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ElaineTreharneGregWalker
TheAestheticsofIslandSpace
Perception,Ideology,Geopoetics
JOHANNESRIQUET
3
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PREFACE
‘Ready,IthinkIseesomething,butIcanhardlytellwhatitis;itappears tobeintheair,andyetitisnotclouds.... ’ ‘You’reright,sir’,repliedReady, ‘thereissomething;itisnottheland whichyousee,butitisthetreesuponthelandwhicharereflected,as theycallit,soastoappear,asyousay,asiftheywereintheair.Thatis anisland,sir,dependuponit....’ (Marryat , )
Afterthewreckofthe Pacific inFrederickMarryat’sislandnovel MastermanReady (),theSeagravefamilyaredesperatelyhoping ‘togainsomeisland’ ();theirexpectationsareshapedbypopular castawaynarrativeslike RobinsonCrusoe,whichisdiscussedondeck shortlybeforetheshipwreck.Theirhopesaresoongratified:afterits entirelyimaginaryappearanceinthecastaways’ desires,theisland first emergesasanuncertainvisualphenomenononthehorizon.Looking neitherlikesolidlandnorlikeinsubstantialclouds,itrefusestobe classified.Ready’sconvolutedsyntaxreinforcesthevisualconfusion expressedbyMr.Seagrave;thedelayeddeclarative ‘Thatisanisland, sir’ sitsuneasilywiththecomplicatedexplanationprecedingit.
Thisexamplefrom MastermanReady isoneofcountless fictional andnon- fictionaldescriptionsofislandsmarkedbyperceptual,geographical,andlinguisticuncertaintyanddisorientation.Inmanyways, agrowingfascinationwiththeseuncertaintieswasthestartingpointfor thisbook.WhenIbeganthisproject,Iwasstronglyinfluencedbya traditionofscholarshipthatviewedliteraryislands especiallyliterary islandsfromtheEnglish-speakingworld assupreme figuresof boundedspaceandthe fictionsofmodernindividualism,nationalism, andcolonialismthataccompaniedit.Thesevaluableanalysesalerted metotheongoingimportanceofislandsintheWesternimagination, andtotheideologicalfunctionstheyhaveserved.ButIhavegradually cometounderstandthatBritishandAmericanislandnarrativeschallengetheseideologiesasfrequentlyastheyconsolidatethem,andthat theymobilizeanddestabilizespaceasmuchastheyrenderitstaticand controllable.ItisthisneglectedstoryofislandsthatIwishtotellinthis book,whichaimstoreconsiderthecentralroleislandshaveplayedin
rethinkingspacesincethe ‘insularmoment’ (Conley , –)of earlymodernity.
TheAestheticsofIslandSpace:Perception,Ideology,Geopoetics discussesislandsascentral figuresinthemodernexperienceofspace.It examinesthespatialpoeticsofislandsinliterarytexts,journalsof explorersandscientists,andHollywoodcinema.Itdiffersfromand complementsaccountsof fictionalislandsastropesforenclosed, autonomous,andstaticspacesbytracingthewaysinwhichliterary andcinematicislandshavefunctionedasmalleablespatial figuresof geo(morpho)logicalinstabilityandpoeticproduction.Indifferent ways,theislandnarrativesexaminedinthisstudygenerateperceptual strugglesandmentalcartographies,andstageaestheticexperiencesof spacethattaketheirprotagonistsandreaderstothelimitsofhuman perception.Inadditiontorethinkingisland fiction,then,thisbookisa contributiontorecenttheoreticalapproachestospacethatexplorethe intersectionoflivedexperience,perception,culture,andphysical geography.
