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ProjectingImperial Power NewNineteenth-CenturyEmperors andthePublicSphere HELENWATANABE-O ’ KELLY GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
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ForEkkehard Acknowledgements Whileresearchingthisbook,Ihadthegoodfortunetospend fivemonthsfrom September2018totheendofJanuary2019asaFellowoftheInstitutdesÉtudes AvancéesdeParis.TheIEAnotonlyprovidedmewithabeautifulplacetowork butwithfacilitieswhichenabledmetobeginthisbook.Iamdeeplygratefultoits staff,especiallySimonLuck,totheClassof2018formanystimulatingconversations,andtoChristopheDuhamelleoftheÉcoledesHautesÉtudesenSciences Sociales(EHESS)inParisforhiscommentsonmyearlyideasforthisbook.Ialso oweagreatdebtofgratitudetotheLeverhulmeFoundation,whichawardedmean EmeritusFellowshipfor2017–19.ThiscoveredmuchofmytravelinEurope, India,andMexico,paidforsomeresearchassistance,and financedmanyofmy illustrationsandpicturepermissions.Fivecolleaguesandfriendsgavegenerously oftheirtimeandexpertiseandreadportionsofthebookwhileitwasinthe making:PierreBéhar,WilliamGodsey,PhilipMansel,HamishScott,andToshio Watanabe.Theircommentswereinvaluableinhelpingmetothinkmyarguments through,theyrecommendedworksthatIhadmissed,theypreventedmefrom makingerrorsinareasinwhichtheyaremuchmoreexpertthanI,andthey encouragedmeinthewritingofsuchawide-rangingbook.Ishouldalsoliketo thankJayashreeThirumaranandBhavaniGovindasamyfortheirmeticulouscare inguidingthisbookthroughtheproductionstages.
Mygreatestdebtofgratitude,however,goestomyhusbandEkkehard Henschke.Heaccompaniedmeonallmyjourneysandtookmanyofthe photographs.Himselfahistorian,hereadthemanuscript,discusseditwithme daily,readrelevantworkshimself,andrecommendedfurtherreading.Hesupportedmeineveryimaginableway,personallyandacademically.Idedicatethis booktohim.
ListofIllustrations Coverillustration.FriedrichWilhelmIIIandFriedrichWilhelmIV,kingsofPrussia, followedbythethreeGermanemperors,WilhelmI,FriedrichIIIandWilhelmII.Queen LuiseleadstheprocessionandEmpressAugusteViktoriabringsuptherear.Mosaicinthe Gedächtniskirche,Berlin.Detail.Photo©EkkehardHenschke
1.FrançoisGérard, NapoleonIinhiscoronationrobes.Oiloncanvas.Châteaude Versailles,France/BridgemanImages5
2.CrownPrinceRudolfdressedashisancestorRudolfIin1879.Photograph. WikimediaCommons10
3.EdwardVIIandQueenAlexandraspeakingintoanelectricarc,experimentat ArmstrongCollege,Newcastle,UK,drawingbyArthurGarratt,from L’IllustrazioneItaliana,YearXXXIII,No37,16September1906.Veneranda BibliotecaAmbrosiana,Milan,ItalyDeAgostiniPictureLibrary/Bridgeman Images12
4.LouisLeCoeur,NapoleonIswearingtheconstitutionaloathathiscoronation inNotre-DameCathedralon2December1804.Hand-tintedengraving.Private CollectionTheStapletonCollection/BridgemanImages22
5.Jacques-LouisDavid, TheDistributionoftheEagleStandards,5December1804, detail.Oiloncanvas.ChâteaudeVersailles,France/BridgemanImages25
