RevaluingRoman Cyprus
LocalIdentityonanIslandinAntiquity
ERSINHUSSEIN
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Acknowledgements
Theexpectedprivilegesandchallengesofresearchareamplifiedwhen engagingwithanhistoricallyandsociallycomplexlandscapesuchas Cyprus.Studyofitslandscapeandhistoryrequiresopen-mindedness,a readinesstopartakein flexibleandcreativethinkinginthefaceof obstacles,bucketsofgoodhumour,andaboveallcollaboration.For thesereasons,andmore,therearemanypeopletothankwhenreflecting uponthedevelopmentofthisbook.
ItisonlyrightthatIbeginbythankingmembersofstafffromthe DepartmentofClassicsandAncientHistoryatWarwickwhoguided andsupportedmethroughoutmyPhDstudies,wherethisprojectbegan underthesupervisionofAlisonCooley.Theguidanceandmentoring thatIreceived(i.e.thesteady,calm,andprofessional ‘Cool(ey)under fire’— sorryAlison! approachtoresearch,teaching,andacademiclife ingeneral)hasstoodmeingoodsteadsinceandremainsacrucialpoint ofreferencewhennavigatingallthatworkinginacademiapresents. DuringthistimeIwasalsofortunateenoughtoconsultmaterials anddiscussancientCypruswithanumberofpeoplebasedatother academicinstitutions,andthishelpedshapemyresearchconsiderably. MygratitudegoestoallofthestaffbasedattheCyprusAmerican ArchaeologicalResearchInstituteinCypruswho,in2011,hosted meduringoneofmanyresearchtripstotheisland.Thisinstitute isthelifebloodofresearchonancientCyprusandplaysacrucialrole inbringingtogethercommunitiesacrosstheislandandtheworld toshareideas itisupliftingforsomanyreasonstoseethiscontinue inactionandbepartofit.ThanksalsotoKlausHallofand DaniellaSummafortheirhospitalitywhenIvisitedtheBerlinBrandenburgischeAkademiederWissenschaftenin2011and2012. Bothofferedinvaluableadviceandsharedwithmetheirworkonthe InscriptionesGraecae XVproject,thelong-awaitededitionthatwill collatetheinscriptionsfromancientCyprus anincredibleandvaluable
resourceforfutureresearchersoftheisland’shistory.WhilstinBerlin, Iwasalsograntedaccesstotheholdingsoftheirarchivesandtothe praecorpus ofinscriptions.IwouldalsoliketothankSusanneTurner andherteamforfacilitatingmystudyoftheTerenceBruceMitford squeezecollection,aswellashispersonalnotes,attheMuseumof ClassicalArchaeologyattheUniversityofCambridge.Specialthanks alsogotoTakashiFujii,whotookthetimetodiscussRomanCyprus withmeonmanyoccasions,andtoDavidPotter,whomadehis2000 study ‘RomanCyprus’ availabletome.GabrielBodardandThomas Kielyalsoofferedadviceandinsightsintothecollectionof de fixiones fromAmathous someofwhichareheldattheBritishMuseum. Thomas’sgenerosityandenergiesinsupportingandpromotingthe studyofancientCypruscannotbepraisedenough.Itisthroughhim thatImet,andmadefriendswith,mylong-standingcollaborator the artistYorgosPetrou.WorkingwithYorgosoverthepast fiveyearsorso hasnotonlyenrichedmyappreciationandunderstandingofancient Cyprusandmyresearchingeneralbuthashadapositiveimpactonmy teachingtoo.Longmaythiscontinue!Idonotunderestimatethe importanceofthemanyconnectionsIhavemadewithresearcherswho focusonancientCyprusanditsreceptionatconferencesovertheyears either.Feedbackinresponsetopapersandgeneraldiscussionaboutthe rewardsofexploringCyprus’shistoryandlandscapehaveinspiredand refinedmanyaspectsofmyresearch.Withtheseexchangesovercoffee andemailinmind,IgreatlythankAchilleasHadjikyriacou,Giorgos Papantoniou,AliciaChrysostomou,AnnaReeve,andMichaelGiven.
Theanonymouspeerreviewers,whoreadthemanuscriptatkey stages,werepivotalinthedevelopmentofthepresentmonograph. TheircommentshelpeditshedtheusualhallmarksofPhDstudy,and IhopethatmyresponsestotheirreportsdothestudyofRomanCyprus justice.IamgratefulalsotoAlexSwanston,fromTheMapArchive,for developingtheimagesforthisstudyandfortheeditorialteamatOxford UniversityPressfortheirexpertiseandpatience.
