedsogrievouslyastolaybare,withrawandurgent relevance,ourapparentobliviousnessofolderviews theologicalvisions thatwouldhaveregardedthegoodnessandbeautyofeachcreature,notas merelyaconstructionofhumanvalue,appreciatedordismissedaccording toeconomicreasons,butastheradiantepiphanyofthedivinegoodnessand beautyfromwhichallcreatures flow.Infatalcorrelationtothedenialofthe planet’srealgoodnessandvulnerablebeauty,we findanequallydevastating denialofthetruthaboutwhathelpsorharmstheplanet’swell-being.Infact therampantabuseoftruthinthedigitalageseemstobeencouragingan onlinearmsraceofmisinformation,inwhichnarrativesareassertednot becausetheyaretruebutbecausetheyareabadgeofone’sfactionagainstall others.So,forexample,anentireonline “community” hasbeenbuiltup aroundthegrotesquedenialoftruthregardingthemassshootingofchildren inschoolsacrossAmerica notonlydenyingsolaceandrespectforthe victimsandtheirfamilies,butperpetuatingacloudofobfuscationthat seemstocloakauthenticameliorationoftheprobleminimpossibility, preciselybecausetheactualfactsarecontinuallydistorted.
FormostofthehistoryofChristianthought,especiallyamongstthe teachersofChristianmysticaltheology,truth,goodness,andbeautyappear inourworldwithasovereignmajestythatcallsforthhumanreverence,and aprofoundhumandesiretounderstandthesacramentaldepthofmeaning inherentinallcreation.Inordertothinkandteachmoreprofoundlyabout thisdivineresonancewithinallbeings,andaboutthehumancallingto contemplateandreverethisfullnessofmeaning,ChristianmysticaltheologiansoftendrewupontheirbeliefinGodasTrinity.God’slife,theytaught, isalifeofinfiniteknowingandloving,arelationallifeinwhichthedivine Persons are astheyenacttheinexhaustibleself-givingthatisexistenceitself. Inthiseternalandperfectlifeofknowingandloving,theprocessionsofthe
divineWordandHolySpirit,Godalsoknowsandlovesfrometernityallthe waysinwhichcreaturescometoshareinalikenesstoGod,byGod’sgiftto themof finiteexistenceintime.InthemindorWordofGodarethedivine ideasofallthateverhasbeenorwillbe,notasmomentsofforeknowledge aboutthingsthatwillcometopass,butastheFather’sinfiniteselfunderstandingandself-givingintheSonandtheirmutualjoyfullovein theSpirit.Thedivineideas,inotherwords,arenotdependentoncreaturesto-be,butrathercreaturescometobe because Godeternallyknowsand lovesthetruthofGod, including thetruthofGod’sgiftofexistencetoother beings.Sothedivineideasteachingalloweditsexponentstocontemplate withreverenceandwonderthegoodness,truth,andbeautyofourfellow creaturesbecauseittaughtthatatthecoreofeverybeingisthecontinual speakingofitsimperishabletruthinGod,theintelligibleformorideaby whichGodthinksandcreateseachbeing.
IntheprefaceIhaveexplainedbrie flywhythisbookmustleavetoothers therichhistoricalcontextualization,thephilosophicalproblematics,andthe biblicalfoundationswithwhichIwouldhavelikedtoapproachthedivine ideastradition.¹Forgoodorillthisisashorterbookthanitmighthavebeen, andperhapsitwouldmostkindlybereceivedassimplyatheologicalessay,a conversationwithseveralofthemostoutstandingteachersofthedivine ideastradition.Thereare,however,atleasttwopossiblemisimpressionsthat mynecessaryapproachtodiscussingthedivineideasmayunintentionally give,andIhopethatbyalertingreaderstotheseinadvanceImaymitigate theproblem.First,andmostobviously,byworkingwithafairlynarrow groupofthinkers,andhighlightingpointsofintrinsiccoherenceamong theirdifferentapproachestothedivineideas,Imightgivereadersthe impressionofafargreaterhomogeneitythanImeantosuggest.Itgoes withoutsayingthateachauthorreflectstheverydifferenthistoricaland theologicalcontextsinwhichtheywrote,andwhileIwishtodrawreaders ’ attentiontothebroadfamilyresemblanceamongtheirapproachestothe divineideas,Icertainlywouldnotwishtoimplythattheyarealwaysofone mindoneveryissue.Thesecondpossiblemisimpressionstemsfrommy desiretoillustratehowthedivineideasteachingmightbeextendedintoour contemporarydiscussions,andhowmatterswhichareimplicitinancientor medievaltreatmentsofthedivineideasmightsuggestwaysforwardforus today.IhopereaderswilleasilysensewhenIamdrawingoutnotionsthat areperhapsimplicitinourauthors,butwhichrepresentmyownattemptto advanceadiscussionaboutthepotentialsignificanceofthedivineideasin Christianmysticaltheology.Thissecondissuemayariseparticularly
becauseIhave,fairlyconsistentlythroughoutthebook,attemptedtoshow thepossibleroleofthedivineideasinthinkingaboutthedeathand resurrectionofChrist;andwhile,aswewillsee,athinkersuchasBonaventure doesmakearichanddirectuseofthedivineideasinthatcontext,other thinkerswhomItreatarelessexplicitinthisregard.Inshort,Ihopereaders will findmyconstructiveengagementwiththeseimportanthistorical figures tobeintriguingandsuggestivebutnotmisleading;perhapsinacasesuchas thisforewarnedisforearmed,andIamgratefulforthereader’spatienceand imaginationasIattempttomakemycase.
