The Ways We Hide Kristina Mcmorris
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-ways-we-hide-kristina-mcmorris/
ebookmass.com
Olav Hammer and Karen Swartz-Hammer
ElementsinNewReligiousMovements
SeriesEditor
RebeccaMoore
SanDiegoStateUniversity
FoundingEditor
†JamesR.Lewis
WuhanUniversity
NEWRELIGIOUS MOVEMENTSAND COMPARATIVERELIGION
OlavHammer
UniversityofSouthernDenmark
KarenSwartz-Hammer ÅboAkademiUniversity
ShaftesburyRoad,CambridgeCB28EA,UnitedKingdom OneLibertyPlaza,20thFloor,NewYork,NY10006,USA 477WilliamstownRoad,PortMelbourne,VIC3207,Australia
314–321,3rdFloor,Plot3,SplendorForum,JasolaDistrictCentre, NewDelhi – 110025,India
103PenangRoad,#05–06/07,VisioncrestCommercial,Singapore238467
CambridgeUniversityPressispartofCambridgeUniversityPress&Assessment, adepartmentoftheUniversityofCambridge.
WesharetheUniversity’smissiontocontributetosocietythroughthepursuitof education,learningandresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.
www.cambridge.org Informationonthistitle: www.cambridge.org/9781009500746
DOI: 10.1017/9781009029469
©OlavHammerandKarenSwartz-Hammer2024
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexceptionandtotheprovisions ofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,noreproductionofanypartmaytake placewithoutthewrittenpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress&Assessment. Whencitingthiswork,pleaseincludeareferencetotheDOI 10.1017/9781009029469
Firstpublished2024
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
ISBN978-1-009-50074-6Hardback
ISBN978-1-009-01459-5Paperback
ISSN2635-232X(online)
ISSN2635-2311(print)
CambridgeUniversityPress&Assessmenthasnoresponsibilityforthepersistence oraccuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhis publicationanddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwill remain,accurateorappropriate.
ElementsinNewReligiousMovements
DOI:10.1017/9781009029469 Firstpublishedonline:January2024
OlavHammer UniversityofSouthernDenmark
KarenSwartz-Hammer ÅboAkademiUniversity
Authorforcorrespondence: OlavHammer, ohammer@sdu.dk
Abstract: ThisElementprovidesanintroductiontoanumberofless frequentlyexploredapproachesbaseduponthecomparativestudyof religions.Newreligionsconveyoriginmyths,presenttheirparticular viewsofhistory,andcraftEndtimescenarios.Theirmemberscarryout avastanddiversearrayofritualactivities.Theyproducelargecorpuses ofwrittentextsanddesignateasubsetoftheseasasacrosanctcanon. Theyfocustheirattentiononmaterialobjectsthatcanrangefrom sacredbuildingstoobjectsfromthenaturalworldthataretreatedin ritualizedfashion.Thereasonforthisfundamentalsimilaritybetween olderandnewerreligionsisbrieflyexploredintermsofthecognitive processesthatunderliereligiousconceptsandpractices.A finalsection returnstotheissueofhowsuchsharedprocessestakespecificshapes inthecontextofmodern,Westernsocieties.
Keywords: comparativereligion,modernmyths,rituals,materialreligion, sacredtexts
©OlavHammerandKarenSwartz-Hammer2024
ISBNs:9781009500746(HB),9781009014595(PB),9781009029469(OC) ISSNs:2635-232X(online),2635-2311(print)
Introduction
Thestudyofnewreligiousmovements(NRMs)wasbornatatimewhenmuch oftheWestfounditselfinthegripofarisingmoralpanic.1 MostofEuropeand NorthAmericahadmajorityChristianpopulations,but,bythe1960s,globalizationandcounterculturalimpulseshadbeguntoaltertheculturallandscapein increasinglynoticeableways,includingtheriseofanumberofhighlyvisible newreligions,suchasScientology,theHareKrishnamovement(ISKCON),the ChildrenofGod,andtheUnificationChurch.Inasense,thisdevelopmentwas nothingnew.Religiouscreativitywas flourishingforgenerationspriortothe appearanceoftheserecentarrivals,andobserversoftheculturalscenecould havepointedatnumerousmovements,likeSpiritualism,Theosophy,Christian Science,andtheJehovah’sWitnesses,asexamplesofsuchpredecessors. Christianityitself,ofcourse,wasonceanewandcontroversialreligionduring itsformativeyearsnearlytwomillenniaago(see,e.g., Hammer&Rothstein 2023)andhassincethattimespawnedinnumerable,andinitiallyunfamiliar, offshoots.Religiousinnovation,inotherwords,isaperennialandubiquitous phenomenon.Suchfacts,however,areoftenleftbytheperceptualwayside whenpotentialthreatsaresensed,andthusthenewreligionsofthepost–Second WorldWareraprovokedvarious,andfrequentlynegative,reactionsamongthe generalpublic.Concernedparentsofyoungconverts,Christianapologetic writers,andrepresentativesofthemediapaintedthemupasdecidedlybizarre andnefariouscults,andacommonargumentmadebythecriticsofthese newcomerswasthattheyweresobrazenlydifferentfromthemoreestablished religionsthattheymusthavemadeuseofextraordinarymethodsforrecruitment.Perhaps,accordingtothislineofreasoning,theseorganizationshad developedparticularlyeffectivebrainwashingtechniquesforluringtheinnocentandunawareintotheirclutches(see,e.g., Introvigne2022).Somecritics believedthatcultmembershadbecomesobereftoftheabilitytodrawuponthe powersoftheirownfreewillthatbeingsubjectedtoaregimeofdeprogramming,whichmightinvolvesuchelementsasabductionandbeingheldin isolation,wastheonlywaytoliberatethem.