Theworksexaminedspanseveralcenturies,rangingfromearly moderntextstocontemporaryrepresentations.Eachchapterisattentivetothewaysinwhichdifferentconceptualizationsofislandshave travelledthroughtimeaswellasspace.TerrenceMalick’ s TheNew World offersarepresentativeexampleofthistextualwanderingof islands.Atthebeginningofthe extendedversion,weseea quotationfromJohnSmith’ s ADescriptionofNewEngland (): ‘Howmuchtheyerr,/thatthinkeveryonewhichhasbeenatVirginia/ understandsorknowswhatVirginiais.’ AswehearPocahontasinvokingthespiritoftheland,thecameraseemstomoveforwardintoapart ofthewaterlitteredwith floraldebrisfromthetrees,creatinganimage ofarrival.However,theunchangingreflectionofthetreesrevealsthat themovementisillusory,andthatthewaterisactuallymovingtowards thecamera.WethenseethecameramovingoveramapbyJohnWhite, engravedbyTheodordeBry(‘TheArriualoftheEnglishemenin Virginia’ , ),approachinganisland(FigureP.).Beforetheshot fadesout,agroupoftreesreminiscentofthosereflectedinthewateris superimposedonthemap.LiketheJohnSmithquote,whichis ‘extractedfromitscontext’ inapassagewhereSmithisreally ‘venting hisfrustrationaboutamateurishmap-makers’ (Nicolpar. ),themap hasbeentamperedwith.Intheoriginalengraving(whichappears,in
Stillfrom TheNewWorld (TerrenceMalick,USA/UK
fact,oneminutelaterinthe film),severalhalf-sunkshipsarevisiblein frontoftheislandsoftheOuterBanks,withtwolargeshipssailing towardsthem(seeChapter ,Figure .).Intheversionshowninthe film,nosinkingshipsarevisible,butoneofthelargershipshasbeen movedandappears(back-to-front)veryclosetotheisland,inthesame positionasoneoftheshipwrecksontheoriginalmap.
TheSmithquotation,theforwardmovementofthewater,andthe mapjointlycreateanimageofhopefullandfall.Thesuperimposition oftreesonthemapandtheseeminglyrepeatedcameramovement (acrossthewater,overthemap)constructamultilayeredislandarrival betweentext,image,andmaterialspace.Butthemanipulationsoftext andmapaswellasthe trompel’oeil-shotalsopointtoshipwrecks, frustratedhopes,andarrestedmovementattheislandgatewaysofthe NewWorld.Inthis,Malick’ s filmrepeatstherhetoricaloperationsat workinmanyofthetextswrittenbytheearlycolonizers.Italso conflatesvariousislandbeginnings:althoughitrecountstheearly historyofJamestown,themapshowstheislandsinfrontofRoanoke Island,thesiteofEngland’ s first,failedcolonialexperimentsinAmerica.Mostimportantly,Malick’ s filmdemonstratesthecontinuedafterlifeofearlierislandrepresentations;indeed,theremediationofwritten texts,maps,anddrawingsinits firstminutespointstotheintersection ofthesetextsintheculturalimaginary,spanningtheperiodandthe rangeoftexttypescoveredinthisbook.
Icouldnothavewrittenthisbookwithoutthesupportofcolleagues, friends,andfamily.Manyoftheideasdevelopedhereemergedin conversationwithmyfellowmembersoftheIslandPoeticsproject DanielGraziadei,BrittaHartmann,IanKinane,andBarneySamson andtheyhaveofferedinvaluableadviceonvariouschapterdrafts.My understandingofislandnarrativeswouldbemuchmorelimitedwithoutthisexchange.Iwarmlythankmyformercolleaguesfromthe UniversityofZurich,especiallyAntoininaBevanZlatar,Johannes Binotto,NicoleEberle,MartinMühlheim,AllenReddick,andAna Sobral,aswellasKevinMcGinleyatTampereUniversity;theircommentsandfeedbackonideasanddraftsatvariousstagesofthisproject havebeenagreathelp.Mythanksalsogototheresearchgroup ‘Space/ PhenomenologyandEmbodiedExperience ’,amongothers,Martin Heusser,RahelRiveraGodoy-Benesch,MichelleDreiding,Stefanie Strebel,andMartinoOleggini.Thestimulatingdiscussionswiththis grouphaveshapedmyunderstandingofthespatialandphenomenologicalperspectivesIdrawoninmyanalyses.IamgratefultoGodfrey Baldacchino,TomConley,ElizabethDeLoughrey,SarahKrotz,JonathanPugh,Jean-MichelRacault,andAnnaZdrenykforongoingconversationsonislandsaswellastheirvaluableinputandencouragement. Thisbookgrewoutofadoctoraldissertation,andIwouldliketothank mysupervisors,ElisabethBronfen,MargritTröhler,andChristina Ljungberg,fortheirsupportandguidance.Specialthanksgoto MargaretFreemanandPeterSchneckfortheirgreatlyappreciated encouragementandadvice.Ialsot hankNinniVarankaforhereditorialassistanceinthe fi nalstagesoftheproject,andCharlotteCoutu forcompilingtheindex.IamindebtedtoJonasBühler,MichiMötteli, GabrielaRösli,andJosineZanoliforpatientlylisteningtomy thoughtsandfortheirgeneralsupport.Agreatthank-yougoesto GabiNeuhausfordesigningtheinstallationonthecover.Finally, IwouldliketothankAimeeWrightatOxfordUniversityPressfor herhelpandguidance. ***
PartsofChapter werepreviouslypublishedas ‘KillingKingKong: TheCameraattheBordersoftheTropicalIsland, – ’ ()in Nordlit ,pp. –.