ReadersfamiliarwithancientandmedievalChristianitywillimmediately recognizethebook’sstructureasattemptingtofollowthepathofPseudoDionysiusandThomasAquinas,strivingtoarticulateatheologicalpattern thatmirrorswhattheyandIbelievetobethedynamicstructureofexistence itself comingforthfromtheinfiniteExistencewecallGodandreturningto Godalongthewaypioneered,Christiansbelieve,byJesusthroughtheSpirit. Accordingly,the firstchapterintroducesthedivineideastraditionas groundedintheTrinitarianlifeofGod(andalsoofferssomeimportant clarificationsaboutthenatureofmyargument).ThesecondchapterinvestigatesthewayinwhichthedivineideasteachinginflectstheChristian understandingofcreation,aswellasofferingsomeattempttothinkabout thehistoricalmarginalizationofthisperspectiveinthelatemedievaland earlymodernperiods.Chapter3arguesthattheIncarnationandPaschal mysteryfundamentallyreconstitutethedivineideaswithinChristological andTrinitarianmodesofreflection,andthechapterfurtherproposesthatit isonthesedoctrinalgroundsthatthedivineideasteachingmightprovea helpfulrediscovery.Chapter4exploresmorefullyhowtheresurrectionof Christ,consideredthroughthelensofthedivineideastradition,canbeseen asre-creatingandbringingtolifethetruthofallcreatures;further,the chaptersuggeststhattheChristiancommunity,desiringtoshareevermore fullyinChrist’sdyingandrising,developsanewunderstandingofhumanity’scontemplativecalling sothatacontinualconversionofcontemplative consciousnesscollaboratesinChrist’sre-harmonizingofcreationwith God’sknowingandlovingofeachcreature.The finalchaptersuggests howthedivineideaspermitmysticaltheologytoenvisionafourfoldanalogy ofintelligibility:inthemindofGod,inhuman(andangelic)actsof understanding,inthevindicationofChrist(throughhisresurrection)as thetruthofGodandofcreation,andintheconsummationofthehuman desiretoknowthetruthinthevisionofGod.
Attheheartoftheargumentinthisessayareanumberofmaterial convictionsaboutthesubstanceofthedivineideasteachingbutalsosome hypothesesabouttheformalsignificanceofthedivineideas thatishypothesesabouttheparticularrolethedivineideasteachinghasplayedand whythatmightbeso.Forexample,acentralmaterialimplicationofthe divineideastraditionisthattheologycanandshouldrespectthelovingand lovablegratuityatthegroundofallcreatures becauseitistheechowithin themofthelovingfreedomoftheirAuthor.Whatthedivineideastradition servestodo,inaninstancesuchasthis,istohelpuscontemplateprecisely thiscrucialnexusbetweenthecreatures,inalltheirparticularityand vulnerablecherishabilityintime, and theeternallyfreeactivityofknowing andlovingbywhichGodisGodandinvirtueofwhichthecreatureshave theirexistence.IntheChristiantradition,I’marguing,preciselybecausethe ideasareGod’sownknowledgeofhoweverycreatureparticipatesinthe divineself-sharingofexistence,theideascanbeseenasinherentlyimbued withtheself-communicatingandrelationalagencyoftheTrinitarianlifein whichtheyareeternallyknownandloved.So,Iwillarguelaterinthisbook, theembodiedhistoricalstruggleofeverycreaturetodiscoverandtobeits trueself,tocommunicatethevivaciousideaatitscore,isneverleftbehind butisintegraltoitsconsummaterealization,toitsfullnessoflife.Andasthe creaturefullylivesintoitsself-communication,thistruelifesurgespastall falseselvesconstructedbysinandprejudiceandviolenceofeverykind,and onwardsintotheinexhaustibleself-sharingofitstruth;forthetruthatthe heartofeverycreatureisGod’seternalandimperishableknowingand lovingofit,andthisisthelifefromwhichit flowsandwhich,Christians believe,Godintendsittoenjoyforever.