6.FranzI,emperorofAustria,inhisstudy.Engravingaftertheoilpaintingby JohannStephanDecker.A.DagliOrti/DeAgostiniPictureLibrary/Bridgeman Images32
7.Franzensburg,Vienna,exteriorview.Photo©EkkehardHenschke34
8.TheHabsburgHallintheFranzensburg.Photo©EkkehardHenschke35
9.Jean-BaptisteDebret, TheCoronationofEmperorPedroIofBrazil.Oilon canvas.UniversalHistoryArchive/UIG/BridgemanImages44
10.PedroAméricodeFigueiredoeMelo, PedroII,emperorofBrazil,atthestate openingofparliament,3May1872.Oiloncanvas.ImperialMuseumofBrazil. WikimediaCommons47
11. SolemnandPeacefulEntryoftheArmyoftheThreeGuaranteesintoMexico Cityon27September1821.Oiloncanvas.MuseoNacionaldeHistoria, CastillodeChapultepec,Mexico/BridgemanImages50
12. PortraitofAgustíndeIturbide,emperorofMexico,inhiscoronationrobes.Oil oncanvas.1822.DeAgostiniPictureLibrary/BridgemanImages52
13.LordLyttonreceivingtheNepalesedeputationinfrontofthefull-length portraitofQueenVictoriaattheImperialDurbarinDelhiin1877.Engraving. CollectionLookandLearn/IllustratedPapersCollection/BridgemanImages63
14.JohnWatsonNicol,WilhelmII,Germanemperor.Colourlithograph.Private CollectionPeterNewarkPictures/BridgemanImages69
15.NapoleonIinhis petitcostume,1810.EngravingafterapaintingbyJeanBaptisteIsabey.NapoleonicMuseum,Îled’Aix.Photo©Josse/Bridgeman Images80
16.FriedrichvonAmerling, FranzI,emperorofAustria,inhisimperialrobes 1832.Oiloncanvas.KunsthistorischesMuseum,Vienna.Photo©Luisa Ricciarini/BridgemanImages82
17.William ‘Crimea’ Simpson,TheBegumofBhopalatthe firstinvestitureof theStarofIndiain1861.Chromolithograph.PrivateCollectionTheStapleton Collection/BridgemanImages98
18.HansBitterlich,StatueofElisabeth,empressofAustria,intheVolksgarten inVienna.1907.Marble.Photo©EkkehardHenschke106
19.BustofEmpressAugustabyTheodorLitkeafteramodelbyBernhard Roemer.1892.Marble.CollectionoftheHumboldtUniversity,Berlin,Charité. Photo©EkkehardHenschke109
20.EmpressEugéniepresidingataCouncilofMinistersattheÉlyséePalace,Paris. IllustratedLondonNews,11June1859.Colouredengraving.PrivateCollection StefanoBianchetti/BridgemanImages113
21.Jean-Auguste-DominiqueIngres, NapoleonIinhiscoronationrobes.Oilon canvas.Muséedel’Armée,Paris.Photo©Josse/BridgemanImages133
22.ThomasDriendl,lithographafteradrawingbyJohannEnder,TheImperial FamilyisgroupedaroundAmerling’sPortraitofFranzIafterhisdeath,c. 1836.WikimediaCommons135
23.FranzXaverWinterhalter, PortraitofNapoleonIII,emperoroftheFrench, c.1852.Oiloncanvas.MuseoNapoleonico,Rome,G.DagliOrti/DeAgostini PictureLibrary/BridgemanImages136
24.AlbertGräfle, MaximilianI,emperorofMexico.Oiloncanvas.MuseoNacional deHistoria,CastillodeChapultepec,MexicoCity.MondadoriPortfolio/ BridgemanImages137
25.Jacques-LouisDavid, NapoleonIinhisStudyattheTuileries.1812.Oilon canvas.PrivateCollectionSamuelH.KressCollection/BridgemanImages139