Chapter containsrevisedsectionsfromanarticlethatwaspublished as ‘IslandsasShiftingTerritories:Evolution,GeologyandtheIsland PoeticsofDarwin,Wallace,WellsandGhosh’ ()in Insularity: RepresentationsofSmallWorlds,editedbyKatrinDautelandKathrin Schödel,pp. – (Würzburg:Königshausen&Neumann).Theyare reprintedwiththekindpermissionofKönigshausen&Neumann.
CONTENTS
ListofFigures xv
Introduction
TowardsaPoeticsof(the)Island(s)
. FromIslandtoIsland,andBeyond ArrivalsintheNewWorld
. IslandsontheHorizon
TheCameraattheBordersoftheTropicalIsland
. FromInsularitytoIslandness
Fractals,FuzzyBorders,andtheFourthDimension
. FromIslandstoArchipelagos
Volcanism,Coral,andGeopoetics
Epilogue
TheLifeon/ofIslands
References
Index
LISTOFFIGURES
P..Stillfrom TheNewWorld (TerrenceMalick, USA/UK )ix
I..Stillfrom LettersfromIwoJima (ClintEastwood, USA )
.. ImmigrantsWaitingtoBeTransferred,EllisIsland, October , (Underwood&Underwood, ), LibraryofCongress,Prints&PhotographsDivision (LC-USZ-)
.Detailfrom UniversalisCosmographia (mapbyMartin Waldseemüller, ),LibraryofCongress,Geography andMapDivision
.. ‘TheArriualoftheEnglishemeninVirginia’ (engraving byTheodordeBryafterwatercolourbyJohnWhite,in ThomasHariot, ABriefeandTrueReport, )
..Stillfrom MaleandFemale (CecilB.DeMille,USA )
..Stillfrom SupermanReturns (BryanSinger,USA
..Stillfrom WhiteShadowsintheSouthSeas (W.S.VanDyke,USA )
..Stillfrom WhiteShadowsintheSouthSeas (W.S.VanDyke,USA )
..Stillfrom WhiteShadowsintheSouthSeas (W.S.VanDyke,USA )
..Stillfrom TheHurricane (JohnFord,USA )
..Stillfrom TheHurricane (JohnFord,USA )
..Stillfrom KingKong (MerianC.CooperandErnest B.Schoedsack,USA )
..Stillfrom KingKong (MerianC.CooperandErnest B.Schoedsack,USA )
.. ‘SanJuanCounty’ (articlepublishedinthe SanJuan Islander on February
)
.. ‘SanJuanCounty’ (mappublishedinthe SanJuan Islander on February )
)
..Excerptfrom AChartShewingPartoftheCoastof N.W.America (mapbyGeorgeVancouver,London, G.G.&J.Robinson, ),DavidRumseyMapCollection, www.davidrumsey.com
.Excerptfrom MapoftheOregonTerritory (mapbyCharlesWilkesandUnitedStatesExploring Expedition,Philadelphia,Lea&Blanchard, ), DavidRumseyMapCollection, www.davidrumsey.com
E..Stillfrom TheEdgeoftheWorld (MichaelPowell, UK )
E..Stillfrom TheEdgeoftheWorld (MichaelPowell, UK
)
Introduction
TowardsaPoeticsof(the)Island(s)
AtthebeginningofClintEastwood’ s LettersfromIwoJima (), webrieflyseeablackscreenbeforetheopeningcreditsappear.At thesametime,wehearthesoundofwaves.Afterthetitlehasfadedout, animageemergesthatlookslikeanocturnalskyspeckledwithstars beforethecameratiltsupwardstorevealwaveslappingagainstablack, volcanicbeach.Onlythendoesthecameraalsopanright,centring MountSuribachi,thedormantvolcanothatproducedtheislandandis itsstrategicallymostimportantpoint(FigureI.).The filmthusbegins byevokingaspaceandtimedevoidofhumanpresence.Theisland takesshapebeforeoureyesagainstthebackdropofthesoundofthe oceanthatprecededit,whiletheopticalillusionofthestar-speckledsky evokesacosmicorder.Thetilt,risingoutoftheblackparticlesofits volcanicgenesis,correspondstotheriseoftheislandoutofthewater, totheemergenceofformoutofacosmicnight,andtotheappearance oftheimageinthedarkcinema.