Iameverindebtedtomy ‘Swanseafamily’,membersofthe DepartmentofClassics,AncientHistory,andEgyptologyatSwansea University,whereIamnowbased.IcannotthankIanGoh,Meg Gundlach,KenGriffin,MarkHumphries,MariaPretzler,JanjaSoldo,
andNigelPollardenoughfortheiradvice,much-neededwordsof encouragement,andeagernesstosupportinwhateverwaypossible especiallyduringthe finalstagesofpreparingthemanuscript,whenwe wereallinthethroesofdealingwiththeCovid-19pandemic,accessto keyresearchresourceswaslimited,andwhenshieldingwasapersonal necessity.
Specialmentionalsogoestothestudentswhohaveenrolledonmy module ‘AncientCyprus’ atSwansea.Designing,andrevising,thisshort coursehasmadeclearthemanychallengesthatkeenundergraduate studentsfacewhenwishingtoinvestigateancientCyprus,particularly theisland’sHellenisticandRomanperiods.Ourjointexperiencesof overcomingtheseissueshaveinfluencedmanyaspectsofthisbook.Itis myhopethatthisworkremediesthebarriersinsomepartandindoing sopromotesthestudyofRomanCyprusatundergraduatelevel.
ItisherethatImuststressthatanyerrorsin,orlimitationsof,this workaremyresponsibilityalone.
Lastly,andcertainlynotleast,mygreatestthanksgotomyfamily, particularlytomymotherandmyhusband.Theybothhavetruly enduredeveryhighandlowofthisprojectandwithouttheirpatience, unwaveringsupport,andencouragementoverthepasttenyearssomuch wouldhavebeenimpossible.Thisbookisdedicatedtothemandtomy son,whowasbornsometimeinbetweenmesubmittingtherevised manuscripttotheeditorsandreceivingthecopyedits.
ConventionsandAbbreviations
1.AncientandModernWorldViews:Cyprusandthe IslandParadox1
1.1TheImportanceofGeography1
1.2TheFormationofIslandsandTheirStatusasReal andImaginedLandscapesintheRomanEmpire3
1.3TheGeographyofCyprusaccordingtoOutsiders5
1.3.1Strabo5
1.3.2PlinytheElder8
1.3.3ClaudiusPtolemy11
1.3.4Pausanias13
1.3.5AmmianusMarcellinusandtheAnonymous ExpositioTotiusMundietGentium 16
1.3.6AncientandModernImaginedIslandscapes17
1.4RomanCyprus:TheWiderResearchContextand theWayForward19
2.TheRomanAnnexationandAdministrationofCyprus23
2.1TheNeedtoRevisitWell-troddenGround23
2.2TheRomanAnnexation24
2.2.1FromPtolemaictoRomanControl24
2.2.258 26
2.2.3ReactiontoAnnexation28
2.3TheAdministrationofRomanCyprus30
2.3.1InitialAdministration:58–48/7 30
2.3.2PtolemaicRestoration:48/7–30 32
2.3.3AfterActium:FromImperialtoPublicProvince33
2.4Re-evaluatingtheEvidence36
2.4.1TheAvailableEvidenceforStudyoftheProconsuls36
2.4.2TheRevisedListofRomanProconsuls38
2.4.2.1RomanProconsulsfrom22 40
2.4.2.2RomanProconsulsofUncertainDateor OtherwiseUnknown45
2.4.3WhereMonumentswereSetUp,byWhom,andWhy48
2.5TheLocalLevel:The KoinonKuprion 51 2.6Conclusions55
3.RomanCitizenshipintheCypriotContext57
3.1 ‘Roman Civitas inSalamis’—Mitford’sSurveyRevisited57
3.2High-pro fileVisitors59
3.2.1TradingCommunitiesfromItaly60
3.2.2Marcia68
3.2.3LuciusSeptimiusNestorofLaranda69
3.3Becoming ‘Roman’?71
3.3.1InstancesofRomanCitizenship71
3.3.2KeyGroupsandDynamics73
3.3.3ArticulatingIdentityandBelonging84
3.3.4CypriotsAbroad86
3.4Conclusions89
4.CivicIdentity92
4.1ApproachingCollectiveIdentityFormation92
4.2WhatFoundationMythsTellUs94
4.2.1PalaipaphosandNeaPaphos95
4.2.2Kourion100
4.2.3Amathous101
4.2.4Salamis102
4.3MaterialCultureandIdentityintheLocalContext104
4.3.1ThePaphosRegion104
4.3.1.1IntheRealmofAphroditePaphia104
4.3.1.2TheInscribedOathofAllegiancetoTiberius109
4.3.2Kourion:CityofPerseus114
4.3.3Amathous:AphroditeCypria’sDomain117
4.3.4Salamis:TheImmaterialityofTeuker120
4.4Conclusions123 Conclusion126 Bibliography 129 Index 151
ConventionsandAbbreviations
Thenamesofancientplacesandpeoplesarepresentedinthisbookbasedon personalpreferenceand,asfaraspossible,aimtoreflectthetransliterationfrom theancientGreek(e.g.Amathous,overAmathus;Kinyras,insteadofCinyras; andTeuker,ratherthanTeucer).Whererelevant,theLeidenConventionsare usedwhenspecificdetailsofinscriptionsarediscussed.