26.FranzXaverWinterhalter, FranzJosephI,emperorofAustria,wearingthe dressuniformofanAustrianFieldMarshalwiththeGreatStaroftheMilitary OrderofMariaTheresia.1864.Oiloncanvas.KunsthistorischesMuseum, Vienna/BridgemanImages141
27.AugusteRoubille, WilhelmII fromhisseriesof13caricaturesofpolitical figuresaround1900.Thetitle ‘MuséedeSires’ (museumofmonarchs)isa
punon ‘MuséedeCires’,meaningwaxworkmuseum.Colourlithograph. BibliothèquedesArtsDécoratifs,Paris.ArchivesCharmet/BridgemanImages147
28.NapoleonIII,MarriagetoEugéniedeMontijo,CountessofTeba,in1853in Notre-DameCathedral,Paris.Engraving.PrivateCollectionLookandLearn/ IllustratedPapersCollection/BridgemanImages156
29.FêteoftheSaint-Napoleonon15AugustintheChamps-ÉlyséesinParis. IllustratedLondonNews,20August1853.Engraving.PrivateCollectionLook andLearn/IllustratedPapersCollection/BridgemanImages158
30.WilhelmII’simperialthroneintheSchlosskircheinWittenberg1892.Photo ©EkkehardHenschke165
31.HenriMeyer,TheGermanEmperoronhistravels, LePetitJournal, 6November1898.Colourlithograph.PrivateCollection©LookandLearn/ BridgemanImages168
32.HilaireGuesnu,MapofParisduringBaronHaussmann’ s ‘GrandsTravaux’ . 1864.Colouredengraving.BibliothèqueHistoriquedelaVilledeParis,Paris/ BridgemanImages177
33.InaugurationoftheBoulevarddeSébastopol,Paris. IllustratedLondonNews, 17April1858.Engraving.PrivateCollectionLookandLearn/Illustrated PapersCollection/BridgemanImages181
34.ViewoftheentranceandnorthfaçadeoftheMuseumofArtHistory designedbyGottfriedSemperandKarlvonHasenauer,1871–91,withthe MariaTheresiamonumentintheforeground.Photograph.Kunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna/BridgemanImages191
35.TheReichstagBuildinginBerlinin1904,withthemonumenttoBismarck prominentlyinfrontofit.ThismonumentisnowintheTiergarteninBerlin. Photograph.PrivateCollectionLookandLearn/ElgarCollection/Bridgeman Images199
36.Apostcardsaying ‘GreetingfromBerlin’ withWilhelmIIandEmpress AugusteViktoriawalkingontheSiegesalleeinBerlin.Chromolithograph. PrivateCollectionLookandLearn/ValerieJacksonHarrisCollection/ BridgemanImages201
37.TheArrivaloftheEmperorandEmpressattheGrandEntranceforthe openingoftheParisExhibitionof1867. IllustratedLondonNews,13April 1867.Engraving.PrivateCollectionLookandLearn/IllustratedPapers Collection/BridgemanImages215
38.ImperialandRoyalVisitorstotheUniversalExpositioninParis,1867. Lithograph.ArchivesduMinistèredesAffairesÉtrangères,Paris.Archives Charmet/BridgemanImages217
39.TheKrupppavilionattheWorldExpositioninViennain1873.Coloured engraving.PrivateCollectionTarker/BridgemanImages221
40.VictoriaMemorialHall,Kolkata.Photo©EkkehardHenschke232
41.ChristopherClark, KingGeorgeVatDelhi,1915.Watercolouronpaper. BrownUniversityLibrary,Providence,RhodeIsland,USA/BridgemanImages239
42.EdwinLutyens,RashtrapatiBhavan,NewDelhi.Itisnowtheofficialresidence ofthePresidentofIndiabutwasbuiltastheViceroy’sHouseandcompletedin 1929.InfrontistheJaipurColumncompletedin1930,alsobyLutyens,with bas-reliefsatthebasebyCharlesSargeantJagger.PicturesfromHistory/David Henley/BridgemanImages247