Theemphasisontheborderoflandandseaforegroundstheislandas asiteoferosionbeforethefocusshiftstothemountain,itsgeological andsymboliccentre.Siteofthefamousphotographoftheraisingofthe American flag,itevokesAmericanvictoryandsuperiority.Thenext shot,however,makesitclearthatthefocuswillbeontheJapanese: ratherthantheAmerican flag,weseeamonumenttothedeadJapanese
TheAestheticsofIslandSpace:Perception,Ideology,Geopoetics.JohannesRiquet,Oxford UniversityPress().©JohannesRiquet.
soldiersonthemountain.Inanothertilt,thecamerarisesabovethe monumenttorevealapanoramicview.Theshotparodiesascene commonindesertislandnarrativesknownasthe ‘“monarch-of-all-Isurvey ” moment’ (Pratt , –;Weaver-Hightower , ),when thecastawayclimbstoheightsandtakesvisualpossessionoftheisland, likeRobinsonCrusoe, ‘surveyingitwithasecretkindofpleasure ...that Iwaskingandlordofallthiscountryindefeasibly... ’ (Defoe , ). Whatissurveyedatthebeginningof LettersfromIwoJima,however,is analmostmonochromewasteland,andnobodyistheretocontemplate thescene.Andyet,thehesitantforwardmovementofthecamera,the tilt,andthelingeringovertheviewoftheislandimplyanobserving consciousness.Thecameratakesthepositionofthedeadsoldiers,asif risingfromthegrave.
MakingandPerceivingIslands: Poiesis and Aisthesis
Thissequenceencapsulateswhatthisbookisabout:itexaminesislands betweengeographyandtext.The firstshotcombinesvariousformsof production.Itdrawsattentiontothegeologicalandgeomorphological (re)creationoftheislandthroughvolcanicprocesses,oceanicdenudation,andresedimentation.Thismaterialproductionisparalleledbythe cinematicandaestheticproductionoftheisland.Botharelinkedtothe
constructionoftheislandasaspaceinvestedwithideologyalongthe linestheorizedbyHenriLefebvrein TheProductionofSpace;thisthird formofproductionmanifestsitselfinthetensionbetweentheisland’ s functionasasiteofcommemorationoftheJapanesesoldiersanda spaceaffirmingAmericansuperiority.Ifgeomorphologyisthestudyof thegenesisandsculptingofthelandintodiverseformsthroughvarious processesandforces(StrahlerandStrahler , ),poeticsisthe equivalentoftheseprocessesintherealmoftextuality,especiallywhen understoodintermsoftheGreek ποίησις (poiesis:creation,production).Accordingtothe OxfordEnglishDictionary, ‘poetics’ initsmost generalsensemeans ‘[t]hecreativeprinciplesinforminganyliterary, socialorculturalconstruction,orthetheoreticalstudyofthese;atheory ofform’ (‘poetics,n.’ ).Theresonancebetweenthesetwotypesof form-givingprocessesisofcentralconcernthroughoutthisstudy,most explicitlyinChapter ,whenIturntothegeopoeticsofislands.
