ListofFigures
1.1.Fragmentsofabaseofachoregicmonument,fromtwosides, AthensAgoraMuseumS1025+S1586+S2586. 41
6.1.RelieffoundnearthetheatreofDionysusinAthens,dated to375350,Athens,NationalMuseum1750VS. 196
6.2.Imaginedreconstructionofachoregicmonument commemoratingacomicvictory. 197
6.3.Fragmentofchoregicpinaxin ‘pentelic’ marble.AgoraS2098. 198
6.4.Choregicdedication,datedto c.35025,AthensNational Museum2400. 199
Abbreviations,Citations,andTransliteration
Namesofancientauthorsandtitlesoftheirworksareabbreviatedas inthe OxfordClassicalDictionary.Otherabbreviatedtitlesareas follows.
CGFPR Austin,C.(1973), ComicorumGraecorumFragmentainPapyris Reperta. BerlinandNewYork. DKDiels,H.,andKranz,W.(19512), DieFragmente derVorsokratiker,3.vols.Berlin.
FGrH Jacoby,F.,etal.(eds)(1923) DieFragmentedergriechischen Historiker.BerlinandLeiden. KAKassel,R.,andAustin,C.(eds)(1983), PoetaeComiciGraeci. BerlinandNewYork.
MMC Webster,T.B.L.(1978), MonumentsIllustratingOldandMiddle Comedy,3rdedn,rev.J.Green, BICSSupp. 39,London. MOMillis,B.W.,andOlson,S.D.(2012), InscriptionalRecordsforthe DramaticFestivalsinAthens.Leiden.
MTS Webster,T.B.L.(1967), MonumentsIllustratingTragedyand SatyrPlay, 2ndedn, BICSSupp. 20,London.
PMG Page,D.L.(1962), PoetaeMeliciGraeci.Oxford.
TrGF Snell,B.,etal.(eds)(1971), TragicorumGraecorumFragmenta. Göttingen.
WehrliWehrli,F.(19679), DieSchuledesAristoteles:Texteund Kommentar.10.vols.Basel.
CitationsarefromtheOxfordClassicalTextwherepossible,from TrGF fortragicfragmentsandK-Aforcomic.Fornamesofpeople, places,andliteraryworks,IhaveusedthemorefamiliarLatinate spellings AeschylusnotAischylos,TelephusnotTelephos.An exceptionarethenamesoftheAtticdemes.Wordsthatexistin Englisharenotitalicized(‘chorus’ and ‘coryphaeus’ , ‘parodos’ and ‘parabasis’).ForotherGreekwords,Ihavetransliteratedandplaced theseinitalics(choregos,didaskalos,demos,etc.)
Iconstruethechorusasbothasingular and pluralentity,andso myverbusageinrelationtothechorusalsoshiftsbetweenthetwo, dependingonwhetherImeanthechorusasasingleelementina play’smake-uporfeatureofdrama,oragroupofpeople.
Alldatesare BCE unlessotherwisestated.
Alltranslationsaremyownexceptwherenoted.
Introduction
Inthefourthcentury ,theatrewasavitalandgrowingindustry acrosstheGreek-speakingworld.1 Dramaticperformances,usuallyas partofafestivalcelebration,werebeingaddedtothelineupofevents inmoreandmoreplacesfarfromtheepicentreofAthens.2 New engineeringtechniqueswerebeingadoptedinthebuildingofstone theatres,permanentandlastinghomesforallkindsofperformance includingdrama.3 Extensiveandelaborateinstitutionaland financial provisionswereinplacetosupportdramaticperformancesinAthens andinthedemesofAttica,andsimilarormodifiedinstitutionsfor thefundingoftheatricalproductionswerebeingdeployedinSicily, Boeotia,andMacedonia.4 Thecelebrityofactorsandaulos-players (auletes)sawthemcommandingoutrageouslylargefeesforperformances,andallowedthemtotravelthelengthandbreadthofthe ancientMediterraneanandbeyond.5 Statuesofdramaticpoetswere setupintheatres.6 BythetimeofAlexander’scampaignsasfarasthe Indusvalleyinthemid320s,theperformanceofdramahadcometo signifyasharedlanguageacrossmultiplegeographiesandcultures, suchwasitspopularityandproliferation.7
1 Recentimportantstudiesaffirmingdrama’svitalityinthefourthcenturyare Easterling1993and1997,Taplin2009,Csapo2010a:3882and837,Csapo,Götte, Green,andWilson2014,Hanink2014a:191220,Lamari2015:1815.