Bythemid-1960s,approachesofamoreacademicprovenanceaimingto understandthesemovementshadbeguntotakeform,and,perhapsunsurprisingly,theytendedtoconcentrateoncomingtogripswithwhatwerethenthe mostpressingquestionsprovokedbythesedevelopments.Thestudyofnew religionswasthusfromitsearliestdaysheavilyorientedtowardaparticularset ofsociologicalapproachesandfocusedonsuchthemesasrecruitmentpatterns
1 Theindispensablemonographdiscussingtheoriginsanddevelopmentofthestudyofnew religiousmovementsis Ashcraft(2018).
andconflictswithmainstreamsociety.Thattheareacametobedominatedby thisspecificsetofapproacheshadnothingtodowithanykindofinherent logicalnecessity;instead,historicalcontingenciesledtoaparticularmodeof investigatingnewreligionsestablishingitselfastheself-evidentchoice.
Atthetimeofthiswriting,morethanhalfacenturyhaspassedsincethe field wasestablished,andthemarkingsofsuchapronouncedsociologicalemphasis ontheir “otherness” arestillapparent.Thisunmistakableslantinfocusisin somerespectsaparadox.Oneofthemostrobust findingsofresearchcarriedout onNRMsisthattheylargelyresemblereligionswithalongerhistoryand amoreestablishedpresence.Approachesthattreatnewreligionsjustlikeany otherreligionandhenceanalyzetheminwaysthathavebeenstaplesofthe comparativestudyofreligionasahistoricalandculturalphenomenonare, althoughcertainlynotentirelyabsent,lesscommonthanperspectivesmentionedearlier.TheaimofthepresentElementistoprovideanentry-level introductiontoNRMsasseenthroughthelensesofaselectionofapproaches thathighlightthemanyfeaturesthattheysharewithhistoricallymorewellestablishedreligions.Inparticular,wetakeupexamplesofthewaysinwhich theleadersandmembersofNRMs,justastheirpeersdointraditionalreligions, craftanddisseminatemyths,createandperformrituals,compose,study,and commentuponcanonicaltexts,and,notleast,manifesttheirpresencebymeans ofproducingamaterialculturewhichcanincludesuchelementsassacred buildingsaswellasobjectsstemmingfromthenaturalworldwhicharetreated inritualizedfashion.Asectionisdevotedtoeachofthesetopics.
Whyarenewandolderreligionssimilartoeachotherinsomanyways?The concludingsection ofthisElementwill,bycallinguponthecognitivescienceof religion(CSR)forhelp,offerafewpossibleanswerstothisquestion. Underlyingthislastpartistheargumentthatthehumanbrainistheresultof alongprocessofevolution.Accordingtothisperspective,conceptualizationsof deitiesareproductsofthehumanmindandhencearesimilarinvarious religions,asaretherulesthesesuprahumanbeingswishustoabideby.The comparativestudyofreligionsshould,however,notjusthighlighttheircommonalitiesbutalsocontributetoagreaterunderstandingoftheirdifferences. Sincereligionsarepartandparcelofthecultureofagivensociety,itstandsto reasonthattheymirrorparticularsocialandhistoricalcontexts,athemethatwill bebrieflyexploredinthese finalpages.
Inordertoillustratevariouspointswewishtomakealongtheway,wewillmake useofamixofexampleswhichtosomeextentrepresentsourownareasofinterest andexpertise.Thecaseswepresentlargelycomefromthereligiouslandscapesof EuropeandtheUnitedStates.Someconcernmovementsalreadystudiedby the fi rstgenerationofNRMscholars(suchasScientologyandISKCON).