Butasthetitleitselfsignals, TheAestheticsofIslandSpace:Perception,Ideology,Geopoetics isinterestedin aisthesis asmuchasin poiesis. Accordingtothe OED, aisthesis means ‘senseperception,sensation, perception ’ (‘aesthesis|esthesis,n.’ ),andtheEnglishderivative either ‘[t]hephilosophyofthebeautifulorofart; ...thedistinctive underlyingprinciplesofaworkofartoragenre... ’ ; ‘[t]he(attractive) appearanceorsoundofsomething’ ;or ‘thescienceofsensoryperception’ (‘aesthetics,n.’ ).TheGreekterm,then,referstotheappearanceoftheworldthroughsensoryperception.Like aisthesis,thesecond andthirdmeaningsof aesthetics listedbythe OED refertophenomenal experience,whilethe firstmeaningoverlapswiththatof poetics asaset offormalandcreativeprinciplesandprocesses.Thetwoshotsfrom LettersfromIwoJima pointtotheperceptionoftheislandasmuchas toitsgeomorphologicalandtextualproduction.Inthe firstshot,the soundofthewaveslappingagainstthebeachevokestheislandasan auralexperience,whileitssubsequentemergenceasanimagecreatesa visualexperienceastheislandtakesshapebeforetheviewer’seyes.In thesecondshot,theislandagainappearsasanobjectofvisualperception,evenwhiletheidentityoftheobserverremainsuncertain. Ifthisstudytalksaboutboth aesthetics and poetics,itistosignalthis interplaybetween poiesis and aisthesis,betweentheproductionof islandsandtheirphenomenalappearance.IfollowTerryEagleton’ s contentionthataestheticsisbothlinkedtoideologyandcan ‘[provide]
anunusuallypowerfulchallengeandalternativeto ...dominantideologicalforms... ’ (, ).IalsofollowElizabethDeLoughreyand GeorgeB.Handley’semphasisonanaestheticengagementwiththe earth(, –).Whilewecannotescapetextualmediation,different poeticconstructionsofislandswillimplydifferentspatialconceptions, andanattentiontothematerialityofislandscanhavetransformative effects: first,inthe resonance betweenthematerialityofislandsandthe materialityoftheirtextualproduction,andsecond,inthe interference oftheformerinthelatter;intheresistancephysicalislandsofferto theirvarious figurationsandideologicalappropriationsin fictionaland non-fictionaldiscourses.
Production,Destruction,Sedimentation:
IslandsbetweenGeographyandText
Islandsareparticularlypotentlandformsforareimaginationofthe earthandourrelationtoit,whichispartlyduetotheimaginative potentialoftheirgeo(morpho)logicalinstability(think,forinstance,of volcanicislands).Indeed,ifislandslendthemselvestoadiscussionof productiveprocesses,theycanequallybemobilizedtonegotiate destructionanddissolution.Inherclassictext ‘TheBirthofanIsland’ (),biologistRachelCarsoncommentsonthefateofoceanic islands,writingthat ‘islandsareephemeral,createdtoday,destroyed tomorrow’ ().GillesDeleuze ’ s essay ‘DesertIslands’ readslikea responsetoCarson.ForDeleuze,continentalislandsare ‘separated fromacontinent’ andmanifest ‘disarticulation,erosion,fracture’ , whileoceanicislandsare ‘originary’,bornfromthewater(, ). ForDeleuze,asforCarson,islandsmanifestastrugglebetweenland andsea: ‘ ...thatanislandisdesertedmustappear philosophically normaltous.Humanscannotlive,norliveinsecurity,unlessthey assumethattheactivestrugglebetweenearthandwaterisover .... Islandsareeitherfrombeforeorforafterhumankind’ (;emphasis original).ForDeleuze,islandsmakevisibleaconstantthreatofeffacement,exposingtheapparentpermanenceofcontinentsasafalse security.Desertisland fictionsmanifestthisphilosophicalcondition becausetheypointtothebeforeandafterofhumanexistence.Indeed,
castawaysinisland fictions ‘comeandgo’ (Beer , ).AsGillian Beerpointsout,islandliteratureoftenrevolvesaroundthedifficulty ofestablishingafoundingpopulation.Furthermore,castaways almostinevitablyencountertracesofpreviousvisitors:thefootprint in RobinsonCrusoe ()isoneofmanyexamples.Thesetraceshold upamirrortothecastaway’sownimminentdisappearancefromthe island.Nourishingdreamsofpossessionandcolonization,islandtexts oftenfrustratethesedesiresandgiveshapetoathreatofextinction (cf.Beer , –).Scatteredwithruins,theseislandseasilybecome sitesofabandonment.
