The CivilSphere
OxfordUniversityPress,Inc.,publishesworksthatfurther OxfordUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellence inresearch,scholarship,andeducation.
OxfordNewYork
AucklandCapeTownDaresSalaamHongKongKarachi KualaLumpurMadridMelbourneMexicoCityNairobi NewDelhiShanghaiTaipeiToronto
Withofficesin
ArgentinaAustriaBrazilChileCzechRepublicFranceGreece GuatemalaHungaryItalyJapanPolandPortugalSingapore SouthKoreaSwitzerlandThailandTurkeyUkraineVietnam
Copyright 2006byOxfordUniversityPress,Inc.
PublishedbyOxfordUniversityPress,Inc. 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NewYork10016 www.oup.com
OxfordisaregisteredtrademarkofOxfordUniversityPress
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced, storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans, electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwise, withoutthepriorpermissionofOxfordUniversityPress.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Alexander,JeffreyC. Thecivilsphere/JeffreyC.Alexander. p.cm.
ISBN-13978-0-19-516250-9
ISBN0-19-516250-1
1.CivilSociety.2.Pluralism(Socialsciences).3.Socialinteraction. I.Title.
JC337.A472006 300—dc222005027349 246897531
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica onacid-freepaper
Tothememoryofmymotherandfather, EstherLeahSchlossmanAlexanderandFrederickCharlesAlexander, whobelievedinthepossibilityforcivilrepair
This page intentionally left blank
Aswelookattheproblem,weseethattherealtension isnotbetweentheNegrocitizensofMontgomery andthewhitecitizens,butitisaconflictbetweenjustice andinjustice,betweentheforcesoflightandtheforces ofdarkness,andifthereisavictory—andtherewillbea victory—thevictorywillnotbemerelyfortheNegro citizensandadefeatforthewhitecitizens,butitwillbea victoryofjusticeandadefeatofinjustice.Itwillbeavictory forgoodnessinitslongstrugglewiththeforcesofevil.
martinlutherking
Weknowofnoscientificallyascertainableideals.Tobesure, thatmakesoureffortsmorearduousthanthoseofthepast, sinceweareexpectedtocreateouridealsfromwithinour breastintheveryageofsubjectivistculture;butwemust notandcannotpromiseafool’sparadiseandaneasyroad toit,neitherinthoughtnorinaction.Itisthestigmaof ourhumandignitythatthepeaceofoursoulscannotbeas greatasthepeaceofonewhodreamsofsuchaparadise. maxweber
This page intentionally left blank
Itishard toknowwhatWittgensteinmeanswhenheconcludeshis prefacetothe PhilosophicalInvestigations byremarking,“Iwouldhave likedtoproduceagoodbook,”but“thishasnotcomeabout.”Itis notdifficult,however,tounderstandexactlywhatheisgettingatwhenhe followsthislamentwiththeassertionthathecannotdelaythepublication ofhis Investigations anylonger,for“thetimeispastinwhichIcouldimprove it.”
In1979,IreceivedaJohnSimonGuggenheimMemorialFoundation Fellowshipforaprojecttitled“WatergateandtheCrisisofCivilSociety.” Withthistopic,whosetitlemusthaveseemedmorethanslightlyrecondite atthattime,Imeanttosignalmyinterestinsolidarityascentraltodemocracy.Interestin“civilsociety”hademergedfrommyearlierinterestin Gramsci’sculturalMarxism,whichlaterhadbecomefilteredthrough Tocqueville’sdemocracy,Durkheim’scivicmorals,Weber’sfraternization, andParsons’ssocietalcommunity.IpublishedsomepapersfromthisGuggenheimresearch,butnotabook.Theprojectplungedmedeeplyinto televisionandnewspaperarchivesandproducedinmeaconvictionthat thereisaculturalstructureattheheartofdemocraticlife.Itisthisparadoxical andcontradictorylanguage,Icametobelieve,thatprovidesareferencefor assertionsaboutsocialsolidarityandtheputativeobligationsimmanentto it,fordemandsabouteconomicequalityandpoliticalresponsibility,for scandalsovertheabuseofofficepower,andforrepairingtherentstructures ofsociallife.