Othershavetodowithnewreligionswithahistoricalbackgroundinlatenineteenth-centuryoccultism(likeTheosophyandAnthroposophy).Yetother casesdiscussedherearenot,strictlyspeaking,partoforganizednewreligions butinsteadofwhatsociologistColin Campbell(1972) calledtheculticmilieu: ephemeralmovements,unaffi liatedindividuals,andlooselyknitnetworksof peoplewhosepracticesandbeliefsareconsideredheterodoxbymainstream society(e.g.,FlatEarththeoriesandReikihealing).
Two finalquestionsremaintobedealtwithbeforeweclosethisintroductory section.First,howrecentlyproduceddoesareligionneedtobeinorderforusto consideritasbeingnew,and,second,whichkindsofphenomenadowecountas religions?Theformeradmittedlyinvitesacertaindegreeofarbitrariness.One couldarguethattheterm “newreligions” ismerelyanotherwayofsaying “religioninitsformativestage” andthenstudy,say,emergentChristianityinthe firstdecadesoftheCommonEraasanNRM.Muchscholarshiphas,however, tendedtoconfinethetermtosignifyingreligionsofthemodernage,withthe SecondWorldWaroftenservingasaroughstartingpoint,butthiscanbeseenas amatterofconventionratherthanasasolidlyarguedandtheoreticallygrounded delimitation.Noessentialdifference,weargue,wouldseemtodemarcate amovementthatwasfoundedacenturyormoreagofrommorerecentarrivals onthescene,andourexamplesthereforearetakenfromaspanoftimethat beginswiththebirthofMormonismaround1830,andwhichcontinuestothe presentday.
Thesecondquestion,whatcountsasareligion,alsorequiresasomewhat arbitraryanswer.Asaverybasicwayofaddressingit,wetakereligionstobe sociallysharedpracticesandconceptswhichultimatelyrefertoaculturally definedsuprahumandimension.Thequalification “sociallyshared” meansthat weexcludeidiosyncraticideasandbehaviorsbelongingtotheprivatedomainof asingleindividualandthatweconsidertobereligionsnotonlystructured movementsonecanformallyjoinasamember,butalsosocialformations organizedinlessovertways.Fromthisperspective,itfollowsthatpeople whohavereadandfoundplausibleabookaboutreincarnationorwhohave takenacourseonaspiritualtopicorwhohaveparticipatedinaFacebookgroup devotedtosuchtopicsorwhohaveconsultedapractitionerofaformofhealing ordivination,andwhohavedoneanyorallofthesethingswithnofurther degreeofcommitment,haveallbeenatleastminimallyengagedwith areligiouspractice.Thisbroadunderstandingoftheterm “religion” also leadsustouseasexamplesphenomenathatinsiderswouldnotnecessarily recognizeasreligionorasreligious(asisthecasewithmanyoftheloosely organizedNewAgepractices)orwhosespokespersonswouldvehementlydeny arereligions(asisthecasewithAnthroposophy).Towardtheendofthe last
section,wewillbrieflyreturntothequestionofwhyinsidersandresearchers canhavediametricallyopposedanswerstowhetheranygivenphenomenonin contemporaryculturecanfruitfullybeunderstoodasreligion.
1Myths
Newreligiousmovements,liketheirmoretraditionalcounterparts,provide narrativesthatelaborateuponthecreationofthecosmos,theemergenceover timeofvariousculturaladvances,thecourseofhistory,andtheendoftime. SomeNRMstakeastheirpointofdeparturethestoriesfoundinexisting religioustraditions,othersdrawselectivelyuponscienceandpopularculture, whereasyetotherspromoteremarkablyinnovativeaccounts.Narrativesofthis kindaretypicallylabelledmythswhenencounteredinmorewell-established religions,anditseemsnaturaltousethesamelabeltocategorizestructurally similarstoriesinNRMs.Theterm “myth,” however,hasbeendefinedand understoodinavarietyofways,andbeforeproceedingtodiscussspecific categoriesandexamplesfoundinNRMs,wewillintroduceaperspectiveon myththatwewillapplythroughoutthissection.Wewillthenprovideinstances ofthewaysinwhichcrucialeventsinthepassageoftime,fromthecreationof theworldtoitseventualdemiseinaneschatologicalfuture,arepresentedin variousNRMs.Wewillhighlightinparticularhowtheideologyofthese movementsisreflectedinmythologicalform.Asmentionedinthe Introduction,religion,asweunderstandit,cantakeothershapesthanorganizationswithawell-definedlocusofauthority,andthelastpartofthissectiondeals withthewaysinwhichmythologicalcreativitycanfunctionwhenpeoplein loosenetworksunitedbylittlemorethananinterestinunconventionalideas jointlycreatestoriesabouttheemergenceofhumancivilizationorthestructure ofthecosmos.