43.SteadfastinLoyalty!WilhelmIIofPrussiawithFranzJosephIofAustria. Photograph.PrivateCollection©ArkiviUGAllRightsReserved/Bridgeman Images261
44.BustofWilhelmIIinfrontofHuisDoornwherehespentthelasttwenty-one yearsofhislife.Marble.Photo©EkkehardHenschke272
45.SirBhupinderSingh,MaharajaofPatiala,andSirJagatjitSingh,Maharajaof Kapurthala,20July1918.Photograph.PrivateCollectionPeterNewark Pictures/BridgemanImages276
46.JeanMagrou,PedroIIasscholar-kinginPetrópolis.1911.Bronzeongranite base.Photo©EkkehardHenschke282
47.ThecopybyRaymondKittl,erectedin1993attheDeutschesEck,Koblenz,of EmilHundrieser’s1897equestrianstatueofWilhelmI,GermanEmperor. Bronze.Photo©EkkehardHenschke285
48.HarryBates,EquestrianstatueofHenryPetty-Fitzmaurice,FifthMarquess ofLansdowne,viceroyofIndiafrom1888to1894,infrontoftheTempleof FameinthegardensofFlagstaffHouse,Barrackpore.Bronze1901.Photo ©EkkehardHenschke287
49.CharlesSargeantJagger,ThestatueofGeorgeVthatoncestoodunder Lutyens’scanopyastheculminationofKingsway(Rajpath)inNewDelhi.It isnowinCoronationPark,Delhi.Theking’sfacehasbeensmashedandheis nolongingholdingasceptreandanorb.Photo©EkkehardHenschke289
ListofPlates(forfulldetails seetheListofIllustrations) 1.FrançoisGérard, NapoleonIinhiscoronationrobes
2.LouisLeCoeur,NapoleonIswearingtheconstitutionaloathon 2December1804.
3.Jacques-LouisDavid, TheDistributionoftheEagleStandards,5December 1804,detail.
4.Franzensburg,Vienna,exterior.
5.TheHabsburgHallintheFranzensburg,Vienna.
6.Jean-BaptisteDebret, TheCoronationofEmperorPedroIofBrazil.
7.PedroAméricodeFigueiredoeMelo, PedroII,emperorofBrazil.
8. EntryoftheArmyoftheThreeGuaranteesintoMexicoCityon 27September1821
9. AgustíndeIturbide,emperorofMexico,inhiscoronationrobes.
10.JohnWatsonNicol,WilhelmII,Germanemperor.
11.FriedrichvonAmerling, FranzI,emperorofAustria,inhisimperialrobes.
12.William ‘Crimea’ Simpson,TheBegumofBhopalatthe firstinvestiture oftheStarofIndiain1861.
13.HansBitterlich,StatueofElisabeth,empressofAustria,intheVolksgarten inVienna.
14.BustofEmpressAugustabyTheodorLitkeafteramodelbyBernhardRoemer.
15.Jean-Auguste-DominiqueIngres, NapoleonIinhiscoronationrobes.
16.FranzXaverWinterhalter, PortraitofNapoleonIII,emperoroftheFrench
17.AlbertGräfle, MaximilianI,emperorofMexico.
18.Jacques-LouisDavid, NapoleonIinhisStudyattheTuileries.
19.FranzXaverWinterhalter, FranzJosephI,emperorofAustria.
20.AugusteRoubille, WilhelmII fromhisseriesof13caricaturesofpolitical figuresaround1900.
21.WilhelmII’simperialthroneintheSchlosskircheinWittenberg.
22.HenriMeyer,TheGermanEmperoronhistravels, LePetitJournal, 6November1898.
23.HilaireGuesnu,MapofParisduringBaronHaussmann’ s ‘GrandsTravaux’
24.TheMuseumofArtHistoryinViennawiththeMariaTheresiamonument.
25.ApostcardshowingWilhelmIIandAugusteViktoriaontheSiegesallee inBerlin.
26.TheKrupppavilionattheWorldExpositioninViennain1873.