2 Easterling1994:7380,Dearden1999,Revermann2000:45167,Taplin1999: 3357and2007a:515,Allan2001:6786,Wilson2007c:35177,Bosher2006and 2012,BraundandHall2014a,Vahtikari2014,CsapoandWilson2015,Stewart2017.
3 Csapo2007,Götte2014,Moretti2014,PapastamativonMoock2014.
4 Wilson2000,2007cand2007e,2010.
5 EasterlingandHall2002,Csapo2004,Duncan2005,Hall2006,Csapo2004: 5376and2010a,Junker2010:13148,Power2010,Slater2010.
6 Plut. Mor.841fand IG II2 2320.202(MO)withHanink2014a:909and1838.
7 Hall2007:2856.
TheChorusofDramaintheFourthCenturyBCE:PresenceandRepresentation LucyC.M.M.Jackson,OxfordUniversityPress(2020).©LucyC.M.M.Jackson. DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198844532.001.0001
Yet,amidtherecentscholarlyappreciationofthefourthcentury’ s vigoroustheatreindustry,nostudyhasfocusedononeparticular elementinAtticdrama,itsdefiningelement,infact thechorus.This isallthemorenotableinlightofthemanystudiesofcontiguous choralgenresortime-periodsinthepasttwodecades.2013sawthe publicationoftwovolumesdedicatedtothechorusofdramainthe fifthcentury.8 PeterWilson’scomprehensivesurveyandcontinued examinationoftheinstitutionofthe choregia (aquasi-voluntary secularofficethatfacilitatedthefundingandorganizationofmany ofthecity’schoruses dramaticandnon-dramatic)hasilluminated thehistoricalpresenceandpoliticalroleofthosechorusesthatwere producedwithinthechoregicsystem.9 Thedithyramb,thepaean,the pyrrhic,andthetheoricchorus,too,haveallhadrecentanalysis.10 Alsorelevantistherenewedandrecentappreciationforfourthcenturylyricpoetry.11 Oneofthemostinfluentialtheorizersabout thechorus,Plato,andhis Laws,havealsobeenthesubjectofnofewer thanthreevolumespublishedsince2010.12 Andyet,despiteallthis relatedresearch,theactivityandimmediatereceptionofthefourthcenturydramaticchorusremainsentirelyunexamined.
Therearesomerealchallengestoperformingsuchastudy.The evidenceforthetext,music,andmovementthatthechorusperformedismostlyinfragments,andsomeofthesecanonlytentatively beattributedtothechorus(orthefourthcentury)inthe firstplace. Althoughthereissomeevidenceforchoralperformersbecoming increasinglyprofessionalthroughoutthefourthcentury,thereare onlyaveryfewthatarenamedorthatweknowanythingabout.13
8 Billings,Budelmann,andMacintosh2013,GagnéandHopman2013.Wecan alsoaddCalame2017tothelistofvolumesfocusingon fifthcenturydramatic choruses.
9 Wilson2000.SeealsoWilson2007a:35177,2007b:12532and2011a:1944. Whilethetragicchorusissometimesdiscussedspecifically(e.g.2000:46,7780cf. also1947),itisthecircularchorusanditsworkingsthataremostthoroughly illuminatedinWilson’swork.
10 DithyrambSutton1989,Ieranò1997,KowalzigandWilson2013.Paean Rutherford2001.PyrrhicCeccarelli1998and2004:91117.Theoria(including choruses)Rutherford2013.
11 NeumannHartman2004,VamvouriRuffy2004,Schröder2006,Kolde2003 and2010,Power2010,Ford2011,andLeVen2014.
12 Peponi2013a,Prauscello2014,Folch2015.
13 Forprofessionalchoralperformersinthethirdcenturyandlater,seeSlater1993, Wilson2000:28990,2923,andLeGuen2001:10814.Thenamingofchoral performersisrare,anddebatesurroundswhatthesenamesmightactuallybeable
Thevenuesforandtimeswhenthechorusesofdramawouldhave performedcanbeidentified,butthequalitiesofthoseperformances, andtheimpactofthechoralcomponentofthedramainparticular, haveleftlittletraceinourextantsources.Allkindsofperformance haveanimpactthatisephemeralandcontingentonthevarious vantagepoints,bothliteralandintermsofthepreviousexperience, ofindividualaudiencemembers.Thechorusindrama,forwhom songandmovementweresocrucial,suffersacutelyinthis.Those ofuswhohavebeenluckyenoughtohavewitnessedpowerful choralgroupsperformingonstageinourowntimehaveonlyour ownexperiencesasaguidetowhatmighthavebeenpossiblein Atticdrama.