ApproachingtheStudyofMyths
Theterm “myth” is,andhasbeen,understoodinabewilderingvarietyofways. Onecommonapproachistodefineitasaparticularnarrativegenre.Consider thisbare-bonessummaryofthestorytoldinthe firstchapterofthebookof Genesis.ThenarrativeexplainsGod’s firststepswerecreatingtheheavensand theearth.Graduallytransformingandsettinginorderaworldofdarknessand chaos,Godcreatedlight,separatedlandfromwater,andmadevegetationspring forth.Godarrangedtheheavenlybodies,createdtheinnumerableanimalsthat populatetheworld,andendedthejobbycreatinghumanbeings “inhisimage.” Thenarrativewejustoffered,minimalistandlacklusterasitmaybe, fitsthe definitionproposedinawidelycitedtextthatdefinesmythsintermsoftheir
genre(Bascom1965).Itdealswithatimeinthedistantpastwhentheworldwas beingorganizedandithasasuprahumanprotagonist(God)asitsmain character.
Inpopularusage,mythoftenservestorefertoanarrativethatdoesnot accuratelyrepresentthefactsofasituation.Thismeaningofthewordis commonlytracedbacktotheancientGreeks,andtoPlatoinparticular,who distinguished mythos from logos.Whilethesetwotermshaveaconvoluted history,thelattereventuallycametosignifyatrueaccountasopposedtothefar moredubious mythos. 2 Adoptingthenormativeevaluationthatresultsfrom imposingsuchadichotomy,proponentsofevolutionistandsecularistunderstandingsofculturalchangeassumedthatmythologicalaccountsofmatterslike theoriginofthecosmoswouldgivewaytoscientificonesinmodernsocieties. This,however,hasclearlynotbeenthecase:oldmythsareretold,andnewones continuetobecreated,whichdemonstratesthatsuchnarrativesareascentralas evertothereligiousimagination.Unsurprisingly,storiesthatweclassifyas mythscontinuetobetoldbymanyreligiousinsiderssimplybecausefromtheir perspective,theyaretrue.FormillionsofconservativeChristians,forinstance, thecreationaccountsappearinginGenesisremainrelevantbecausefromtheir viewpoint,theyareaccuraterenderingsofhistoricalhappenings.Approaches thatstressthatmythsfulfillimportantfunctionsotherthanmerelyoffering explanationsfordiversephenomenasuggestadditionalreasonsfortheirpersistenceinthemodernage.Forexample,aninsistenceuponthe firsthuman couplehavingbeencreatedseparatelyfromallothercreaturesprovides acounternarrativeagainstaDarwinianaccountthatmanyregardasasinister attackonChristiancorevalues;formany,thishasbecomeacentralidentity markerforarangeofreligiouslyconservativepeoplewhomayidentifytheir beliefsascreationist.
Functionalistaccountsofmythgobacktotheemergenceofthestudyof religions,butradicallydivergentopinionshavebeenvoicedthroughoutthehistory ofthe fieldregardingpreciselywhatthatfunctionis.3 Doesmythencodefundamentalprocessesinthehumanpsyche,asSigmundFreudandCarlJung,eachin theirowndistinctway,maintained?Isittheexpressionofaprofoundtruthabout asacredreality,asMirceaEliadeproposed?Doesit,asClaudeLévi-Strauss suggested,arrangethoughtinaccordancewiththerulesofanunderlyingstructural grammar?AlthoughFreudian,Jungian,Eliadean,andstructuralistapproaches continuetohaveadvocates,theirinfluenceappearstohavewanedovertime.By contrast,asubstantialandenduringstreamofwritingsexploresthefunctionthat
2 Lincoln(1999:3–43)discussestheshiftingmeaningsofthetwotermsinantiquity.
3 SurveysofvariousapproachestomythincludeStrenski(1987),Dubuisson(2014),andSegal (2021).Forabrief,butquiteinclusivelist,seeMcCutcheon(2000:193–8).
mythsfulfillinlegitimizingparticularsocialorders.We findanearlyexamplein MythinPrimitivePsychology (originallypublishedin1926)wheretheanthropologistBronislawMalinowskisuggeststhatmythsarenarrativesthatjustifypresentdaycustoms,suchascarryingoutaritualorfollowingasocialrule,bynarrating howthosecustomsstretchbacktothedawnoftime.Malinowski’sapproachto mythlargelyseesasocietyanditscultureasanorganicwholethatfunctions smoothlybecausemythsprovidethefundamentalcharterthatlegitimizesthesocial order.Anycomplexsocietywill,however,encompasspeoplewithdifferent interests,andlaterwritershaveexploredtherolemythscanhaveinjustifying socialinequalitiesandthedominanceofonegroupoverothers.RolandBarthes’ Mythologies (1957),inparticular,exploresthewaysinwhichnarratives,rituals, andimagescansimultaneouslyconveyanovertsurfacemessageandprojectan underlyingideologicalsubtext.Hismost celebratedexampleisapicturefeatured onthecoveroftheFrenchmagazine Paris-Match inwhichayoungBlacksoldier performsamilitarysalutewhilefacinganobjectoutsidetheframeoftheimagethat theviewerwill,baseduponthesuggestedcontext,likelyassumeisaFrench flag. Barthes’ claimthattheimagelegitimizedcolonialoppressionbypretendingthat peoplewhowerecolonizedbyFranceloyallysupportedthepoliticalorderoftheir colonizersmaynotseemparticularlyradicaltoday,buthisreadingwasfarmore subversiveatthetime.Asthiscasesuggests,Barthescastthenetwidelyand appliedtheterm “myth” toaverydiversesetofdata.Inmorerecentyears, prominentexamplesofsuchapproachesthatfocusontheideologicalfunctions ofmythsinanarrowersense,thatis,narrativesthatformpartofareligioussystem, includeBruce Lincoln(1999) andRussell McCutcheon(2000).