27.VictoriaMemorialHall,Kolkata.
28.ChristopherClark, KingGeorgeVatDelhi
29.EdwinLutyens,RashtrapatiBhavan,formerlytheViceroy’sHouse,NewDelhi.
30.BustofWilhelmIIinfrontofHuisDoorn,Netherlands.
31.JeanMagrou,PedroIIasscholar-kinginPetrópolis.
32.RaymondKittl,WilhelmI,Germanemperor(1993),DeutschesEck,Koblenz.
ANoteonProperNames NapoleonIandNapoleonIIIaresowellknownundertheEnglishformoftheir namesthatitwouldbepedantictorefertothemasNapoléon.Allothernames, however,arespelledasintheoriginallanguage,soAgustín,Karl,Franz,and Wilhelm,notAugustine,Charles,Francis,andWilliam;ElisabethandAuguste Viktoria,notElizabethandAugustaVictoria.
Introduction Thisisnotabookaboutempire,onwhichthereisanenormousliterature,but aboutemperors,specificallyaboutthenewlyproclaimedemperorsofthenineteenthcenturyandtheirsymbolicpower.ThegroupbeginswithFranzII,Holy RomanEmperor,whoproclaimedhimselfFranzI,emperorofAustria,in1804 andwithNapoleonI,electedasemperorinthesameyear.Itcontinueswith AgustínIofMexicoandPedroIofBrazilwhotookthetitleofemperorin1822 whentheyachievedtheindependenceoftheirterritoriesfromSpainandPortugal, respectively.NapoleonIIIwaselectedemperoroftheFrenchin1852and MaximilianofAustriaarrivedinMexicoin1864,havingalsobeenofferedthe titleofemperor.WilhelmI,kingofPrussia,wasinvitedbytheGermanprincesto becomeGermanemperorin1871,whiletheBritishParliamentawardedVictoria, queenofGreatBritain,Ireland,andIndia,thetitleofempressofIndiain1876. Thatthenewnineteenth-centuryemperorsandthemeansbywhichthey projectedtheirimperialstatuswouldrepaystudywastheresultofavisittothe SchatzkammerintheHofburginVienna.ThisistheImperialTreasurywherethe insignia,robes,andrelicsoftheHabsburgsaredisplayed.Oneofthe firstobjects thevisitorseesonenteringisafull-lengthredvelvetcloak,richlyembroidered withgoldthread.Thelabelontheglasscaseexplainsthatthisisthecloakofthe emperorofAustria,thatitwasmadein1830forFranzIanddesignedbyPhilip vonStubenrauch(1784–1848),theleadingViennesetheatredesignerofhisday. Twoquestionsimmediatelypresentedthemselves:whydidFranzneeda new imperialcloakwhenhehadbeenFranzII,HolyRomanEmperor,since1792?And why,ifhehadproclaimedhimselfemperorofAustriain1804,didhenotneed newrobesuntil1830?Theanswerturnedouttobethat,whenhewassixty-two,he decidedtodesignatehiseldestsonFerdinandashisofficialheirandsohadhim crowned ‘juniorking’ ofHungaryin1830(Franzhimselfhadbeencrownedking ofHungaryin1792).Franzcouldnottakepartintheceremonywearingtherobes ofaHolyRomanEmperor,forhehadabolishedthistitlein1806,norcouldhe weartherobesofthekingofHungaryonthisoccasion,norwouldtherobesofthe OrderoftheGoldenFleeceoroftheOrderofLeopold,inbothofwhichhehad hadhimselfportrayed,havebeenappropriate.Heneededrobesspecificallyas emperorofAustria,andheturnedtoatheatredesignertodesignthem.