Thereisonefourth-centurytestimoniumthatmayalsohavediscouragedscholarsfromfacingthesenotinconsiderablechallenges. AfamouspassageinAristotle’ s Poetics seemstoindicateadefinite changeinchoralpractice,atleastasfarastragedyisconcerned, beginninginthe finaldecadesofthe fifthcentury.
1456a2532
Thechorusshouldbetreatedasoneoftheactors;itshouldbeapartof thewholeandshouldparticipate[sc. ‘intheaction’],notasinEuripides butasinSophocles.Withtheotherpoets,thesongsarenomoreintegral totheplotthantoanothertragedyhencethepractice,startedby Agathon,ofsinginginterludeodes.Yetwhatisthedifferencebetween singinginterludeodesandtransferringaspeechorwholeepisodefrom oneworktoanother? (Trans.Halliwell1995)
Thesefewlineshaveprovidedthefoundationfortheideathatthe chorusesofAristotle’sdaywereofalesserqualitythanthoseofthe earlier fifthcentury.14 Andyet,somuchisunclearinthisoft-cited totellus,see IG I3 969,the ‘Pronomos’ Vase(c.400,NaplesNM81673)with discussioninOsborne2010,andanAtticred figurebellkraterdepicting(?)acircular chorus(Copenhagen13817,seeWilson2000:76 fig.4).
14 Mastronarde(2010:88)providesacarefullywordedglossofwhatitisusually thoughtthispassagemeans: ‘Insomefourthcenturytragediesthechoralpartshad apparentlybecomemereinterludesdividingthe “acts” (eventuallythecanonical “five
passage,fromthemeaningofspecificwords(e.g. συναγωνίζεσθαι, ‘haveashareinthecontest’/ ‘helpwinthecontest’),phrases(e.g. μόριονεἶ ναιτοῦὅλου, ‘partofthewhole’),towho,precisely, οἱ λοιποί are(usuallytranslated,ashere,as ‘theotherpoets’),and what ἐμβόλιμα mightbe.15 Despitethefactthatitisthegenreof tragedythatisbeingspecificallydiscussed,thispassageformsthe foundationfortheideathatthechorusnotjustoftragedybutalsoof comedyenteredintoadeclineattheendofthe fifthcentury.16
Apaucityofsourcematerialinourwrittenrecordforwhatthe chorussaidandsangismadeevenmoreconspicuousbyascribal habit,foundinourearliestpapyriandcontinuedoninsomemanuscripttraditions.Whenachorusisapproachingthestageorisdueto performanode,orwhenonesectionofthedramaseemstobe comingtoaclose,insteadofachoralodeweoften findthewords χοροῦ or χοροῦ μέλος—‘songofthechorus’ . 17 Thetendencyamong scholarshasbeentoreadthesewordsnotasindicatingsomething aboutscribes’ practices(aswith,forexample,thepracticeinthese earlymanuscriptsofusinglettersratherthanthenamesofcharacters, ora paragraphos amarkthatlookslikeadash toindicateachange ofspeaker),butratherasanindicatorofthequalityofthechoraltext; thattheodeswere ‘perceivedasbeingdispensablebythosepreserving theplaysonpapyrus’ . 18 Onsomequiteslightgrounds,then,the inferencehaswidelybeenmadefromtheinsertionof χοροῦ thatthe qualityofthechoralsonganddanceinthesedramaswasmanifestly poor,anditissimilarlyassumedthatifthequalityofthechoralsong hadbeengood(say,asgoodaseverysingleoneofthechoralodesof Aeschylus,Euripides,Sophocles,and fifth-centuryAristophanes), thentheywouldhavebeenpreservedforusintextualform.
ThetestimonyfromAristotle,andthescribalhabitofwriting χοροῦ inplaceofthetextofachoralode,aretwodatapointsworth acts”)inwhichthenamedcharactersperformedtheirsceneswithoutanyinteraction withachorus,andsuchunrelatedsongsor embolima (asAristotletermedthem)had, sofarasweknow,norelationincontenttotheactors’ scenes. ’
15 SeedetaileddiscussionsinElse1957,Halliwell1986and1987,andScattolin2011.
16 ForarecentexampleofhoweasilyscholarsciteAristotle,inappositely,to supportclaimsmadeaboutthecomicchorus,seeHunter2017:21318.