Amongthemanyusesandattributesofthedivineideasteaching,onein particular,Isuspect,mayhavegivenrisetoitsnearubiquityinthehistoryof Christianthoughtpriortomodernity.Thisisthefactthatthedivineideas functionforChristianteachersandmysticsasawayofthinkingaboutand indeed,contemplating,thecommunionamongGod,creatures,andthe humanperson.Withineachcornerofthismetaphoricaltriangleofcommunion,theideashavebothametaphysicalfunction(explaininghowthings cometoexistaswhattheyare)andalsoanoeticorepistemologicalfunction (explaininghowthetruthofthingscanbeknown).InGod,thedivineideas areunderstoodbythetraditiontoexistasanaspectofGod’sknowingof Godself,andwithinthateternalself-understandingintheWord,alltheways inwhichcreaturesmightcometoparticipateinorimitatethedivinereality. Iftheologiansarecontemplatingtheideasasthe causes ofallcreatures,they
mayrefertotheideasasexemplarsorarchetypes,beingasitwerethe blueprintsbywhichGodbringsthecreaturesintotheirindividual finite existence.Butiftheologiansarecontemplatingtheideasprimarilyasintelligible forms withinGod’seternalknowing,thentheideasmaybereferredto astheeternalreasons,namely,theideasbywhichGodknowsthetruthofall thecreaturespreciselyasaspectsofGod’sownessence.Iemphasizethatthis distinction,withrespecttoGod,betweenthemetaphysicalandtheepistemologicalisofcoursepurelyamatterofhumanfocus:inGod,forour thinkers,beingandknowingaresimplyonereality.
Thesetwoaspects,thenoeticandthemetaphysical,arealsopresentinthe secondcornerofthistriangleofcosmiccommunion:namely,inthecreaturesthemselves.Forattheheartofeverycreatureisthedivineexemplar thatcausesittobepreciselyandwonderfullywhatitis;andlookedat noetically,thiscreativeexemplarcanalsobeunderstoodasthecreature’ s intelligibleform,theideabywhichitmayberightlyandfullyunderstoodin allitstruth.Atthethirdcornerofourmetaphorofcosmiccommunion,we havetherationalcreatures:angels,andmoreparticulartoourpurposes, humanbeings forthehumanperson,whosharesinthesensible,physical realityofallothercreatures,isalsoabletorecognizethecreature ’sintelligibleformoridea,andthis,whenactualizingthemindofahumanknower, instantiatesalinkormomentofcommunionamongthecreaturewhoexists intelligiblyinthemindofthehumanknower,theknowerherself,andGod’ s ownknowingandloving,fromwhichboththecreatureanditshuman contemplator flow.I’msuggestingthenthatGod’sknowingandloving freelycommunicatesitself,bothinthe finitecreaturelyexpressionofthe divineideas,andinthetransformationofconsciousnessthatthecontemplationoftheideasincreationbringsabout.Andinthisway,Christians believe,Godnurturesaconsciousnessofthehiddendivinepresenceinall beings,andthepossibilityofeverfullercommunionamongcreatures,and betweencreaturesandGod.Whilethedivineideashavesometimesbeenthe subjectofprofoundphilosophicalanalysisinthehistoryofChristian thought,thisbookisanefforttounderstandtheroleofthedivineideas teachinginChristianmysticaltheology aneffort,thatis,tonoticeand interprettheroleoftheideasinthethoughtofChristianmysticalteachers, whohavesoughttoawakentheirfellowChristianstoGod’shiddenor mysticalpresencewithinallthings,deepeningthecontemplativeresponse toGod’ spresence.