Thisunderlinedtheimportanceofclothingasasignifierofrankandoffice.¹It ledmetoask:ifFranzI,emperorofAustria,neededanewcloakastheoutward signofhisnewimperialdignity,whataboutNapoleonBonapartewhenhe
crownedhimselfemperoroftheFrenchin1804?Whatdidtheemperorsof MexicoandBrazilwear?HowwasVictoria’snewtitleasempressofIndia marked?Thisledtothefurtherquestionastowhatotherappurtenancesof powerthenewemperorsneededtocreateinordertoprojecttheirimperialstatus, todemonstratethattheywerenotmerelyroyalbutimperial.Didtheyhavea coronationoranacclamation?Howdidtheyusecourtsandcostumes,portraits andmonuments,ceremonialandreligion,architectureandtownplanning,internationalexhibitionsandpageants,festivalsandmuseums,toprojectthemselvesas emperorstotheelitewithintheirkingdoms,tothewidermassoftheirsubjects, andtotheinternationalpublic?Whattraditionsdidtheyinventinorderto supportallthisimage-making?
Thentherewasthequestionofdynastyandsuccession.BothMexicanemperors wereexecutedandhadnoimperialsuccessors.Alltheotheremperorsinitiated imperialdynasties.NapoleonIwasfollowedafteranintervalofthirty-sevenyears byhisnephewNapoleonIII(r.1852–71).FranzIwassucceededbyhissonFerdinand (r.1835–48),andthenbyFerdinand’snephewFranzJosephI(r.1848–1916)andhis grandsonKarlI,thelast-namedrulingforonlytwoyearsfrom1916to1918before renouncingthethrone.PedroIofBrazil(r.1822–31)wassucceededbyhissonPedro II(r.1831–89).WilhelmIwasbrieflysucceededbyhissonFriedrichin1888andin thesameyearbyhisgrandsonWilhelmII,whoruleduntilhewasforcedtoabdicate in1918.Victoria(r.1837–1901)wassucceededbyEdwardVII(r.1901–10)andby GeorgeV(r.1910–36)asking-emperors.GeorgeV’seldestsonEdwardVIIIwas nevercrownedandabdicatedafterlessthanayear,soGeorgeVI(r.1936–52)wasthe lastemperorofIndiaandruledassuchfrom1936uptoIndianIndependencein 1947.Dynastyalsoremindsusthat,thoughtheemperorsinthesixdifferent territoriesfrequentlymadewaragainsteachother,theywereofteninterconnected bytiesofblood.NapoleonI’ssecondwifeandempressoftheFrenchwasMarieLouiseofAustria,daughterofFranzI.HersisterLeopoldinewasthe firstempressof Brazil.HersonEmperorPedroIIwasthereforeFranzJosephofAustria’ s firstcousin. FranzJoseph’sbrotherMaximilianbecamethesecondemperorofMexico. Maximilian’sconsort,Charlotte,wasthedaughterofLeopoldofSaxe-CoburgSaalfeld,whobecameLeopoldI,KingofBelgium,andwasthereforeacousinof bothQueenVictoriaandofherhusbandPrinceAlbert.ThismeantthatCharlotte wasalsoacousinoftheirdaughterVictoria,consortofFriedrichIII,German emperor.AugusteViktoria,consortofEmperorWilhelmII,wasagreat-nieceof QueenVictoria,whileWilhelmIIwasQueenVictoria’sgrandson.