17 Pöhlmann1977:6970.
18 The communisopinio asarticulatedbyMarshall2002:4.We findasimilar readinginCapps(1895:320) ‘probablyanindicationofthelossoftheoriginalodes ofanintermezziccharacter’ .
confronting,andtheywillbediscussedinfullinChapter5ofthis book.However,variousothercircumstanceshaveshapedhowthese twophenomenahavebeeninterpreted,andatthesametime,may haveservedassubtle(ornotsosubtle)deterrentstoanyfurther scholarlycuriosityaboutthefourth-centurydramaticchorus.The notionthatthereisnexttonoevidenceforthedevelopmentof thefourth-centurydramaticchorusisnothelpedbyanimbalance inthekindsofsourcematerialthathavebeenpreserved.Thebeliefin a fifth-centuryAthenian ‘GoldenAge’,anideathatwas,asJohanna Haninkhasrecentlydemonstrated,19 consciouslycreatedandcurated byAthensinthelatterpartofthefourthcentury,seemstohaveled directlytothepreservationofthirty-one(moreorless)complete tragedies,onesatyrplay,andninecompletecomedies,all firstperformedduringthat fifth-century ‘GoldenAge’ . 20 Itseemsthatifthe Rhesus hadnotbeenattributedtoEuripides,wewouldhaveno completeplaysfromthefourthcenturyatall.21 Thepreservation (ornot)oftextthatcantellusaboutwhatthedramaticchorussang andspokeis,then,thoroughlytiedupwithamuchlargerquestionof periodization.Thehistorical ‘Classical’ periodmayrunfrom c.500to 323,butthephenomenonofAtticdramaisstillmostlyspokenofas endingitshey-dayin401withSophocles’ (posthumouslyperformed) OedipusatColonus. 22 Thisisslightlydisconcertingwhenthemajority ofourevidencefortheorganizationandimmediatereceptionofAttic dramacomes,infact,fromfourth-centurysources.23 Dramathatwas performedinthemidfourthcenturyisnotuncommonlylabelled ‘Hellenistic’ . 24
19 ‘ itwastheAtheniansthemselveswho,especiallyinthelatterpartofthe fourthcentury,beganconstructingthepedestaluponwhichtheirdramastillstandsin themodernimagination’,Hanink2014a:6.
20 Aristophanes’ WomenattheAssembly and Wealth arenearlycomplete,but someoftheirchoralodeshavebeenexcised,seebelowp.142forsignsofexcisionin Wealth.
21 Onthealmostcertainfourthcenturydateforthe Rhesus,seep.53n.7below.
22 SeeWright2016:11720foradiscussionofthisproblematicperiodizationof tragedy.
23 E.g.lookingthrough TheContextofAncientDrama section3Ai(Festival Organization),onlynineoutofthesixtythreetestimoniafromtheClassicalperiod comefrombefore400.Foranexcellentdemonstrationofhowfourthcenturyevi dencehasbeenappliedto fifthcenturyhistoricalpractice,andthedistortionsthatcan comeofdoingso,seeBosher2009.
24 Sifakis1963and1967,XanthakisKaramanos1993,KotlińskaToma2015.
Anotionthattheartistsinthefourthcenturywere,ingeneral,not whattheyoncewere(morallyandtechnically)hashadalongand variegatedlife.25 Theallegedpoliticalandeconomicexhaustionof Athensafterthecity’sdefeatatArginusaein406anditscapitulation toSpartanhegemony,theinnovationsinmusico-poetictechnology andpractice,theshiftingtastesoftheaudiencesandtheincreasein thenumberofthoseaudiences,experimentationwithdramaturgical convention allofthesehaveencouragedsomescholarstodismiss wholeswathesofpoeticproductioninthefourthcentury,including thedramaticchorus.Diachronicdevelopmenthasbeenanimportant frameworkforstructuringhowwetalkaboutallsortsofclassical culturalphenomena,encouragedperhapsbytheAristotelianpenchantforsimilarkindsofbiologically-informednarrativesofgrowth, acme,anddecline,anddramahasbeennoexception.Butinrecent years,scholarshavesoughttodemonstratethatthepolitical upheavalsinAthensaroundtheendofthe fifthcentury,while significant,werenottheepoch-endingeventsthatsome(including Aristophanes,aswellaslaterauthors)presentedthemas.26 Weare nowinapositiontoproclaimmorestronglytheaspectsofcontinuity withinthehistoricalClassicalperiod.
Despitetheslimevidenceforitsqualityandactivity,somevery definiteandunequivocalideasaboutthefourth-centurydramatic choruscontinuetounderpinscholarlyconceptionsofAtticdrama anditsdevelopment.Rootedexplicitlyorimplicitlyinthepassageof Aristotlequotedabove,thereisaclearsensethat ‘decline’ continues, ingeneral,tobeagoodone-size-fits-alltermforthewaythedramatic chorusdeveloped,whetheritbewithregardtotheactivityofthe chorus,thenumberofperformers,theinteractionwithactorsand plot,melicquality,orthematicimportance.27 Thishasbeenmost
25 ‘I’minneedofaskilfulpoet./Someofthemarenomore,andthosethatarealive aredegenerates’ , δέομαιποιητο
,Ar. Ran. 712. ‘NachdreihundertJahren steigtdieMuse vomWagenundgeht fortanzuFuß.DieProsatrittihrenSiegeszugan’,Seidensticker1995:175.Seealso Croiset1929:390403,Rose1934:712,Hadas1950:1089,Lesky1971:63040, Beye1975:175,Dihle1994:2238.