Aswewillseethroughoutthisbook,theexponentsofthedivineideas teachingcompassawiderangeofunderstandingswithrespecttoboththe
metaphysicalandthenoeticaspectsofthedivineideas.WhileIwillseldom devotemuchattentionto finedistinctionsinthisregard,itmaybehelpfulto readerstoconsiderforamomentthediversityofpositionsthatmightbe possibleandhowtheyinteractwitheachother thatis,toconsiderthe reciprocalinfluenceofparticularstancesonboththemetaphysicaland noeticissuesinthinkingaboutthedivineideas.Asawayofmakingthis moreevident,wemightconsideradiagramwithtwoaxesasdisplayed below:
a. Theophany
c. individualist consciousness
d. consciousness participating in divine ideas
b. Only imitation / No participation
Consideringthevertical(a–b)axis,wecanthinkoftheupperreachesas perspectivesthatunderstandcreaturelyrealityasitselfatheophany,an expressionin finiteformofGod’sownreality.Inthisview,thedivine ideasareexpressedintimeinindividualized, finiteform,withinevery creature.Attheotherendofthisaxis(b),wouldbetheperspectivethat understands finiterealityas not participatingintheactualdivinebeing,but ratherasimitatingit likeaself-portraitbyapainter,orarecordingofa singer,thecreationisnottheexpressionoftheimmediatepresenceofthe divine,butonlyimitatesitinsomeway.Inthisperspective,then,thedivine ideasarenotdirectlypresentwithineachcreaturebutareonlyreflectedor echoedattheheartofeachcreature.
Turningtothehorizontalaxis(c–d),theleftmostpositionrepresents humanconsciousnessthatisentirelyuntouchedbydivineillumination andexperiencesrealityfromtheindividualistperspectiveofahumanego looking “out” atallotherbeingsas “objects,” eitherofattractiveorrepellent significance.Thisperspectiveis,bymostofourthinkers,understoodtobe profoundlyvitiatedbysin,turningthesubject–objectdivisioninhuman
consciousnessintoamindsetmarredbyfearandantagonismtowardsthe other.Attheotherend(d)istheperspectiveofaparticipantsharingin God’sownknowingandlovingofallreality,andunderstandingthedivine truthofeverycreaturefromthatwholisticandlovingvantagepoint.This perspectiveisespeciallymarkedbyitsembraceoftheunifieddiversityof realityasthewhollybeneficentexpressionofdivineinfinity.Inotherwords, itexperiencesrealityasliberatedfromdivisionorenmityandasentirelyone withinthedivineembrace.Ifwelookatthetrajectorymarkedbythearrow movingfromXtoY,wecanusethattotracethesortofprogressionsought bysuchimportantthinkersinthedivineideastraditionasAugustine, Pseudo-Dionysius,Hadewijch,orEckhart.Thisprogressionshowsthe intrinsiclinkbetweentheshiftincontemplativeconsciousnessandthe apprehensionofrealityinacompletelydifferentmanner.Thespiritual journey,inotherwords,meansnotsimplyachangeinwhatonesees,but intheknowerherself:asconsciousnesssharesmorefullyinGod’ sown knowingandloving,sotootheactualpresenceofthatknowingandlovingat theheartofeachcreaturebecomesmorevividlyapparent.Myhopeisthat thishighlyoversimplifieddiscussionwillassistreadersinponderingthe mutuallyimplicatingsignificanceofthesetwoaspectsofthedivineideas teaching,thusallowingustonoticemoreeasilywhatisatstakeinthe differentstancesadoptedandencouragedbyourwriters.