Thatmythsarepermeatedbyideologicalmessagesishardlyacontroversial statement.Storiesabouthumanoriginscanarguethatwealthoughttobeinthe handsofcertainpeopleandnotothers,thatonlyaparticularsocialgroupshould wieldpower,thatonegenderisinherentlysuperior,orthatoneethnicgroup shouldbeallowedtodominateothers.ThemythoftheFalltoldinchapter3of Genesisdescribestheexpulsionofthe firsthumancouplefromtheGardenof Eden,aneventthatforcedthemtoexchangetheirpreviouslyutopianexistence foralifeinwhichtheywouldexperiencesuffering.Evewasthe firsttoeatofthe famousforbiddenfruit,andwhenGoddiscoveredherdisobedience,hedecreed thatallwomenwerehenceforthtoberuledoverbytheirhusbands(Genesis3:16). Unsurprisingly,thispassagehasbeenfrequentlyinvokedtojustifypatriarchal demarcationsofgenderroles.
ApointthatBarthesalsomakesisthatthepervasiveunderlyingideologyhis analysisuncoversisthatofthedominantclass,whichforhimwastheFrench bourgeoisie.SinceNRMsarerarelydominantwithintheirhostsocieties,one wouldnotexpecttheirmythstounequivocallyreflecttheprevailingideologyof
thesurroundingculture.Onthecontrary,theverynotionofaminorityreligion impliesthatagroupofpeoplehasconcludedthatthetruthsthattheyproclaim andthepracticestheyespousearesuperiortothoseofthemainstream.This oppositionalstanceliesatthecoreofaseemingparadox.Newmythsarerarely completelynovel.Instead,theyareconstructedthroughtheprocessofbricolage identifiedbyanthropologistClaude Lévi-Strauss(1966:16):Theyarefashionedbypeopleselectingelementsfromapoolofexistingculturalresources, wherebytheseelementsarecombinedinnovelandperhapsunexpectedways, andafewtrulyinnovativeclaimsareadded.Themythsthatplacenewreligions inoppositiontothevaluesandbeliefsofmainstreamsocietythusdependonthe abilityofcreativeindividualstoreuseexistingculturalelements,andasthe followingexamplesillustrate,theoppositionalideologicalmessagestheypromotewillinvariouswaysbothreflectandrejectsomeofthevaluesofmainstreamsociety.
CreationMyths
TheNationofIslam,anorganizationfoundedin1930,promotesamessageof Blackethno-nationalismcraftedinreligiousterms.4 Acentralmythofthis movementdescribesracerelationsinadistantpast.Accordingtoit,aBlack deitybythenameofAllahcreatedthe firsthumans,thetribeofShabazz,who livedinMeccaandtheNilevalley.This firstraceofhumanbeingswasBlack, liketheircreator,andwerepossessorsofanadvancedlevelofscientific knowledge.Roughly6,000yearsago,oneoftheirmostgiftedscientists, Yakub,createdanewraceastheresultofa600-year-longprocessofbreeding. Thepalebeingsthatemergedwere,however,foundtobeevildevils.Theywere dispersedintoanareathatistodayknownasEuropeandwerepermittedtorule theworldfromtherefor6,000years.Themyththusconveysaformofracial gnosis;thatis,itteachesthemembersoftheNationofIslamthatBlackpeople andWhitepeoplearefundamentallydifferent,thatWhitepeopleareinherently inferior,andthatthedominationofmuchoftheworldbypeopleofEuropean descentiscomingtoanend.Inasocietythathasoppressedandmarginalized Blackpeopleforcenturies,thisisclearlyanideologicallyoppositionalcounternarrative.Atthesametime,themythalignswithkeyaspectsofmajority culture.Itbuildsuponandinvertsaconceptofracethatwasformulatedinthe nineteenthcenturybywriterssuchasArthurdeGobineau(1816–1882),whose publicationspresenthistoryinracialtermsandextolthesupposedsuperiorityof Whites.Althoughearlysourcessometimespresentthemythasanundisputed