26 ‘Thismelodramaofthepoet,thecity,andthegenre,allsittingtogetheronthe stoopofthefourthcenturyblubberingoverlostglory,hashadsurprisingappeal’ Csapo2000:124,seealsoHall2007:26488andLeVen2014:813onthedebate aroundlyricpoetry’ s ‘decline’ beginninginthesixthcentury.
27 ‘Zurücktreten’ (Flashar1967:154), ‘reduzierte’ (Nesselrath1990:52), ‘quantita tivamenteequalitativamenteristretta’ (Perusino1986:64).Thereareagrowing
clearlyassertedforthecomicchorus: ‘Itiswellknownthatinthe fourthcenturythecomicchoruswentthroughaperiodofdecline, whichendedwithitsstandardisationintoagroupofdrunkyouths, whoinvariablyappearedinallplaysofNewComedy.’28 Therehasbeen significantlylessdiscussionaboutthefourth-centurytragicchorus, althoughitsdevelopmentisusuallystilltracedalongsimilarlinesas thatofcomedy.29 Thesatyrplayisrarelyincludedinsuchdiscussions, asevenlessisknownaboutthisgenreofperformance,althoughwedo knowitcontinuedtohaveaplaceinthefestivallineup.30
Attheoutset,weshouldconfronthowunhelpfulatermlike ‘decline’ is.Itdoesbothtoomuchandnotenoughwork.Itencouragesamonolithicviewofanareawheretheonlythingthatwecanbe certainofisthattherewasavarietyofpractice(justasistrueforthe choraltechniquesofourextant fifth-centuryplaywrights).Theterm is,also,extraordinarilyimprecise,admittingallmannerofqualitative (andsomequantitative)definitionsthatcanvaryfromscholarto scholarwithoutanyscrutiny.Insomeolderscholarlyworkswesee thesuggestionthatchoralodesinthefourthcenturyconsistedof purelymusicalperformances31 oradancewithoutsingingorwords32 oreventhattherewasatotalabsenceofachoralcomponentin drama33 allofwhichfailtoaccountforthecertainandpositive evidenceforsonganddancebeingregardedasessentialcomponents ofdramaanditschorusinthefourthcentury.34 Morerecently, numberofscholarsscepticalofsuchdeclinee.g.Wilson2000:2412,265,and267, LeVen2014:59,andWright2016:200.
28 Sifakis1971:416.SeealsoMaidment1935:8 ‘agrowingincongruitybetween chorusandactors’;Arnott1972:65 ‘adimshadow whohavenofunctionwhat everintheplot’;Perusino1986:71 ‘unaprogressiveesautorazionedelcoro’;Ireland 2010:352 ‘nomorethantheproviderofinterludes’
29 Capps1895:288(giving ‘theprevailingview’),Flickinger1918:1489,Csapo andSlater1995:349,Scattolin2010:176,Storey2011:xxxiii,Taplin2012:241, Hunter2017:2289.
30 IG II2 2320Col.II.1819,323withMO:61.Shaw2014:1412andCohn2015: 5689.
31 NodoubtprojectingRomantheatrepracticebackontothefourthcentury,see Haigh1889:261.SeeMaidment1935:11nn.2and4forolderbibliographystating thisview.