Inthemiddle1980s,asIwasbeginningtothinkaboutwhatacultural sociologymightlooklike,IspentayearattheInstituteforAdvancedStudies
inPrincetonattheinvitationofMichaelWalzer,whohadbeenaninspirationinmydaysasanundergraduatesocialstudiesmajoratHarvard.Fifteen yearslater,hehadbecomemytutoronceagain,thistimeinphilosophyand politicaltheory.Fromthattimeonward,Isawclearlythat,farfrombeing confinedtointerpretivesocialscience,hermeneuticscouldbecentralto normativepoliticalphilosophy.
Inthespringof1989IspentamonthinChinaatNankaiUniversityin Tianjinteachingacourseondemocracyandsociologicaltheory.Thelinked topicsgrewinimportanceasIexperiencedtherushofexcitementfromthe students,whofilledeveryseatandcrannyinthelecturehall.AsIdeparted fromChina,thepro-democracystudentmovementgatheredforceinBeijing’sTiananmenSquare.Itsdefeatwastraumatizing.Uponmyreturnto UCLA,IspokewithAdamSeligmanaboutmysensethatIhadseen somethingnew,somethingthatsociologicaltheorycouldnotexplain.He pointedmetothenewliteratureoncivilsociety.Sixmonthslater,Ihad writtenalengthydraftessaythatlaidthefoundationsforthisbook.Ayear later,inthefallof1990,IvanSzelenyiinvitedmetospeakaboutcivilsociety totheHungarianSociologicalAssociation.ItwasontheflighttoBudapest, worryingoverwhetherIhadanythingnewtotellthosewhowereactually participatingintheconstructionofanewcivilsphere,thatthetheory presentedherecrystallizedinitsfinalform.
Duringtheacademicyear1993–94,IlivedinParisandworkedunder theauspicesofCADIS,thecentercreatedbyAlainTouraineatthe Ecoledes HautesEtudesenSciencesSociales.Theinterestsofthisgroupstimulateda greaterappreciationfortheroleofsocialmovementsincivilsociety,atopic thatRonEyermanhadfirstplacedonmyintellectualhorizon.Withthe assistanceofMichelWieviorkaandFranc¸oisDubet,Ispentspring1994 teachingacourseonsociologicaltheoryandtheracialunderclassinAmerica attheUniversityofBordeaux.Thisexperiencemaderacecentraltomy thinkingaboutthepossibilitiesforjusticeinthecivilsphere.
Overthecourseoffiveyearsduringthe1990s,Iparticipatedinthe annualPragueconferenceonCriticalTheory,PhilosophyandtheSocial Sciences,andengagedindiscussionsaboutaestheticsandmoralitywiththe MexicanphilosopherMariaPiaLara.Itwasduringafellowshipatthe SwedishCenterforAdvancedStudyintheSocialSciencesin1997thatI clarifiedtherelationshipbetweenmyemergingsociologicaltheoryofcivil societyandsomerecentdevelopmentsinpoliticalphilosophy.
AtUCLAinthewinterof1996,undertheauspicesoftheinterdisciplinarySocialSciencesCollegium,IparticipatedinacoursetitledBeyond Enlightenment:Jews,JewishnessandModernity,organizedbyDavidMyers andco-taughtwithDavidEllenson,ArnoldBand,andRabbiChaim Seidler-Feller.Theformat,readings,lectures,anddiscussionconvincedme thatanti-Semitismcouldnotbeleftoutofthehistoryorsociologyofcivil society,andthatrealizationhelpedtoframetheapproachIhavetakenhere. AdinahMiller,agraduatestudentinJewishhistoryatYale,helpedguide methroughsecondaryliterature.