AnnÉpL’AnnéeÉpigraphique
AMMitteilungendesDeutschenArchäologischenInstituts, AthenischeAbteilung
BCHBulletindeCorrespondanceHellénique
BEBulletinÉpigraphique
BMCCyprus G.Hill(1904) CatalogueoftheGreekcoinsofCyprus (Catalogue oftheGreekCoinsintheBritishMuseum),London
BSAAnnualoftheBritishSchoolatAthens c.Casaubonpaginationno.
CEGCarminaEpigraphicaGraeca
CIACorpusInscriptionumAtticarum
CIGCorpusInscriptionumGraecarum
CILCorpusInscriptionumLatinarum
CISCorpusInscriptionumSemiticarum
EEEphemerisEpigraphica
FGrH F.Jacoby(1923–) DieFragmentedergriechischenHistoriker, Leiden:Brill
FD Th.Homolleetal.eds.(1909–) FouillesdeDelphes,Paris
ICA I.Nicolaou(1963–) InscriptionesCypriaeAlphabeticae, in Berytus14 (1963),andthereafterin RDAC
I.Delos F.Durrbach,etal.eds.(1926–) InscriptionsdeDélos, Paris
I.Ephesus W.Hermann(1979–1984) DieInschriftenvonEphesos,Bonn: Habelt
IGInscriptionesGraecae
IGRInscriptionesGraecaeadresRomanaspertinentes
IGURInscriptionesGraecaeUrbisRomae
I.Kition M.Yon,etal.eds.(2004) Kitiondanslestextes.Testimonia littérairesetépigraphiquesetCorpusdesinscriptions.KitionBamboula,V.,Paris
I.Kourion
T.B.Mitford(1971) TheInscriptionsofKourion, Philadephia:AmericanPhilosophicalSociety
ILSInscriptionesLatinaeSelectae
Inscr.It.InscriptionesItaliaeAcademiaeItalicaeConsociatae ediderunt
I.Paphos
I.Salamis
J.B.Cayla(2003) LesinscriptionsdePaphos:Corpus desinscriptionsalphabétiquesdePalaipaphos,de NéaPaphosetdelachôrapaphienne,PhD Dissertation,L’universitédeParisIV-Sorbonne
T.B.MitfordandI.K.Nicolaou(1974) TheGreek andLatinInscriptionsfromSalamis, Vol.6,Nicosia, Cyprus
JHSTheJournalofHellenicStudies
LBW
P.LeBasandW.H.Waddington(1870) Voyage archéologiqueenGrèceetenAsieMineure 3,I,Paris
LGPNTheLexiconofGreekPersonalNames
OGISOrientusGraecaeInscriptionesSelectae
PIRProsopographiaImperiiRomani
RARevueArchéologique
RDACReportoftheDepartmentofAntiquities,Cyprus
REPaulysRealencyclopädiederclassischen Altertumswissenschaft
RPCRomanProvincialCoinage
SalaminedeChypre XIIIJ.Pouilloux,P.Roesch,J.andMarcillet-Jauberteds. (1987) SalaminedeChypreXIII:Testimonia Salaminia2,CorpusÉpigraphique, Paris:Diffusion deBoccard
SB RegardingCicero’ s LetterstoAtticus,SB referstoD.R. ShackletonBailey(1968) Cicero’sLetterstoAtticus, Vol.III.,Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress. RegardingCicero’ s LetterstoFriends,SB referstoD. R.ShackletonBailey(2001) Cicero LetterstoFriends, VolumeI:Letters1–113,Cambridge,MA:Harvard UniversityPress
SCE
E.Gjerstad,etal.eds.(1934–) TheSwedishCyprus Expedition.Findsandresultsoftheexcavationsin Cyprus,1927–1931, Stockholm
SEGSupplementumEpigraphicumGraecum
SIGSyllogeInscriptionumGraecarum
Introduction
ThisstudyaddressesthetraditionalcharacterizationofRomanCyprusas anuneventful,insignificant,and ‘ weary ’ Romanprovince.Itbringsfresh insighttothestudyofitscultureandsocietybytakinganintegrated approachandbringingtogetherwell-knownandlessfamiliarevidenceto reassesslocalresponsestoRomanrule,thearticulationoflocalidentity, andculturalchangeintheCypriotcontext.Whileitfocusesprimarilyon materialfromtheannexationoftheislandin58 untilthemidfourth century ormorespecificallytherefoundationofSalamisby ConstantiusIIbetween 332and342 whererelevant,spacewillbe giventodiscussionofevidencefromacrossallperiodsoftheisland’ s ancienthistorytofacilitateameaningfulinvestigationofthekeythemes ofthiswork.