4 OntheNationofIslam,see Gardell(1996).Itsoriginmythissummarizedanddiscussedin Ansari (1981:162–7).
truthandsometimesastheresultofarevelation,5 itlaterbecomesframedasan accountsupportedbyscienceandhenceadoptsamodeoflegitimationthathas becomeubiquitousinthecontemporaryreligiouslandscape(cf. Lewis2003). Thenewspaperofthemovement, TheFinalCall,publishedanarticleinwhich acollectiveofauthorsknownastheNOIResearchGroupdescribesin rhetoricallychargedlanguagehowevidenceprovidedby “unbiased ” scientists “ proves” theaccount. 6 Ultimately,however,referencestosciencefunctionas awaytobolstertheauthorityofthefounderofthemovement.Secular scientistshave,inthisversionofevents,beenslowtoarriveatatruththat wasestablishedeightyyearsearlierbyElijahMuhammadandwhichwas renderedbyhiminmuchgreaterdetailthantheaccountsmodernresearchers areabletoprovide.Anarrativeabout theemergenceofdistincthumanraces henceservesasavehicleforanunderlyingmessagethataparticularminority perspectiveiscorrect,whileeverybodyelsehasbeenblindandisonlynow beginningtoseethetruth.
Onewayofclassifyingnewreligionsistoplacetheminfamiliesofmovementswithsharedhistoricalorigins.Inhis EncyclopediaofAmerican Religions,J.GordonMeltongroupsvariousreligionstogetherintowhathe callsfamilies,suchasthosewithrootsinthePentecostal,Baptist,andAdventist traditions,inJudaism,inZoroastrianism,orinwhathecallstheAncient Wisdomfamilies(thelatterincludingmovementslikeTheosophy),tomention justafew.Sincemanynewreligionsarerecentoffshootsofhistoricallywellestablishedtraditions,theytendtoelaborateonthemythsofthattradition. Aparticularmovementwithinsuchafamilycanassertthatothergroupswithin thesamefamily,aswellastheparentorganizationitself,havemisunderstood thesacredtextstheyhaveincommonandinsistthattheirownunderstandingis correct.Forexample,whiletheJehovah’sWitnessesassertthattheworldwas createdbyGodasstatedinGenesis,theyrejectthelabelcreationistsbecause theyinterpretthebiblicalpassagesinquestionastellingthestoryofavery ancientworldthatwasbroughtintobeingoveravaststretchoftime.7 Thereare, however,manyvarietiesofChristiancreationism,andnotallcreationists understandthesixdaysofcreationmentionedinthe firstchapterofGenesis asreferringtosixconsecutivetwenty-four-hourunitsoftime.TheJehovah’s Witnesses’ explicitrejectionofanysuggestionthattheyarecreationistsoughtto
5 Thesummaryofthemyththatone findsinthefounderElijahMuhammad’s Messagetothe Blackman isinpartpresentedasifitweremerefact,butinchapter29ofhisbookandelsewhere therearesuggestionsthatitwasAllahwhorevealedtheracialtruth.
6 TheFinalCall ,May13,2013,issue, www. finalcall.com/artman/publish/Perspectives_1/art icle_9878.shtml
7 See,e.g., www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/creationism-belief/ .
beseen,atleastinpart,asanattemptatbrandingsoastodistinguishthemselves fromarangeofmovementstheydonotregardasbeingtruly(i.e.,biblically based)Christian.