Theemperorsalsomovedinthesameinternationalculturalsphere,withartists, architects,andcomposersmovingbetweencourtsandcapitalcities.Thisisa subjectthatdeservesabookalltoitself,butonepainterandonecomposermay servetoillustratethepoint.FranzXaverWinterhalter(1805–73)paintedthe portraitsnotonlyofQueenVictoriaandherfamily,butalsoofCharlotteof Belgium,empressofMexico;ofNapoleonIIIandEugénie,emperorandempress
oftheFrench;ofWilhelmIofPrussia(laterGermanemperor);andofFranz Joseph,emperorofAustria,andhisconsortElisabeth.TheoperasofRichard Wagner(1813–83)wereperformedintheprincipaloperahousesofParis,Berlin, andViennaand,attheDelhidurbarof1877,afterthechiefheraldhadreadout theproclamationofQueenVictoria’snewtitleofempress,thebandplayedthe marchfromWagner’ s Tannhäuser.Theyearbefore,EmperorPedroIIofBrazil hadattendedthe firstperformanceinBayreuthofWagner’ s Rheingold aspartof the Ring cycle.Ofcourse,too,theemperorsandtheirfamiliesvisitedeachother, whichalsoledtomutualinfluence.TheimpetustoinstallaRuhmeshalleorHallof FameintheArmouryinBerlinin1875,forinstance,cameaboutbecauseWilhelm IhadvisitedthehallofthesamenameintheArsenalinViennain1873.
Thetrajectoryofthisbooktakesus,therefore,fromNapoleonIandFranzIin 1804tothedemiseoftheAustrianandGermanempiresin1918andthentothe independenceofIndiain1947.Theserulerswereemperors,butweretheir territoriesempires?JürgenOsterhammelpresentseightcriteriabywhichwecan distinguishbetweenanempireandanationstate.²Anempirebringstogethera conglomerationofdifferentnationalidentitiesandlanguagesunderonerulerand isthereforeheterogeneous.Itseesitselfastheheirtopreviousempiresandisruled byanimperialeliteatthecentre,whichhasacommonlanguageandcultural assumptionsthatarenotnecessarilysharedbythoseattheperiphery.Itrulesfrom aboveandtherightsanddutiesofitsinhabitantsareassignedtothemfromabove. Thenationstate,incontrast,isunitedbyonelanguageandisthereforehomogeneous.Itismadeupofcitizens,whohavethesamerightsanddutiesaseachother, anditspowerislegitimatedfrombelow.Osterhammelfreelyadmitsthatthereis nosuchthinginrealityasatypicalempire.HeregardsNapoleonI’sFrance,forall itsshortlife,asexhibitingthetypicalcharacteristicsofanempire,forinstance,the creationofanimperialelitethatwasplacedinpositionsofpoweralloverEurope andanextremeculturalarrogance,butheseesAustria,from1867AustroHungary,as ‘anextremeborderlinecase’,³foritisaconglomerationofterritories whicharenotcoloniesandwhichareheldtogetherby ‘thesymbolismofthe monarchyandamulti-culturalofficercorps ’ ⁴ Hethenmovesontoimperialismas colonialismand,thoughhehasmanyinterestingthingstosayabouttheworkings ofcolonialsystems,thefocusofthispresentbookisdifferent.Whethertheyhad coloniesornot BrazilandMexicodidnot ,whethertheyhadaconstitutionor not,whethertheyruledoverterritorieswithasignificantminorityorminorities thatspokeadifferentlanguage theGermanandAustrianempires orover teemingmillions,allofwhomhadalinguafrancaimposedonthem British India ,whethertherulerwaselectedbyplebiscite NapoleonIandIII ,or ascendedtheimperialthronebydynasticsuccession PedroIIofBrazil,Franz Joseph,andKarlofAustria ,alltherulersofthesixterritoriesanalysedherebore thetitleofemperorandusedimperialsymbolswhichtheydevelopedand extendedduringtheperiodoftheempireinquestion.