32 Holzinger1940:125,Beare1955:51,Russo1994:232 3(contraLaws 654b37) andGelzer1993:95.
33 Ussher1969:2930andIreland2010:352.Flashar1967:155n.5prefersto professignorance.
34 E.g.e.g.Aristotle Poetics 1456a279
declinehasbeenquantifiedbyidentifyingareductioninthepercentage ofchorallinesintragedyandcomedy,butforboththesegenresthe numberspresenteddonottellthewholestoryandareopenfor debate.35 Thesuggestionthatfourth-centuryodeswerenotwritten bythepoethimselfisanotherfavouredfeatureofthedeclinenarrative,36 butone,itshouldbenotedearly(andoften),withabsolutelyno evidencetosupportit.37
Declinehasalsobeenlocatedintheperceiveddecreaseininteractionbetweenactorsandchorusinbothtragedyandcomedy,38 orin thesuggestionthatthecontentofthechorus’ odeswasirrelevantto theplot(implicitwhenodesarelabelled ‘intermezzic’).Thislast judgementisparticularlyfraughtasthechargeofirrelevancehas beenandmustalwaysbemadeonhighlysubjectivegrounds.As shownbytherehabilitationofEuripides’ laterchoralodes,once alsodeemed ‘irrelevant’,irrelevanceisitselfatermthatrelieson one ’sviewofdramaandhowitworks.39 Moreoftenthannot,itis thereputationofthepoet,orthetastesofthetimeandindividual preferenceofthereaderthathasshapedthesejudgementsofirrelevance.Bycontrast,wecanfullyappreciateachoralsonglikeSophocles’‘OdetoMan’ inthe Antigone, whichmakesnodirectreferenceto
35 CsapoandSlater1995:349intheirstatisticalaccountofdecliningchoral presenceinthe fifthcenturynotetheexceptionstothissuggestedtrend Bacchae has27percentchorallinesand OedipusatColonus has22percent.Ifweaddthe IphigeniaatAulis (21.7percent)which,incidentally,hadchorallinesactuallyadded tothescriptatsomepointforaperformance,andthe Rhesus whichhas28.5percent, itisEuripides’ Orestes with10.5percentchorallinesthatlooksliketheexception. Csapo19992000:399426givesamoredetailedanalysisincludingpercentagesof choralandactor’ssong,buttheimportofsuchstatisticsremainsopenfordiscussion. Forcomedy,anyguessesatwhatpercentageof TheAssemblywomen and Wealth were choralmustrestonguessworkregardingthelengthoftheodesthathavenotbeen transmittedwiththerestofthetext.
36 Flickinger1912:334,Webster1953:59n.1,Sifakis1963:31,Arnott1972:65, Handley1985:400,Sutton1990:92,Rothwell1992:219,Zimmerman1998:187, Sidwell2001:7884,Slater2002:316n.30.
37 N.B.Aristotle Poetics 1456a2732containsnoclearindicationaboutwhois responsibleforwritingthesungparts(τὰᾀδόμενα).Seepp.15062forafull discussionofthispassage.
38 E.g.incomedy:Flickinger1918:1489,Kranz1933:262,Ferrari1948:17787, Sifakis1967:113,Dover1972:1945,Rothwell1992:209,Zimmerman1998:17389. Intragedy:XanthakisKaramanos1980:8andMastronarde2010:88152.
39 Mastronarde2010:12645.SeealsoSwift2009.
theplot,normovestheactionforwardinanyway,yetisundoubtedly avaluableandformativepartoftheplay.Finally,declinemightbe appliedtothesupposedincapabilityoffourth-centurypoetstocompose ‘good’ lyricpoetryforthechorustosing,despitethevarietyof lyricmetresfoundinthosefragmentsofchoraltextthatwedohave, andacultureofsophisticatedandhighlycompetitivelyriccompositionrunningstrongthroughoutthefourthcentury.40
Theimprecisionthatisencouragedbycontinuingtousetheword ‘decline’ isbutonereasonwhyafocusedstudyofthedramaticchorus infourth-centuryAtticdramaisworthwhile.Thereisacleartension betweenthetraditionalinterpretationofAristotle Poetics 1456a25–32 andthegeneralpictureofchoralvigourthatisindicatedeveninthe relativelylimitedevidencewedohave.Fragmentsoffourth-century tragedyshowthatchorusesnotonlyhadapartinthedrama,butthat theycouldalsohavevaried fictionalidentities(Cyprians,slave women,Minyans,bacchants,Trojansor ‘chosenmen’ ofAetoliain tragedy,Scythians,women,youngmen,hunters,companionsof Odysseus,cities,Furies,andbuildersincomedy)anddialoguewith characters.41 ThecontinuedperformanceofsatyrplayattheDionysia toowouldhardlyhavebeenpossiblewithoutitschorusinallits integratedandactiveglory.Therevivedproductionsoftragedy, institutedattheDionysiain386,wouldhaveincludedchoruses, andthechoralpartsinsomeoftherevived fifth-centuryplayseven seemtohavebeenenlarged.42 Inlightofthenumberofchoral performersthatwillhavetakenpartinevenasingleyear’schoral calendar(theDemeDionysia,theLenaea,theCityDionysia,the Thargelia,andthePanathenaeaforcertain),theideathatdramatic choralperformancescouldnotbesupportedintermsofteaching, talent,ormanpowerislikewisefar-fetched.Infact,Lycurgusinthe 330swasresponsibleforincreasingthenumberofannualchoral performancesaspartofwhatseemstohavebeenacogentprogram ofre-invigoratingapost-ChaeroneaAthens,demonstratingthe continuityofvaluedchoralperformanceingeneralinAthensafter
40 LeVen2014(focusingontheearlierpartofthefourthcentury)andFord2011 onAristotle’ s ‘HymntoHermias’ .
41 Onchoralidentitiesseepp.6970below.
42 Seepp.95102onadditionsmadetothe IphigeniaatAulis inreperformance(cf. Kovacs2003:77103)includinganenlargementofthechoralpartsandtheaddition ofasecondchorusatlines5907.