In1998–99,IorganizedaresearchgroupattheCenterforAdvanced StudiesintheBehavioralSciencesinStanford.Overthecourseofthatyear, ImetweeklywithRonEyerman,BernhardGiesen,NeilSmelser(the center’sdirector),PiotrSztompka,andBjornWittrocktodiscussthedynamicsofculturaltrauma,howfeelingsofmoralresponsibilitydependon symbolicextensionandpsychologicalidentificationandrespondtotheconstructionsofcarriergroups.Thesediscussionsingeneral,andEyerman’sand Giesen’sworkonAfrican-AmericanandGermanmemoryconstructionin particular,triggeredmyinvestigationsthatyearontheAmericancivilrights movementandtheHolocaust,whichinformedPartsIIIandIVofthisbook. NancyCott,whowasalsoaFellowatthecenterthatyear,helpedmethink throughsomeofthecontemporaryliteratureonAmericanfeminism.My interesthadearlierbeenstimulatedbyconversationswithRuthBlochand byherwork.
ThisbooktookfinalshapeafterImovedtoYaleUniversityin2001,as Ihelpedrebuildthesociologydepartmentandcreated,withRonEyerman andPhilipSmith,theCenterforCulturalSociology.Yale’sseriousnessand purposeprovedcriticalforfinallybringingthislongprojecttoaclose.Iam gratefultotheleadersofthisgreatinstitutionandtomycolleaguesinthe sociologydepartmentandtheWhitneyHumanitiesCenterfortheirsupport andinterest,andalsotoAnnFitzpatrickforherclericalassistanceduringmy yearsasChair.NadineCaseyhasprovedinvaluabletothetaskofputting themanuscriptintofinalformandhelpingtotrackdownreferencesand books.DediFelman,myeditoratOxford,wasascreativeasshewasassiduousinhereffortstobring TheCivilSphere topublication.
Overtheyears,Ihavesharedmyunderstandingofdemocracyandcivil societywithseveralgenerationsofstudents,andthroughtheirmaster’stheses andPh.D.dissertationstheyhavemorethanpaidmebackinkind.They
willseetheirownwork,inpublishedandunpublishedform,citedinthe pagesthatfollow,butIshouldliketomentionPhilipSmith,RonaldJacobs, EyalRabinovitch,andespeciallyIsaacReedforresearchandcriticalfeedback.Andtherearesomecriticalacademic-cum-personalfriendshipsI shouldliketomentionaswell:NickEntrikinforhisculturalgeography lessons;KenThompsonforDurkheimiancollegiality;StevenSeidmanfor steadfastlycriticizingmodernity;andRogerFriedlandforinsistingoninstitutionalpower.
Astheideasinthisbooktookshape,Ipublishedsomeofmyinitial findingsinjournalarticlesandbookchapters.Forprovidingtheseopportunities,IwouldliketothankCharlesLemert,inwhose Intellectualsand Politics appearedthefirstrun-throughofchapter3;theeditorsof Mondoperai; CarloMongardini,whoedited DueDimensionideltaSocietal’UtileelaMorale; andMarcelFournierandMicheleLamont,editorsof WhereCultureTalks, forpublishingearlyversionsofchapter4;AndreasHessandtheothereditors of Soundings,forpublishingthefirstversionofchapter8;MarcoDianiand JonClarke,whosolicitedanearlyversionofchapter9fortheir Alain Touraine;JonathanTurner,whowelcomedthefirstrenditionsofchapters10 and17in SociologicalTheory;andMarkJacobs,forpublishingtheanalysisof theBirminghamcampaignin Culture.Inmyowneditedbook, RealCivil Societies,Ipublishedmuchofthematerialthatappearsinchapter2.The materialintheseearlierpublicationshasbeenmodifiedinmoreandless significantwaysastheybecametransformedintochaptersforthisbook.
Mywife,MorelBaquie´Morton,providedthegrace,serenity,andstimulationthatIneededtocompletethisbook.Myparents,FrederickCharles AlexanderandEstherLeahSchlossmanAlexander,providedthesenseof moralseriousnessandintellectualengagementwithoutwhichitwouldnot havebeenstarted.Theyweredeeplyinterestedinthefateofthecivilsphere andweredevotedtoitssustenanceandrepair.ItistotheirmemorythatI dedicatethisbook.