SymbolicPower Tobeanemperormeanttoperformemperorship,justasLouisXIV,Kingof France,andthemonarchsofthe ancienrégime performedkingship.⁵ Thismeant creatingsymbolicpower,which ‘isdefinedinandthrougha fixedrelationship betweenthosewhoexertpowerandthosewhosubmittoit’.Themonarchhas ‘to makepeopleseeandmakepeoplebelieve,toconfirmortransformthevisionof theworld’ . ⁶ Thecreationofsymbolicpower,therefore,involvestwoparties:actor andaudience.Electionordynasticsuccession,followedbycoronationoracclamation,wereonlythebeginningofaperformancethatcreatedsymbolicpower, whichwasnecessarywhethertheemperorhadrealpoliticalpowerornot.Indeed, itcouldbearguedthatanemperorhadtotakemoretroubletocreatesymbolic power,thelessactualpowerhehad.AsTimothyBlanningputsit: ‘Thegreaterthe doubtsaboutthestabilityorlegitimacyofathrone,thegreatertheneedfor display’,sothat,inDavidCannadine’swords,themonarchsometimeselevated himselftoan ‘Olympusofdecorative,integrativeimpotence’ . ⁷
Doesthismeanthatthenewemperorhadtohavecharisma,famouslyde fi ned byMaxWeberin WirtschaftundGesellschaft asthequalitythatleadsaruler ’ s subjectstobelieveinhimandbeledbyhim? ⁸ Thecharismaticrulerbyde fi nition hasextraordinaryqualitiesandisrecognizedasaleaderbecauseofhismiraculousachievements.Hecreatesanemotionalcommunitywiththoseheleads ( ‘ eineemotionaleVergemeinschaftung ’)andhispoweristheoppositeoftraditionalbureaucraticeverydayauthority.Heturnsthepastonitsheadandis thereforearevolutionary.AccordingtoWeber,thecharismaticleaderis fi lled withthesenseofmission,ofvocation,ofdestiny,andtheexamplehegivesis NapoleonI.Gérardconveyssomething ofthesequalitiesinhisdepictionof Napoleoninhiscoronationrobes(Figure1).EdwardBerensonshowshowlate nineteenth-centuryexplorersbecamecharismatic fi guresbyexpanding ‘the limitsofhumanpossibility ’ , ⁹ byful fi llingacontemporaryneedformanliness andvirility,andby ‘exemplify[ing]theaspirationsandbeliefsalreadyheldbyhis orheraudience ’ .¹⁰
CliffordGeertzdevelopedWeber ’sideaofthecharismaticrulerfurther,basing hisideasonthoseofEdwardShilswhich,hesaid,
encourageustolookforthevastuniversalityofthewillofkings(orofpresidents, generals,führers,andpartysecretaries)inthesameplaceaswelookforthatof gods:intheritesandimagesthroughwhichitisexerted.Moreexactly,if charismaisasignofinvolvementwiththeanimatingcentersofsociety,andif suchcentersareculturalphenomenaandthushistoricallyconstructed,investigationsintothesymbolicsofpowerandintoitsnatureareverysimilar endeavors.¹¹
Thinkingoftheseventeenemperorsinthisstudy,amongthemfourHabsburgs, threeHohenzollerns,twoBraganzas,andfourfromtheHouseofHanover/SaxeCoburg-Gotha/Windsor,theonlytwoconceivablecandidatesforthetitleof charismaticruler,apartfromNapoleonI,areAgustínIofMexicoand NapoleonIII,so,whilepersonalcharismainWeber’ssensemaybehelpfulin creatingsymbolicpower,itisnotactuallynecessary.Oneemperorwhosaw himselfascharismaticandtriedtoprojecthimselfassuchwasWilhelmII, Germanemperor,buthisperformancebynomeansconvincedeveryone. Alreadyin1892,onlyfouryearsintohisreign,BaronessHildegardvon Spitzemberg(1841–1914),thatwell-connectedandacuteobserveroftheBerlin courtfromthe1860stotheoutbreakofWorldWarI,writesofhiminherdiary: ‘theleadershiprolewhichheisconfidenthecanplayissocolouredbymysticism andsoblownoutofproportionthatonefeelsgreatforeboding.’¹²
Nonetheless,therolethatmostoftheseventeenemperorsandoneempress playedinthenationallifeoftheirterritorieswasacceptedbymostoftheirsubjects
Figure1 FrançoisGérard, NapoleonIinhiscoronationrobes.Oiloncanvas.Château deVersailles,France/BridgemanImages