the fifthcentury.43 Thepotentialforhigh-qualitychorallyric,too,is evidencedinthelyriccompositionsthathaverecentlybeenre-appraised inmodernscholarship,includingonepoembyAristotlehimself.44 This tensionbetweentheusualinterpretationofAristotle(and χοροῦ)and ourotherevidencehasnotbeenaddressedinanysubstantialwayand thisbookseekstodojustthat.
However,thereismoretobedonethansimplyprovidingan alternativenarrativeofdramaticchoraldevelopment.Asiscurrently beingdemonstratedinvariousrecentstudiesoffragmentarymaterial, lookingbeyondthecanonicalplaysand/orauthorsallowsustogaina muchricherunderstandingofhowdiversethegenresoftragedy, comedy,andsatyrplayreallywereintheClassicalperiod.45 Whatis commontomanyofthesestudiesisthewaytheynotea ‘co-existence’ ofdifferentformsandtechniquesatanyandeverypointinthe Classicalperiod.46 Onthebasisofcurrentlyavailableevidence,itis simplynotpossibletomake firmgeneralsuggestionsconcerninghow thedramaticchoruschangedoverthecourseofeightyyearsorso between401andthelate320s.Rather,theforegrounding(andvalidation)ofthechoralspeechandsongwedohavewillprovideameans ofenrichingourunderstandingofdramaticchoralpracticemore generally.Therambunctiouscharacterofthechorusinthe Rhesus neednotbeanindicationofaparticulartendencyinfourth-century dramatictechnique,butanotherexampleofthekindsofthingsan audiencemightappreciate,orapoetmightlooktohischorusfor whenwritinghisplays.Bylookingatthefourth-centurychorus,our knowledgeofwhatthedramaticchorusisanddoesischallengedand enhanced.
Therelevanceofthisstudytoourunderstandingof fifth-century dramainparticularcanbestatedalittlemorestrongly.Thetraditionalacceptanceofchoraldeclineinthefourthcenturybegsan
43 Plut. Mor.842a.SeeHumphreys2004:77110forfurtherdetailsofLycurgan measuresatthistime.
44 Ford2011,LeVen2014.
45 E.g.HarveyandWilkins2000,andmorerecentlyseeChronopoulosandOrth 2015andWright2016.
46 Zimmerman2015:14notes ‘dieKoexistenzverschiedenerkomischerSpielfor menschonim5Jahrhundert,diemannachdercommunisopinioerstspäteransetzte, sowiedasVorhandenseinvonCharakteristika,diemanalsaufeinefrüherePhase beschränktansah,inspäterenPhasenderGattungsgeschichte.’ SeealsoHenderson 2015:14658onvarietyin fifthcenturycomedyandKonstantakos2015:15998on theprudenceofabandoningtheterm ‘Middle’ comedy.
importantquestion.Ifallthathasbeensaid,particularlyrecently,of thepotentialofthedramaticchorustoactasamediatingforce,a powerfulmeansofshapingmythandculturalidentity,asabalancein apivotaldyadbetweenindividualandcollective,etc.istobetaken seriously,howisitthecasethatthisdefiningelementinAtticdrama apparentlyfadedtoinconsequencesoswiftlyinthefourthcentury? Howintrinsic is thechoralcontribution(accordingtohowweread thedramas,atanyrate)ifthiswasthecase?Thereismoreatstakein anelucidationofthefourth-centurydramaticchorusthanjust filling inalong-neglectedchapterinthehistoryoftheatre;toconfrontthe allegedswiftdeclineofthedramaticchorusistoconfrontourown currentmodelsforevaluatingAtticdramaanditschoruses.