In LettersfromIwoJima,too,theislandismarkedasasiteof abandonmentanddestruction.Theinitialsenseofaghostlypresence continuesasweseeabandonedsitesandwarruins;moststrikingare twoshotstakenfrombehindacannon,withthecamerataking thepositionofthesoldieroperatingit.Thedestructivepotentialof thevolcanoissignalledinthemainpartofthe film.AstheAmericans attacktheisland,itlooksasthoughthevolcanowereerupting;the suggestionthattheAmericansaretryingtosinktheisland,utteredby oneofthesoldiers,continuesthisassociation.Waris figuredasaselfdestructivevolcaniceruptionastheislandisshakentoitsfoundations. Alongwithit,the filmicimagetremblesandthreatenstodissolve.
TheislandinEastwood’ s filmisthuslinkedtobothproductionand destruction.Butitisbestexaminedasasiteinperpetual reconstruction, aspaceformedandreformedbytextuallayersasmuchasbyvolcanic sediment.Neartheendofthe film,thiscapacityoftheislandtoreform itselfismadeclearastheJapanesesoldierslistentoaradiotransmission thatfeaturesasongabouttheislandsungbychildren: ‘Onthewavesof thePacific.../Asmalllonelyisland floats/ThefateofourImperial country/liesinthehandsofthisisland/...Weshall fightwithpride andhonoratanyprice/Ourproudisland/IwoJima.’ Here,theisland isturnedintoamyth,asymbolofculturalsurvival.Personi fied firstasa ‘small,lonelyisland’,thenasa ‘proudisland’,itis figuredasan organismembodyingJapan.Duringthesong,weseeamilitarymap oftheislandthreetimes.Whilethesamemaphashighlightedthe hopelesspositionoftheJapanesethroughoutthe film,thisimageis nowchallenged.Significantly,thegeneraldoesnotlookatthemap directlythe firsttimeitisshown;throughthesong,anewimageofthe islandbeginstoform.Whenthemapreappears,itisslightlyblurred,
andweseeayoungsoldierfacingawayfromit,asiflookingatthis imaginaryisland.Thethirdtimeweseethemap,ithasbecome completelyblurred,andtheshapeoftheislandisbarelyrecognizable. Differentimagesoftheislandherefolloweachother;themapitselfis alreadyanimageandimpliesaparticularconstructionoftheisland. Fromthebeginning,then,the filmproducesvariousversionsofthe island.Resonatingwiththecapacityofthevolcanicislandtoproduce andreproduceitselfbyaccumulatinglayersofashandlava,the film effectsanimaginaryreconstructionoftheisland,producinglayersof images.