PARTI CIVILSOCIETYINSOCIALTHEORY
1PossibilitiesofJustice13
2RealCivilSocieties:DilemmasofInstitutionalization23
CivilSocietyI24
CivilSocietyII26
ReturntoCivilSocietyI?29
TowardCivilSocietyIII31
3BringingDemocracyBackIn: Realism,Morality,Solidarity37
Utopianism:TheFallaciesofTwentieth-CenturyEvolutionism38
Realism:TheTraditionofThrasymachus39 MoralityandSolidarity42
ComplexityandCommunity45
CulturalCodesandDemocraticCommunication48
PARTII
STRUCTURESANDDYNAMICS OFTHECIVILSPHERE
4Discourses:LibertyandRepression53
PureandImpureinCivilDiscourse54
TheBinaryStructuresofMotives57
TheBinaryStructuresofRelationships58
TheBinaryStructuresofInstitutions59
CivilNarrativesofGoodandEvil60
EverydayEssentialism62
TheConflictoverRepresentation64
5CommunicativeInstitutions:
PublicOpinion,MassMedia,Polls,Associations69
ThePublicandItsOpinion71
TheMassMedia75 FictionalMedia 75
FactualMedia 80
PublicOpinionPolls85
CivilAssociations92
6RegulativeInstitutions(1):Voting,Parties,Office107 CivilPower:ANewApproachtoDemocraticPolitics109 RevisitingThrasymachus:TheInstrumentalScienceofPolitics110
ConstructingandDestructingCivilPower(1): TheRighttoVoteandDisenfranchisement114
ConstructingandDestructingCivilPower(2): Parties,Partisanship,andElectionCampaigns123 CivilPowerintheState:OfficeasRegulatingInstitution132
7RegulativeInstitutions(2):TheCivilForceofLaw151
TheDemocraticPossibilitiesofLaw151 BracketingandRediscoveringtheCivilSphere: TheWarringSchoolsofJurisprudence157
TheCivilMoralityofLaw161
ConstitutionsasCivilRegulation164
TheCivilLifeofOrdinaryLaw169
Solidarity 172
civilsolidarityandcontractlaw 173
Individuality 178
LegalizingSocialExclusion:TheAntidemocraticFaceofLaw184
8Contradictions:UncivilizingPressuresandCivilRepair193
Space:TheGeographyofCivilSociety196
Time:CivilSocietyasHistoricalSedimentation199
Function:TheDestructionofBoundaryRelations andTheirRepair203
FormsofBoundaryRelations: Input,Intrusion,andCivilRepair205
PARTIII SOCIALMOVEMENTSINTHECIVILSPHERE
9SocialMovementsasCivilTranslations213
TheClassicalModel214
TheSocialScienceofSocialMovements(1): SecularizingtheClassicalModel217
TheSocialScienceofSocialMovements(2): InvertingtheClassicalModel221
TheSocialScienceofSocialMovements(3): UpdatingtheClassicalModel224
DisplacingtheClassicalModel:RehistoricizingtheCultural andInstitutionalContextofSocialMovements228
SocialMovementsasTranslationsofCivilSocieties229
10GenderandCivilRepair:TheLongandWinding RoadthroughM/otherhood235
JustifyingGenderDomination:Relationsbetween theIntimateandCivilSpheres236
Women’sDifferenceasFacilitatingInput237
Women’sDifferenceasDestructiveIntrusion239
GenderUniversalismandCivilRepair241
TheCompromiseFormationofPublicM/otherhood243
PublicStageandCivilSphere250
UniversalismversusDifference: FeministFortunesintheTwentiethCentury253
TheEthicalLimitsofCare259
11RaceandCivilRepair(1):Duality andtheCreationofaBlackCivilSociety265 RacialDominationandDuality intheConstructionofAmericanCivilSociety268
DualityandCounterpublics275
TheConditionsforCivilRepair: DualityandtheConstructionofBlackCivilSociety277
DualityandTranslation:TowardtheCivilRightsMovement286
12RaceandCivilRepair(2):TheCivilRights MovementandCommunicativeSolidarity293