AsIhavejustsuggested,Christianthinkersoften findanintrinsic connectionbetweenthedivineideasteachingandthehumancallingto contemplaterealityand findGodinallthings.Moreover,asIwillsuggest inChapter1,thedivineideasarefarmorepresentimplicitlythroughoutthe wholerangeofChristianteachingthananyparticularexplicitreferencesto themmightsuggest.Andthiscombination,namelytheirintrinsicdynamic towardscontemplationandtheirimplicitpresencewithinalmosteveryarea ofChristianbelief,meansthatthedivineideasseemtofunctionthroughout Christiantheologyasinvitationsintothedivinepresence.Thedivineideas teaching,Iamarguing,holdsopenwithintheologywhatwemightthinkof asahiddenspiritualdoorineverydoctrinallocus athresholdacrosswhich reflectionondoctrinepassesonwardstowardsanencounterwiththeliving mysterytowhichthedoctrineismeanttoguidebelievers.Wegetagood glimpseofthephenomenonI’mpointingtointhispassagefromWilliamof St.Thierry(c.1085–1148):
WhentheobjectofthoughtisGodandthethingswhichrelatetoGodand thewillreachesthestageatwhichitbecomeslove,theHolySpirit,the
Spiritoflife,atonceinfuseshimselfbywayofloveandgiveslifeto everything,lendinghisassistanceinprayer,inmeditationorinstudyto humanweakness.Immediatelythememorybecomeswisdomandtastes withrelishthegoodthingsoftheLord,whilethethoughtstowhichthey giverisearebroughttotheintellecttobeformedintoaffections.The understandingoftheonethinkingbecomesthecontemplationoftheone loving.²
WilliamevokesthecircumstancesinwhichsomuchofChristianity’stheologicalreflectionwasachievedintheerabetweentheageoftheMothersand FathersoftheChurchandthehighscholasticperiodofthelaterMiddle Ages.NotethecarefullylimnedsequencethatWilliamsuggestsaperson mightperceive,and,undoubtedly,acknowledgewiththemostprofound gratitude:themindgivesitselftothinkingaboutGodand “thethingswhich relatetoGod,” butasthishappens,theheartisovertakenwithloveforthat infinitegoodnessofGodthatthemind’sthoughtshadconceivedastruthbut neverfullycomprehended.TheinfinitebeautyofGod’slife,thatthemind meetsasdazzlingtruth,thewilltastesasWisdom’sgenerousandloving goodness.Insuchmoments,saysWilliam,itistheHolySpiritwhoasthe divinelove “infuses” Godselfand “giveslifetoeverything.” Whatisthis “everything”?Williamdescribeshere,Ibelieve,theoptimumtheological moment,when “theunderstandingoftheonethinkingbecomesthecontemplationoftheoneloving,” whenthetheologicallaboroftheearthly churchiswelcomed,foramomentatleast,intotheconsummatejoyofits sistersandbrotherswhonowseewhatcanbywayfarersonlybebelieved. IwanttosuggestthatformostofthehistoryofChristianity,thedivineideas, presentasanaspectofthecentralbeliefsofChristianfaith,wereparticularly aptmeansforthinkingtobestrengthenedbyloving,forunderstandingto expandintothatlivingencounterwecallcontemplation.AsGod’ sown “thoughts” (albeitofcourseconceivedanthropomorphicallybutstillanalogically),thedivineideasareveryrarelyconsideredbyourauthorstobe knowableinandofthemselvesbyhumanknowers theywouldbetoo overwhelminglychargedwiththeinfiniterealityofGod;yetthedivine ideasarebyourauthorsconsideredtobefriendandilluminatethehuman mindinsearchofunderstanding.Andthisvery thought oftheideas,in generouslovebeckoningthemindandhearttowardsWisdom’sbanquet, infusesChristians whothuscometorecognizetheideasastheyare embodiedwithintimeandspace,kindlingwithinbelieversanardentdesire tobeholdthefullradianceoftheideasastheyexistimperishablyinthe
divineknowingandloving.Letmenowofferasomewhatfullerexampleof thisformalqualityofthedivineideasteaching,namelyitspropensityto encouragetheologytoopentowardsthemysteryitseekstounderstand.
IntheGalileeChapelatthewestendofDurhamCathedralliethemortal remainsofSt.BedetheVenerable(672–735).Amidthesolemnbeautyofthe chevronedRomanesquearches,inscribedoverhistombarewordsfrom Bede’sowncommentaryontheBookofRevelation: “ChrististheMorning Starwho,whenthenightofthisworldispast,bringstohissaintsthe promiseofthelightoflife,andopenseverlastingday.” Bedehaddevoted hislifetounderstandingthenatureoftimeanditsrelationtoeternity,andto depictingthelong,tempestuoushistoricalstruggleofChristiansrealizing theircommonidentityinhisland.