Inthelastshotsofthe film,thevarious(re)constructionsofthe islandarelinkedaswereturntotheframenarrative,whichshowsusa groupofJapanesearchaeologistsdiggingintothetunnelsmadeby thesoldiers.Thearchaeologists findhundredsofletterswrittenbythe soldiers;inaseriesofshots,weseethelettersdroppingtothegroundin slowmotion,graduallycoveringthesoil,whilewehearvoice-over snippetsoftheircontents.Theseshotsarefollowedbya finalimage oftheblackbeach,theocean,andthevolcano,returningustothe first shotofthe film.Thecutsignalsalinkbetweenthevolcanicsedimenton thebeachandthetextualsedimentinthetunnels;indeed,theletters minglewiththeverysoiloftheisland.Theisland,then,ismadeupof variousstrataconsistingasmuchofspokenwords,images,maps,and lettersasofsand,lava,andash.Ifhumansareviewedasgeomorphologicalagents,thetextualconstructionsoftheislandbecomepartofa setofprocessesformingandreshapingit.Yetwheredoesthisleaveus withregardtothelastimage?Itdiffersfromtheopeningshot:the camerapositionisstatic,andtheearliergreyisreplacedbyaglimmer ofrosycoloursinthesky.Theislanditself,havingbeenviolently shaken,survives:itsignalspermanenceaswellastransience.Butwe cannotdeterminewhichofitsmanyversionssurvives.Doweseethe islandofAmericantriumph?Doweseetheislandofthechildren’ s song,signifyingtheculturalsurvivalofJapan?Doweseetheislandas reconstructedbythearchaeologists?Doweseetheislandasacommemorativesite,oraspacehauntedbyghosts?Ordowereturntothe materialislanddevoidofhumansignificancealtogether?Withthe cosmicimplicationsofthe firstshotinmind,doestheemptyisland signifyaworldwithouthumans?Structurally,thepatternisthatoutlinedbyDeleuze:theislandis ‘frombeforeandforafterhumankind’
(Deleuze , ).Butthe finalshotresistseasysolutions.Throughout the film,theislandisconstructedandperceivedinvariouswaysthatare alignedwithdifferentideologicalpositions.Asaconglomerateof sediments,however,itisnever final,andcannotbedefinitivelyassigned toanyofthem.ThisiswhatImeanwhenIarguethatthematerial productionoftheislandresonateswithandinterfereswithitstextualization.Thephysicalspaceoftheislandlendsitselftovarious figurations,butitalsohasthepotentialtoresistandundothese:oneofthe possibilitiesimplicitinthelastshotisthatwesimplyseeanisland,and nothingelse.Perception,ideology,geopoetics:inthisinitialexample, theislandcomesintobeingattheintersectionofphenomenalexperience,ideologicalappropriation,andthephysicalproductionofthe island.TheengagementwiththeseprocessesiswhatIcalltheaesthetics ofislandspace.
SpatialDisorientations:Islands andModernExploration
Thebasicpremiseofthisbookisthatthemodernvoyagesofdiscovery posedconsiderablecognitiveandperceptualchallengestotheexperienceofspace,andthatthesechallengeswerenegotiatedincomplexand contradictorywaysviathepoeticandaestheticengagementwith islands.Whilescholarshiphasfrequentlyemphasizedtheliteraryconstructionofislandsasgeometricalabstractionsandeasilycomprehendedspaces, TheAestheticsofIslandSpace arguesthatthemodern experienceofislandsasmobileandshiftingterritoriesimpliesadispersal,fragmentation,anddiversificationofspatialexperience.Discussionsofislandnarrativesinpostcolonialtheoryhavebroadenedour understandingofthewaysislandshavebeenimaginedasbounded spaceseasilysubjectedtothecolonialgazeandcontrolledbyimperialist powers.Thereis,however,asecondstoryofislandsintheWestern imaginationwhichrunsparalleltothecolonialstory,andwhichhas beenneglectedincriticaldiscourse.Thissecondstoryrunscounterto thestoryofabstraction,simplification,andvisualcontrol,andinstead foregroundsspatialopenness,precariousness,disorientation,andperplexity.Inthisalternativeaccount,themodernexperienceofislandsin
theageofdiscoverywenthandinhandwitha disintegration ofreceived modelsofunderstandingglobalspace.Throughoutthebook,Iwill showhowthisdisruptionisregisteredandnegotiatedbybothnonfictionaland fictionalresponses.Inthepagesthatfollow,Iwillestablish someofthetheoreticalpremisesthathaveshapedmyapproach.These fallbroadlyintotwocategories:interdisciplinaryscholarshipabout islandsandislandrepresentationsontheonehand,andtheoriesof spatialityontheother,notablyphenomenologicalandgeopoetic approachestospace.Thesetwosectionswillpreparethegroundfor thetwogeneralaimsofthisbook:torethinktheroleofislandsin Anglo-Americantexts,andtodevelopnewperspectivesonliteraryand cinematicspacethroughalensthatcombinesperception,experience, andgeography.