ThecosmogonyoftheMormons(theChurchofJesusChristofLatter-day Saints,orLDS)isalsorootedinbiblicalmythologybuthasdevelopedfeatures ofitsownwhichconveyadistinctideologicalmessage.8 LDSsourcesdonot focussolelyonwhatonemightcallthemechanicsofcreationbutalso,andeven primarily,onthereason,astheyseeit,whyamaterialuniversewasfashionedin the firstplace.Here,theworldisportrayedasastageuponwhichacosmic drama – theplanofsalvation – playsout.Everyhumanbeing,fromanLDS perspective,hasaspiritualcomponentthatlivedapremortalexistencebefore theworldwascreated.Atonepointintime,God – commonlyreferredtoas HeavenlyFatherinLDSterminology – organizedagreatcouncilinheaventobe attendedbyallspirits.Aspartoftheproceedings,hepresentedhisplansfor creatingthecosmos.TheactualtaskitselfwouldbecarriedoutbyJesus,which hedidbyfashioningeverythingoutofpre-existentmatter.Thematerialworld wasintendedtobeaplaceforustobebornasmortalbeingsandtobetestedas such.Sincetemptationwouldinevitablyleadsomeindividualsastray, aredeemerwouldthereforebenecessary.Twospiritsvolunteered – Jesusand Lucifer.Thelatterwishedtoredeemallofhumankind,butthiswould,ofcourse, meanthatnoonewouldhaveachoiceinthematter.Jesus,bycontrast,insisted thathumanbeingshadfreewillandcouldchoosetorejecttheofferofredemption.GodthereforeselectedJesusforthisrole.Luciferrebelledagainstthe decisionandwassubsequentlycastoutofheaven.Theplanwasthensetin motion,andastringofsignificanteventsthusensued,withmaterialcreation,the fallofAdamandEve,andtheAtonement(Jesus’ sacrificialdeath)beingmajor milestonesalongtheway.Implicitinthisstoryarevariousmorallessons.In additiontotheexplicitthemeofobedienceasakeyvirtue,wealso findthe underlyingbeliefthattheworldisanarenawherewearetested,whichcallsfor ananswertothequestionwhatoneshoulddoandbelieveinordertopassthe test.The GuidetotheScriptures publishedbytheLDSChurchspecifiesthat salvationentails “obediencetothelawsandordinancesofthegospelandservice toChrist” andthattheseinturnincluderepentanceforsinsonehascommitted.9 ThemoralpreferencesformulatedbyspokespersonsoftheChurchregarding preciselywhichactsaresinfulareinthiswayplacedwithinacosmological frameworkthatdefinesthesevaluesasdivinelysanctioned.SincetheChurch
8 SuccinctinsideraccountsofcosmogonyanditssoteriologicalimportanceaccordingtoLDS theologycanbefoundin Nielsen&Ricks(1992) and Lund(1992),respectively.
9 www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/salvation?lang=eng .
seespropheticguidanceasactiveinthepresent,revelationsstilltocomecan changetheboundariesbetweensinfulandacceptablevalues.
OtherNRMsutilizeevenmoreinnovativereworkingsoftheJewishand Christianmythsintheirnarrativesaboutsuchmattersastheoriginofthe cosmosandthecreationandfateofthe firsthumansinadistantpast.One suchexampleisthecaseofRaëlianism,aUFOreligionfoundedinthemid1970s,wheretheimpactofscienceandtechnologyinthecontemporaryperiod hasservedtoshapeitsreinterpretationsofstoriesfoundinGenesis.The movement’sfounder,ClaudeVorilhon(b.1946),laterknownasRaël,claims thathewitnessedaUFOlandingandwasthereafterapproachedbyasmall humanoidcreature.10 Overthenextsixdays,itrevealedtohimasetof fundamentalfactsaboutlife,includingthetruemeaningofthebiblicalstory ofcreation.Whenunderstoodcorrectly,Genesis1showshowhumanswerein factcreatedbytechnologicallyadvancedextraterrestrials,accordingtoRaël’s informant.Elohim,thetermforGodusedinGenesis1,isactuallythenameof thesehighlyevolvedbeings.Thisissomethingthatexistingtraditionshave misunderstood,Raëlwrites,duetotheculturallevelofourancestorsbeingso lowthattheycouldonlyinterpretthesegeneticengineersfromspaceasgods.
Anotherspace-agemyth,onewithechoesofscience fictionratherthan discernibleconnectionstoanypre-existingreligion,isthestoryofXenuthat formspartofthemythologyofScientology.11 Theorganizationalstructureof Scientologyconsistsofanumberoflevels,andthecontentsofthemost advancedstagesarekeptsecretfromthosewhohavenotyetreachedthat pointintheirjourney.MostScientologistsneverreachthelevelknownasOTIII,wheretheXenumythisrevealedtothem,andalthoughvariousretellingsof itareeasyto findontheInternet,asanormativeidealtheywillbeunaware ofthedetails.12 Tosummarizethestorybriefly,Xenuisthenameoftherulerof aGalacticConfederacywho,accordingtothismythologicalaccount,lived seventy-fivemillionyearsagoandwhodecidedtoridhisoverpopulated dominionsofmanyofitsinhabitants(whoinmanyrespectsresembledhumans ofthe1950sand1960s,i.e.,thetimewhenL.RonHubbardcreated Scientology).Hedidsobyhavinghistroopsroundupcitizensinspaceships
10 Thepurportedeventsarerelatedinhisbook Lelivrequiditlavérité (1974; “TheBookthatTells theTruth”).
11 OntheXenumyth,see Rothstein(2009); Lewis(2016).
12 AlthoughtheChurchofScientologyhasattemptedtoreserveknowledgeoftheXenumythfor memberswhohavereachedthehighestlevelsofthemovement,ithasbecomewidelyknown afterbeinglampoonedinanepisodeoftheanimatedseriesSouthPark(“TrappedintheCloset,” season9,episode12)andisdescribedindetailinaWikipediaarticle, https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Xenu,whichatthetimeofthiswritingisthetopresultretrievedwhendoingaGoogle searchforthetermXenu.