TheBattleoverRepresentation: TheIntrusionofNorthernCommunicativeInstitutions296 TranslationandSocialDrama: EmotionalIdentificationandSymbolicExtension303
TheMontgomeryBusBoycott: MartinLutherKingandtheDramaofCivilRepair307
13RaceandCivilRepair(3):CivilTraumaandtheTightening SpiralofCommunicationandRegulation317 DualityandLegalRepair318
TheSit-InMovement:InitiatingtheDramaofDirectAction323
TheNewRegulatoryContext333
TheFreedomRides:CommunicativeOutrage andRegulatoryIntervention338
FailedPerformanceatAlbany:LosingControl overtheSymbolicCode344
Birmingham:SolidarityandtheTriumphofTragedy347
14RaceandCivilRepair(4):RegulatoryReformand Ritualization359
TheFirstRegulatoryRepair:FromBirmingham totheCivilRightsActof1964362
RegulatoryReformEnterstheCommunicativeDomain: ThePresident’sDeclarationofIdentification 362
FillingintheSymbolicandInstitutionalSpace: RitualMobilizationandLegislativeAction 366
TheSecondRegulatoryRepair:RewindingtheSpiral ofCommunicationandRegulation370
FreedomSummer:IdentificationBecomesConcrete 371
SelmaandVotingRights:Ritualizing theCommunications-RegulationSpiral 376
TheEndoftheCivilRightsMovement: InstitutionalizationandPolarization384
PARTIV
MODESOFINCORPORATION INTOTHECIVILSPHERE
15IntegrationbetweenDifferenceandSolidarity395 ConvergencebetweenRadicals andConservatives397
RecognitionwithoutSolidarity?398
RethinkingthePublicSphere:Fragmentation andContinuity402
ImplicationsforContemporaryDebates406
16EncounterswiththeOther409
ThePlasticityofCommonIdentity409
ExclusionarySolidarity411
FormsofOut-GroupContact411
NondemocraticIncorporation413
InternalColonialismandtheCivilSphere415
VarietiesofIncorporationandResistance inCivilSocieties417
ClosingDowntheCivilSphere 417
OpeningUptheCivilSphere 419
StigmatizedPersonsandTheirQualities 421
17TheThreePathwaystoIncorporation425
TheAssimilativeModeofIncorporation426
TheHyphenatedModeofIncorporation431
TheExceptionofRace:AssimilationandHyphenationDelayed443
TheMulticulturalModeofIncorporation450
18TheJewishQuestion:Anti-Semitism andtheFailureofAssimilation459
JewsandtheDilemmasofAssimilativeIncorporation461
Anti-SemiticArgumentsforJewishIncorporation:TheAssimilative DilemmafromthePerspectiveoftheCoreGroup466
InitialJewishArgumentsforSelf-Change:TheAssimilativeDilemma fromthePerspectiveoftheOut-Group471
ThePost-EmancipationPeriod:ReligiousandSecularModes ofJewishAdaptationtotheDilemmasofAssimilation477
RestructuringOrganizedJudaism 478
ReligiousConversion 483
SecularRevolution 485
NewFormsofSymbolicReflectionandSocialResponse intheFindeSie`cle:TheDilemmasofAssimilationIntensify488
IronyandAbsurdity:NewReligious andSecularLiteraryGenres 489
Zionism:TheEfforttoWithdrawfromWesternCivilSociety 493
TheCrisisofAnti-SemiticAssimilationintheInterwarPeriod: ResolvingtheDilemmasofAssimilationbyGoingBackward495
RestrictionsonJewishIncorporationintheUnitedStates 496
Europe’s“FinalSolution”totheJewishQuestion:Resolving theDilemmasofAssimilationbyEliminatingtheJews 500
19AnsweringtheJewishQuestioninAmerica: BeforeandAftertheHolocaust503
KeepingJewishIdenitityPrivate:Self-Change andtheUtopianProjectofHyphenation504
TheDilemmasofJewishIncorporationand CommunicativeInstitutions:FactualandFictionalMedia 506