InbelievingthatChristwouldbringpeopletoeverlastinglifewhentime finallyblossomsintoeternity,Bedewasfarfromdevaluingthedailychallengesandjoysofmortallife.Hewas,rather,unfoldingthepoweroftheone whomChristiansbelievetobetheincarnateWordtobringbeingstolife,to lifeconceivedasakindofradiantpoweroflight,vision,asharinginwhat BedeunderstoodtobeGod’sowndelightinGod.ForBedethislife-aseternal-vision,lifeassharingininfiniteself-communication,wasbeginning nowwithintime.InhiscommentaryontheSongofSongs,Bedewrites cherishinglyofallwho,perhapswithcostlyeffort,giveofthemselvestohelp thesimplestmembersofacommunityreceivewhattheyneedtoliveand grow.BededescribesJesuslovingsuchbenefactorsastheLoverlovesthe BrideintheSongofSongs,thinkingofsuchagivingpersonas “asisteranda bride” whois “joinedtohiminlove,” imitatinghisowncostlyselfcommunication; “forhealsodidnotshrinkfrombecomingweakfora timesothathemightchangeusfromweaktostrong,andeventodieso thatwemightlive.” Jesus,saysBede,andallwhoimitatehim,arelikea motherwhocommunicatesfoodandlifetoaninfantbytheintimatesharing ofhermilk;forachildcannotyetfeeduponthefullplenitudeoflife-giving food.ThenBededrawsanimportantcontrastbetweenthenourishingof angelsandmortals:
InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWord wasGod (Jn1:1);thisistheeternalfoodthatrefreshestheangelsbecause theyaresatisfiedwiththesightofhisglory.And theWordbecame fleshand dweltamongus (Jn1:14),sothatinthiswaytheWisdomofGod,who consolesusasamother,mayrefreshusfromthatverysamebread[enjoyed
byangels]andleadusthroughthesacramentsoftheincarnationtothe knowledgeandvisionofdivinesplendor.³
God’sself-communication,theWordandWisdomofGod,communicates herselfasamotherbreast-feedsherchild.NoticeherehowBedeholds togetherthecontemplativevisionoftheangels,feastingonthedivine beatitudeofinfinitelyself-sharinglife,withthetenderlyembodiedcontinuationofthatself-sharinglifemadeavailableforhumankind:Wisdom convertstheheavenlyfoodintomilkforherearthlychildrenthroughher incarnation,andthroughtheintimatelyphysicalexpressionofJesus’ embodiedself-sharinglifeinthesacraments.Theangelsnurseontheeternal visionofGod’sinfiniteTrinitarianself-sharing;humansnurseonthesame food anditleadsthemultimatelytothesame “knowledgeandvisionof divinesplendor”—butasitcomestobestowlifewithinthemthroughthe bodilylifeofWisdomintime.
Bede’swordspointtoapowerfulrevolutioninthecommoninheritance oftheMediterraneanworld,atransformationwroughtbyChristianbeliefin theIncarnationoftheWord.TheancientPlatoniccontemplativepriority accordedtodisembodied,ahistoricaltruthhadbytheageofBedecometobe handedover,inastonishedrecognition,tothelovingself-givingOnewhom Christiansbelievedhadbecomeincarnateinthehistoricalhumanlifeof Jesus.ButasBedesuggestedabove,theangeliccontemplationofthedivine ideasofallcreationwasnolongerthefullreachofWisdom’sselfcommunication,forChristianswouldseeintheIncarnationalovingdivine initiativetoshareeternaltruthwithintheembodiedstrugglesofanearthly life.ThePlatonicformshadnotsimplybeenconvertedintoideaswithinthe divinemindorWord,theyhadbeencarriedandembodiedinthehistorical self-givingofthedivineWordmade flesh.ThusthemeaningandsignificanceofthedivineideastraditioninChristianitycannotadequatelybe realizedbyattentiontotheusualphilosophicalquestionsderivedfrom reflectionsonthePlatonicforms.
TheChristologicalrevolutionthattheideasundergoinChristiantheologyandspiritualitymeansthattheycarryfarmoreweightthan,say,tokens inadiscussionabouthoworifhumanmindscanarriveatunchangingtruth beyondtransitoryexperiences(asin,e.g.,the Parmenides)orhowthis world,allappearancestothecontrary,canbeseenasagoodand fitting expressionofanideal(asinthe Timaeus ).ChristtheWordincarnate,who bearswithinhimselfGod’seternalknowingandlovingofeverycreature, drawsthewholeworldtohimself;inhisdying,sin’smendaciousandabusive
griponeverycreatureisundoneand,inhisrising,thedeeptruthand goodnessofeverycreatureisvindicatedandbroughtfullytolife.This, Ibelieve,istheupshotoftheChristologicalconstitutionofthedivine ideas;anditsuggeststhatfarfromdiminishingthesignificanceofembodied finiteexistence,theideasinChristarecrucialelementsinrecognizingand renewingcreation’sgoodness.
Inthefollowingchapters,then,Ihopetoshowhowthedivineideas teachingfunctionsimplicitlyorexplicitlyacrossthefullrangeofChristian beliefsaboutthejourneyintheWordofallcreaturesfromGodtoGod. Whethertheplausibilitystructuresofourcurrentworldofthoughtmight sustainauseofthedivineideasteachingatallcomparabletothatofearlier erasImustleavetootherstodetermine.Butitwillbeworthwhileinanycase tounderstandthetheologicalandspiritualsignificanceofatraditionso widelycherishedforsolongbysomany.