Therecentstudiesofthedevelopmentoftheatreandthematerial circumstancesofitsindustryhavenoteditsprofessionalizationand proliferationacrosstheancientMediterranean.47 Thequestionof howthechorus fitsintothesenewlynoteddevelopmentsintheatre practiceisafascinatingoneandprovidesyetanotherspurforthe writingofthisbook.Howfardidchoralperformersfollowtheactors andauletesinbecomingprofessionalandoccupyingthemajorityof theirtimewithchoralsonganddance?Intermsofthespreadof dramathroughouttheancientMediterranean,howwouldchoral performersbefoundandcastforthese ‘touring’ productions? Whenandhowdidthechoralperformerslearntheirparts?The samekindofprovocationoccurswhenthinkingaboutthechorus withinthegrowinghabitofrevivingpastproductions.Werethesame performersusedwhenmultiplerevivalsoccurredwithinashortspace oftime?Wasthesamechoreographyandmusicperformedorwas thisachanceforaproducertoputtheirownstamponan ‘old’ drama?Thepressureonpracticalarrangementsthatcomewitha ‘cast’ ofeighteenornineteen(largerinthecaseofcomedy)as opposedtoagroupofthreeorfourcompelsustoaskfurther questionsabouttheprofessionoftheatreanditspersonnelduring thisera.
Thereisatendencytofocusonindividualswhenwritinghistory. Theanecdoteoftheactor,theanticsofawealthyandprominent choregos,thewitticismsofanacclaimedaulete allofthesekindsof historyarereadilyavailabletoreadaboutandinterpret.Itisinthis
47 Seenn.2and6aboveoninternationali zationandprofessionalization, respectively.
tendency,too,thatwemight,perhaps,understandhoweasyitisfor ustomissthemassedchoralperformersthatweretheuniquefeature ofAtticdrama.Itisforthisreasonthatmyfocusindiscussionwill adherewithadoggeddeterminationtothechorusitselfandthosein it,withthehopeofhighlightingtheroleofchoralperformerswithin ourpictureofthepopularity,professionalization,andspreadofAttic dramaacrosstheHellenicworldinthefourthcentury.
Thisbookgathersinoneplace,forthe firsttime,allrelevantsources thatspeaktothepresenceandactivityofthechorusinAtticdrama inthefourthcentury.Therelevantevidenceisnotatallstraightforwardtointerpret(onefurtherreason,perhaps,whysuchanassemblagehasnotbeenundertakensofar)butthereisaconsiderable collectioninneedofcarefulcontextualizationandreading.Many scholarsapproachthisevidencewiththetestimonyofAristotle, notedabove, firmlyinmind.Itishopedmyfairlyunapologeticstance ofremainingopentocontinuity,ratherthandecline,willbeunderstoodnotaswilfulnaïveté,butasasoundmethodologicalchallenge tothestatusquo.Thecaseunderpinningthenarrativeofdeclineof thedramaticchorusiscumulative,andthechallengesmadetovariousaspectsofthatnarrativewill,likewise,havetheirgreatestforce whentakentogether.Suchisthediffusenatureoftheevidence;much mustremainprovisional.
WebegininChapter1withanaccountofwhenandwherethe dramaticchorusesofthefourthcenturydanced,andasmuchaswe cangatheraboutthematerialcircumstancesofthesechoralperformers.InChapters2,3,and4,weturnourattentiontothemajorand minorexamplesofchoralsonganddanceinfourth-centurydrama, includingthechoraltextIarguewasaddedforfourth-centuryrevivals of fifth-centuryplays.48 Havingconsideredthepositiveevidencefor whatthechorussaidanddid,andwhereandhowfrequentlytheysaid anddidit,wecanthenturninChapter5tothemorefamiliarpassage ofAristotleandthehabitof χοροῦ,piecesofevidencethathave traditionallybeenreadasindicatingadeclineindramaticchoral activity.Inthischapter,Ishowhowtheymightbere-readinlightof thepositiveevidencealreadyanalysedinChapters1to4.
48 Formychoiceoftheterm ‘revival’ asopposedto ‘reperformance’ seep.17 n.7below.
Inthe finaltwochapters,webroadenthescopeofdiscussionto includenon-dramaticchoruses.Thisispartlyforpracticalreasonsas thevastmajorityofreferencestochorusesinfourth-centuryliterature donotspecifyaparticulargenreofchoralperformance.Underthe twinheadingsof ‘ChorusandFestival’ and ‘TheChorusandSociety’ wecanexaminehowtheideaofthechoruswasrendered(and manipulated)inthewritingandthoughtoffourth-centuryauthors andartists.Indoingsowecanidentifysomethingabouttheancient receptionofthechorusmoregenerally(withinwhichwemight expectthedramaticchorustoformadynamicpart).Wecanalso identifywhatassociationswehavebeenencouragedtomakewithall choruses,someofwhicharenotappropriatetoaspecificdiscussion ofthedramaticchorus.Thisdoubleaiminthe finaltwochapterswill, itishoped,contributetotheprecisionandclaritywithwhichweview thechorusofdramaandchoralculturemoregenerally.