TheDilemmasofJewishIncorporation andRegulativeInstitutions:TheLaw 510
TheFailureoftheProject:JewishExclusion fromAmericanCivilSociety511
AnticivilExclusionsfromEducation 512
AnticivilExclusionsfromEconomicLife 516
JustFateorDangerousExclusion? 517
RespondingtoNazismandHolocaust:America’sDecision toBe“WiththeJews”520
BeyondtheAssimilativeDilemma:ThePostwar ProjectofJewishEthnicity523
MakingJewishIdentityPublic:TheMulticulturalMode ofJewishIncorporation530
MakingtheGoodJew“Bad”:PhillipRoth’sConfidence 533
TheUniversalityofJewishDifference: WoodyAllenasCulturalIcon 539
TheDialecticofDifferentiationandIdentification: ACrisisinAmericanJewry?543
20Conclusion:CivilSocietyasaProject549
Notes555
Bibliography723
Index787
This page intentionally left blank
The CivilSphere 2
This page intentionally left blank
Welivein acynicalage.Somepeoplethinkmightmakesright, andsometimestheyaretheleadersofpowerfulcountries.Sophisticatedintellectualssometimesthinkthereisnoright,and relativismbecomestheorderoftheday.Thegapbetweenphilosophyand empiricalsocialsciencethreatenstobecomeachasm.Oncemiredinanalytic andtechnicalconcerns,philosophyhassproutednewbranches.Today,it hasbecomeagainagreatmoralscience,fillednotonlywithnormative stipulationsbutwithempiricalassumptionsabouttheworld.Sociologyhas beguntogrowoutofitspseudo-scientificivorytowertheoriesandmethods, andanewlyculturalsociologyallowsustospeakcentrallytotheissuesof publicandeverydaylife.
Inthisbook,thenormativeandempiricalsciencesmeet,andtheydo soontheterrainofcivilsociety.Thepremiseof CivilSphere isthatsocieties arenotgovernedbypoweraloneandarenotfueledonlybythepursuitof self-interest.Feelingsforothersmatter,andtheyarestructuredbytheboundariesofsolidarity.Howsolidarityisstructured,howfaritextends,whatit’s composedof—thesearecriticalissuesforeverysocialorder,andespecially forordersthataimatthegoodlife.Solidarityispossiblebecausepeopleare orientednotonlytothehereandnowbuttotheideal,tothetranscendent, towhattheyhopewillbetheeverlasting.
Ournewmoralphilosophiesunderscorethevitalsignificanceforjustice ofbroaderandmoreinclusivesocialties,butthattheydonot,infact,tell usmuchaboutsolidarityitself.Whenweexaminethemasterworksof classicalandmodernsociologicaltheory,wefindthesamething.Solidarity ispointedto,butitisnowheresystematicallyinterpretedorexplained.
Wherecanwelookforabettertheory?In1980,amomentousand
effervescentsocialmovementaroseinPoland.ItwascalledSolidarity.After ayearandahalfofextraordinarysuccess,itwasrepressed,butitmarked thefirstchapterofademocraticnarrativethathascontinuedtothisday. ThetheoristsandleadersofSolidaritysaidtheywerefightingforacivil society,andthosewhofollowedthemintimeoftenfollowedtheircivil societybanneraswell.
Civilsocietyisanideathathasbeenheardfrombefore.Inthewakeof Solidarityanditssuccessordemocraticrevolutions,therehasbeenagreat revivalofcivilsocietytalk,buttoomuchofitechoesearliertimes.Weneed anewconceptofcivilsocietyasacivil sphere,aworldofvaluesand institutionsthatgeneratesthecapacityforsocialcriticismanddemocratic integrationatthesametime.Suchaspherereliesonsolidarity,onfeelings forotherswhomwedonotknowbutwhomwerespectoutofprinciple, notexperience,becauseofourputativecommitmenttoacommonsecular faith.