Notes
1.Forextremelyclarifyingbriefintroductionstothedivineideastradition,seethe following:BernardMcGinn, “PlatonicandChristian:TheCaseoftheDivine Ideas,” in OfScholars,Savants,andtheirTexts:StudiesinPhilosophyand ReligiousThought,ed.RuthLink-Salinger(NewYork:PeterLang,1989), 163–172;MarkJordan, “TheIntelligibilityoftheWorldandtheDivineIdeasin Aquinas,” TheReviewofMetaphysics 38,no.1(1984):17–32;andDouglas Hedley, “Symbol,ParticipationandDivineIdeas,” Chapter5in TheIconic Imagination (NewYork:BloomsburyAcademic,2016),119–148.
2.WilliamofSt.Thierry, TheGoldenEpistle:ALettertotheBrethrenatMontDieu, §249,trans.TheodoreBerkeley(Kalamazoo,MI:CistercianPublications,1971),92.
3.TheVenerableBede, OntheSongofSongsandSelectedWritings,ed.andtrans. ArthurHolder(NewYork:PaulistPress,2011),123.
TheDivineIdeasTradition inChristianity
TheDivineIdeasintheMysteryoftheTrinity
IneverycenturysincethebirthofChristianity,Christianthinkersand spiritualteachershavedrawncreativelyuponanowsomewhatmysterious aspectofChristianteachingcalledbymanynames,butoftenbythesimple phrase, “thedivineideas.” InthisbookIamseekingtounderstandhow, withinthebroadersweepofChristiantheologyandspirituality,thedivine ideastraditionplayedsosignificantarole andwhyarenewedunderstandingofthistraditionmightbehelpfultoday.Thistradition,initsmostbasic form,heldthatinGod’seternalknowingandlovingofGodself,thatis,inthe eternalbegettingoftheWordandbreathingforthoftheSpirit,Godalso knowsandlovesallthewaysinwhichcreaturesmightparticipateinGod’ s lifethroughGod’sgifttoeachcreatureofexistence.
Myaimisnottofocusinanarrowwayonlyupontheterm “divineideas” oritsvariouscognates;IsuggestratherthatwhatIamlooselyreferringtoas thedivineideastraditiontakesmanifoldformswithinmultipleChristian beliefs,playinganotableroleinamuchbroaderTrinitarianvisionofreality: inthisview,ChristianshaveunderstoodthewholeuniverseastheexpressionintimeandspaceofGod’sinfiniteactivityofknowingandloving,that is,ofGodbeingtheTrinity.Thismeansthatthereisarichdepthof intelligibilityincreationthatrationalcreatures(humansandangelsin particular)areabletoapprehendandappreciate;anditmeansthatthere isanultimatetruthofallcreatures,recoverablebeyondalltheworld’ s incoherenceandviolence alivingtruththatisimperishablyknownand lovedinGod’sbelovedChildfrometernity,incarnateinChristyetrejected bytheworld,and finallyvindicatedandbroughttonewnessoflifein Christ ’sresurrection.
ThomasAquinas(1225–1274)givesaparticularlycleararticulationof thisTrinitarianvisionofthecosmosinwhich,I’marguing,thedivineideas traditionplaysasignificantrole:
.MarkA.McIntosh,OxfordUniversityPress(2021).