ThePoeticsofWateryLand:FromInsularity toIslandnessandArchipelagicity
Whatevertheisland means inthelastshotof LettersfromIwoJima, itsignalsapositionthatisbothprecariousandpotentiallypowerful. Itsinstabilityemergesattheborderoflandandseaasthe filmemphasizestheinterplayofwaterandland.AsBeerexplains, ‘“[i]sle” inits earliestformsderivedfromawordforwaterandmeant, “watery” or “watered”.InOldEnglish “land” wasadded...: “is-land ”:watersurroundedland’ (, ).Throughoutthisbook,Iwillreflecton theimplicationsofincludingwaterinaconceptionofislands.Too muchscholarshiphasignoredthevitalroleofwaterintheengagement with fictionalislands.Postcolonialtheoryhasdonemuchtoincrease ourunderstandingofthewaysislandshavebeenimaginedasbounded spacessubjectedtothecolonialgaze,butlittletohelpusthinkabout themasspaceswherelithosphere,hydrosphere,andbiosphereinteract. Thus,RebeccaWeaver-Hightowerdiscussesthe figurationofislands asmasculinebodiesincolonialislandtexts().DianaLoxley examinesnineteenth-centuryislandnarrativesasmanifestationsof imperialdreams().DorothyF.Lane,too,arguesthat ‘theisland figureencapsulatesideasofenclosureandcontrol’ (, ).Theidea ofreductioniscommontotheseapproachestotheliteraryisland;Lane
contendsthat ‘[t]hecoloniser’slanguageeasilyconstructstheisland, mapsit,and finallyclaimsownershipofthatterritory ’ ().
AsMatthewBoydGoldiepointsout,islandsinWesternrepresentationstendtobe ‘thoughtofasopposedtothesea,isolated,delimited,converselyparadisiacalorhellish,enclosedhabitats,fragile environments... ’ ( , ).Withinthisdiscourse,islandsaretypicallyviewedinbinaryoppositioneithertotheseaortocontinents. Deleuze,too,ultimately ‘retainsthetraditionalbinaryofislandandsea’ (Goldie )byexaminingislandsasproductsofa ‘strugglebetweenearth andwater’.ThecommonlynotedbinarybetweenislandsandcontinentsisdiscussedbyNicholasRuddick,whodrawsonDonne’sfamous dictumthat ‘nomanisanisland’ (, )toarguethatin ‘the modernconsciousness,tobebornisakintobeingshipwreckedonan island’ (Ruddick , ).
ThesecriticalpositionsdrawattentiontothediscursiveconstructionsofislandsinWesternthinking,buttheysometimesreinscribethe oppositionssetinplacebythetextstheyexamineandneedtobe supplementedbyaperspectivethatincludeswaterasaconstitutive partofislands.The ‘continentalislanddiscourse’ (Goldie , )has beenchallengedinvariousdisciplines.Thus,historicalanthropologist GregDeningtheorizesthebeachasazoneofculturalcontact,conflict, andexchangeinhiswritingsontheMarquesasIslands.ForDening, ‘islandsareneverstaticandunchanging’ (, ),andbeachesare spacestobecrossedratherthanenclosingboundaries(, ). HistorianJohnR.GillistracesthediversewaysAtlanticislandshave beenimaginedandemphasizestheconstitutiveimportanceofwaterfora modernunderstandingofislands(, ).Hearguesthatinearly modernity,itwastheAtlantic ‘seaofislands,notthecontinents,which wastobecometheprimeobjectofscientificscrutinyandliteraryimagination’ (, ).Gillisisalerttothefunctionofthewaterasaconnective elementas,bytheeighteenthcentury, ‘[i]twasthroughthenetworksof [Atlantic]islandsthatcapital,goods,andlabor flowedineverincreasing volume’ (),equallyfacilitating ‘anacceleratedcirculation...ofideas’ ().Muchearlier,historianFernandBraudelmadeasimilarpointabout theMediterraneanislands: ‘Theislandslayonthepathsofthegreatsea routesandplayedapartininternationalrelations’ (, ).
InreimaginingtheAtlanticasa ‘seaofislands’,Gillisdrawsonan essaybyTongan-FijiananthropologistEpeliHau‘ofaentitled ‘OurSea