Theideathattherecanbeasecularfaithhasbeenanathematomodern sociology,whichhasfalselyequatedbeingmodernwithbeingbeyondbelief. Ichallengethisold-fashionedperspectiveofmodernity.Initsplace,Iintroducetheideaofdemocracyasawayoflife.Democracyisnotagame governedbytechnicalrules.Itisaworldofgreatandidealizingexpectations, butalsooverwhelmingfeelingsofdisgustandcondemnation.Itisacompetitivesceneofpartisanconflict,butalsocosmopolitandisinterestandlove. Democraticlifeshiftsbackandforthbetweenatranscendentallanguageof sacredvaluesofthegoodandprofanesymbolsofevil,buttheseshiftsare mediatedbyinstitutionsthatpushforagreementindifference,suchas voting,theruleoflaw,andtheethicsofoffice.
Civilsocietyisnotapanacea.Modernityisstrewnwiththedetritusof civilsocieties,shipwrecks,suchastheThirdRepublicinFranceandthe WeimarRepublicinGermany,whosecarcassescameneartosuffocatingthe twentiethcentury.Thediscourseofcivilsocietycanbeasrepressiveas liberating,legitimatingnotonlyinclusionbutexclusion.
Thestructureofcivilsocietymayrestuponaculturalstructure,butitis hardlymerelydiscursiveinitsshapeandform.Itisfilledwithinstitutions, organizationsofcommunicationandregulation.Toseewhattheseinstitutionsareupto,weneedtorecognizefirsttheworldofpublicopinion, whichistheseainsideofwhichthecivilsphereswims.Publicopinionis
themiddlegroundbetweenthegeneralitiesofhigh-flowndiscourseandthe ongoing,concreteeventsofeverydaylife.Itisfilledwithcollectiverepresentationsofidealcivility,butitisalsodefinedbystrongexpressionsof negativity.Forevery“yes”and“Iagree”thereis,ineverypoll,theresponses of“no”and“stronglydisagree.”Thereareoften,infact,“feelingthermometers”toregister,innumericterms,justhowstronglyarethepassionsof civillife.Itisnowonderthatpublicopinionhasareal,ifnonbinding,force.
Thecommunicativeinstitutionsofcivilsocietyarecomposedinpartof massmedia.Newspapersandtelevisionnewsarefactualmedia;theyrecord, buttheyalsoselectandreconstructinciviltermswhat“actuallygoeson” inasociety’slife.Fictionalmedia—suchasnovels,movies,andtelevision comediesanddramas—domuchthesamething,butatatemporalremove fromimmediacyandundertheguiseofhighandpopularart.Massmedia institutionsrespondtoopinion,buttheyalsostructureandchangeit.Public opinionpollsseemmerelytomeasureopinion,tomakeitscientifically factual,butactuallytheyconstructitinapalpableway.Civilassociations, suchasMothersagainstDrunkDrivingorMoveon.Org,arealsovitalcommunicativeinstitutionsincivillife.Itistraditionaltoequatesuchcivil associationswithvoluntaryassociations,butIamskepticalabouttakingthis path.VoluntarinesscharacterizestheGirlScouts,hospitalvolunteers,and thePTA.Eachoftheseisagoodthing,buttheydonotprojectcommunicativejudgmentsinthewidercivilsphere.
Therepresentationsthatpourforthfromthecommunicativeinstitutions ofcivilsocietyhaveinfluencebutnotpowerinthemoreinstrumentalsense. Thisiswhy,eveninthequashedandconfinedcivilspheresofauthoritarian societies,communicativeinstitutionscanoftenprojectrepresentationsthat havesomecommunicativeforce.Tothedegreethatasocietyisdemocratic, however,thebroadsolidaritythatconstitutes“thepeople”musthaveteeth init.Theremust,inotherwords,alsobeinstitutionsofamoreregulative kind,whichmeanstheyneedaccesstotheviolencemonopolizedbythe state.Votingandpartycompetitioncreatecivilpower.Theyallowrepresentativesofcivilsocietynotonlytoinsertthemselvesintostatebureaucracy buttoformallycontrolit.Torepresentcivilpower,however,isnotnecessarilytoserveit.Itisbecausepowerpotentiallycorruptsthatwespeakof thedutiesandethicsof“office.”Officecanbethoughtofasaregulative institution.Aproductofcenturiesofreligiousandpoliticalconflict,office