AstheFatherspeakshimselfandeverycreaturebyhisbegottenWord, inasmuchastheWordbegottenadequatelyrepresentstheFatherandevery creature;soheloveshimselfandeverycreaturebytheHolySpirit,inasmuchastheHolySpiritproceedsastheloveoftheprimalgoodness wherebytheFatherloveshimselfandeverycreature.¹
NotetheexaltedlyTrinitariangroundofthecreatures:forThomas,the divinespeakingofallcreatures flowsforthinaneverlastingunitywithin God’sownperfectSpeechorWordofGod,springingpreciselyfromGod’ s perfectknowingofGodselfandGod’sperfectlovingofGod’sgoodness. We knowandlovecreaturesbecausetheyexist,butforThomas(asforthewhole ofChristiantheology),creatures exist becauseof God’ s knowingandloving ofGod.Thisdivineknowingandlovingisinfinite,inexhaustible,and comprehensiveofeverypossiblemannerinwhich finiteexistencecould participateinthedivineself-giving.Indeed,thatiswhattheactofcreation means.Toexistasacreatureatallmeanstoexpressintimeandspacethis infiniteintimacywithGod:tobeacreaturemeansto flowforthfromanidea intheeternalWord’sperfectexpressionoftheFather,perfectlybelovedin theSpirit.AsaforemostexpositorofThomas’ thought,JohnWippelwrites: “AccordingtoAquinasadivineideaisnothingbutagivenwayinwhich Godunderstandshimselfascapableofbeingimitatedbyacreature.Hence theessenceofanyexistingcreatureisanexpressionofaparticularwayin whichthedivineideacanbeimitatedandinfactisimitated.”²
It’simportanttounderstandthatwhenAugustine,say,orMaximusor HadewijchorAquinasorEckhartorCatherineofSiena,ordozensofother ChristianthinkersandmysticsspeakofGod’seternalideasofall finite beings,theydonotmeanthatGodisforevertakingacloselookateverythingthateverhasbeenorwillbeandsoisabletoformaclearideaofit.Nor dotheymeanthatGodhasarigidandalienplanforeachcreaturetowhich itwillbeforcedinevitablytoconform.Onthecontrary,theChristian teacherswhousethelanguageofthedivineideasdonotmeanthatGod’ s ideasarederived from creaturesnorthattheyareimposed upon them. RathertheymeanthatGod,ineternallyknowingandlovingGod,in eternallybegettingtheWordandbreathingforththeSpirit,eternally knowsandlovesallthewaysinwhichGod’sownlifemaycometobeshared andimitatedbyallwhichisnotGod.WemightalmostsayitisasifGod,in contemplatingtheinexhaustibleexistenceofGod,understandsandcherishes theinnumerablewaysinwhichthedivineexistencemaybecometheceaselesslygivinggroundofeach finitebeing.WhatGodknowsintheWordand
cherishesintheSpiritisGod’sownessence,includingeachandeveryaspectin whichthatinfiniteexistencewillbecomemanifestintimeandspace.
Toofferanadmittedlyinadequateanalogy,wemightimagineagreat novelistwhoseartistry flowsfromherprofoundself-awareness;shehasa deepunderstandingandacceptanceofherownlifeandheressentialcharacteristics.Thiswisdomaboutherselfisthesourceofhercreativity.Forin thusknowingandembracingherownbeingsheisabletodrawwith immensecreativepowerandinsightuponherownpassionforjustice,for example,orherexperiencesofwonderorgreatachievement,andprojecting theseintotheworldofhernovelsshebringsintobeingcharactersof matchlessandindeliblereality.Wecouldevensaythathercharactershave allthemorelifeandagencyoftheirownpreciselybecausetheyspringfrom thenovelist’sownlife.Wereshetounderstandherselflesscompletelyorto acceptthistruthofherselflessgenerously,orwereshelessabletobring theseexpressionsofherselfintotheworldofhernovels,hercharacters wouldbeallthelessrealandlivelythemselves becominginsteadmere caricatureswithlittlesenseofinnerconsciousness.Perhapsthisauthorial analogyallowsustoglimpseinapreliminarywaysomeimportantpoints aboutthedivineideasteaching.Wemightthinkoftheseasbasicgrammaticalprinciplesforunderstandingtheproperusageofthedivineideas traditioninthediscourseofitsexponents.
First,creaturesarederivedfromGod’sknowingandlovingofGodself andnotviceversa;soinouranalogy,theauthordoesn’tlookaroundinside hernovelstogettheideasforhercharacters,ratherthecharacters flowfrom herconsciousnessofherself.Thisisparticularlyimportantasofcoursemost of our experienceofknowingdependsentirelyupontherealreadybeing thingsintheworldforustoknow;andsoitwouldbeeasythoughfatalto thinkthat,analogously,Godsimplyforeseestheexistenceofallpossibleand actualcreaturesandthatthedivineideasareaccordinglyderivedfromthe creaturesratherthanfromGod’sownTrinitarianknowingandlovingof Godself.ItishighlysignificantthatWilliamofOckham(1287–1347),inhis radicalcritiqueofthedivineideastradition,seemstohavemadeexactlythis move;asIwillsuggestinmoredetailinthenextchapter,theeffectsofthis approach,whichcomestobeknownasthe viamoderna orNominalist position,wereconsequentialandfar-reaching precipitatingatheological conceptioninwhichnaturebecomesseveredfromgrace,andtheTrinitarian matrixofcreationandsalvationisobscured.
Second,theauthorandhercharactersareobviouslynotincompetition forexistenceandagency,foritispreciselytheauthor’sthinkingandwilling