Chapter1, ‘AncientandModernWorldViews:CyprusandtheIsland Paradox’,surveysthetransmissionofideas,fromantiquitytothepresent day,aboutislandscapesandCyprus’sgeographytoexploretheirimpact onancientnarrativesandmodernscholarlyapproachestothestudyof itsRomanperiod.Takingcuesfromtheoriesandmodelsthathave shapedthe fieldofRomanstudiesmoregenerally,thechapterreflects upontraditionalapproachestothestudyofRomanCyprusanddiscusses optionsforthewayforward.Chapter2, ‘TheRomanAnnexationand AdministrationofCyprus’,furthercontextualizestheisland’srole,status, andpositionintheeasternMediterraneanwithanoverviewofthe island’sannexationfromPtolemaicEgyptbyRome,itsadministration, andorganization.Thoughthesetopicshavebeenwellstudied,thechapter collatesevidencerelatingtothisperiodoftransitionintheisland’ s historyandpresentsarevisedlistofproconsuls.Italsore-evaluatesthe survivingevidenceandsetsthesceneregardingtheorganizationofthe islandandthemultipleplatformsforengagementbetweendifferent groups.Thechapterconcludeswithabriefoverviewoftheisland’sinternal
RevaluingRomanCyprus:LocalIdentityonanIslandinAntiquity.ErsinHussein,OxfordUniversityPress. ©ErsinHussein2021.DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198777786.001.0001
organizationbylookingatthecharacterofits koinon toestablishaframe ofreferenceaboutlocallydrivenaspectsofitsadministration.TheevidenceexploredhighlightsthebridgebetweentheRomanadministration andlocalcommunities.Chapter3, ‘RomanCitizenshipintheCypriot Context’,revisitsMitford’s1980-publishedstudy ‘Roman Civitas in Salamis’ thatdrewconclusionsaboutwhen,where,andhowcitizenship appearedinCyprusbasedonthesurvivingepigraphicevidence.Itrefines anddevelopshisobservationsaboutRomancitizenshipontheisland, manyofwhichwerespeculativeandremaindubious,throughassessment ofmonumentsofhigh-profilevisitors,prominentlocalfamilies,and individualsacrosstheisland,aswellasCypriotsabroad.Chapter4, ‘CivicIdentity’,investigatestheroleoffoundationmythsandtheirassociatedstoriesinarticulatingcollectiveidentitytoreassessthetraditional characterizationsoftheisland’ s poleis.ParticularattentionispaidtoNea PaphosandPalaipaphos,Kourion,Amathous,andSalamis.Thesesettlementshavebeenselectedbecausetheyspreadfromthesouth-westtothe eastoftheisland,andtheirrichsurvivingevidenceallowsforuseful comparisonstobemaderegardingtheconstruction,articulation,and performativityofcollectiveidentitybymultipleagents.
Ultimately,thismonographaimstodrawattentiontoRomanCyprus andchampionitasadynamicandrewardingcasestudyforexplorations oflocalexperienceandidentityformationintheRomanprovinces.
Map1 MapofCyprusandkeysitesnamedinthisstudy.
Source (allmaps):AlexSwanstonforTheMapArchive.
ThegeologicalzonesofCyprus.
Map2
Map3 Key poleis ofRomanCyprus.
Map4 AreaplanofPaphos.
Map5 AreaplanofKourion.
North Wall
Basilica
Sanctuary of Aphrodite
East Gate
Complex west of Agora
South West Basilica Harbour
South Wall and West Gate
CentralAcropolisWall