thatlookedlikeDC-8airplanesinordertotransportthemtoEarth,thenknown asTeegeeack,wheretheyweresubsequentlydepositedonlargevolcanosand thenblownupwithH-bombs.AccordingtoScientology,individualsaresoullikeentitiescalledthetans;althoughhumansalsohavephysicalbodies,these merelyhousethesoulorthetan.Thethetansofthosewhohadbeenslaughtered duringthecosmicgenocidewerecapturedandforcedtoendureaformofmental tortureinvolvingtheimplantationoffalseideasandthelossofasenseof personalidentity.Clustersoftheseso-calledbodythetansclingtoorsurround present-daythetans,andhigh-levelScientologistswhohavebeengivenaccess tothisesotericmythattempttocounteractthenegativeeffectssaidtobecaused bytheseentities.13 ThemythofXenuthusservesasajustificationfor aparticularritualpractice – namelyauditingandself-examinationusingthe e-meter – andalsoexplainswhyothermethodsofremovingobstaclestoliving anoptimallife,theprofessedgoalofthemovement,areinsufficient.Beneathits space-agesurface,thenarrativeanditsassociatedpracticesalsotapinto awidespreadideologicalpresuppositionfoundinmodernWesterncountries, namely,thenotionthatproblemsencounteredinlifecanonlybetackled individuallyratherthancollectively.TheultimateaimofScientology,to “cleartheplanet,” isinthisrespectasoloprojecttobeundertakenstepby stepbyoneindividualatatime.
Cosmologies
Themythsofmoretraditionalreligionsandneweronesalikecanpresenthighly elaboratedescriptionsofhowthecosmosisbuiltupandtheplaceofhumanity withinit.Giventhateachreligionisaproductofaparticularplaceandtime,it followsthattheyareinfusedinvariouswayswiththeconcernspeculiarto aspecificculturalcontext.ThemythologyoftheLDSChurchpresentsthe cosmosasbeingheliocentricandcomprisingnumerousstarsandplanets;itis thuscharacteristicofanagewhentheuniversewasnolongerviewedas ageocentricsystemofplanetssurroundedbyasphereof fixedstars.Although heliocentricmodelswereproposedbysomethinkersalreadyinancientGreece, ageocentricviewofthecosmosreignedsupremeuntiltheworkofCopernicus (1473–1543)andGalileo(1564–1642)providedtheargumentsthatwould ultimatelyleadtoanastronomicalparadigmshift.InthetextsoftheLDS Church,we findacosmologythataroseintheintellectualcultureofearly modernEuropeandhadbecomemainstreaminthenineteenthcenturyprojected backuntoancientbiblicaltimes.TheBookofMormonitself,avolume
13 AfarmoredetailedexplanationoftheroleofbodythetansintheworldviewofScientologycan befoundin Bromley(2009:90–6).
comprisingwhataresaidtobehistoricalrecordsdocumentingthelivesand spiritualfatesofpeoplewhopurportedlylivedintheAmericasinpreColumbiantimes,onlymentionssuchthemesinpassing,butthereaderis informedthat “surelyitistheearththatmovethandnotthesun” (Helaman 12:15).
OneoftheotherkeytextsoftheLDSChurch,theBookofAbraham,14 containsamoreextensivenarrativethat,whilenotalwayseasytointerpret, clearlypositstheexistenceofavastcosmoswithmanyheavenlybodies.The textitself,whichisfairlyshortandconsistsof fivechapters,isbasedonwhat JosephSmithdescribedasatranslationofanEgyptiantextwrittenonseveral papyrussheets.15 InthethirdchapteroftheBookofAbraham,thepatriarchis grantedavisionoftheoriginandstructureofthecosmoswiththeaidofthe UrimandThummim,adivinelycraftedpropheticinstrumentmadeupoftwo stonesfashionedintoapairofspectacles.WhatAbrahamisledtounderstandis thatvariousheavenlybodiesareplacedatvaryingdistancesfromthethroneof God,theclosestbeingKolob,astarwhichrathermysteriouslyissaid “togovern allthoseplanetswhichbelongtothesameorderasthatuponwhichthou[i.e., Abraham]standest.”16 Healsolearnsthattimepassesdifferentlyondifferent planetsandstars,the “highest” oftheseheavenlybodieshavingtheslowest “reckoningoftime,” butthedensityandobscurityofthesourcetext,Abraham 3:6–9,makesitdifficulttounpackthedetails:
6 [–]itisgivenuntotheetoknowthetimesofreckoning,andthesettime, yea,thesettimeoftheearthuponwhichthoustandest,andthesettimeofthe greaterlightwhichissettoruletheday,andthesettimeofthelesserlight whichissettorulethenight.
7 Nowthesettimeofthelesserlightisalongertimeastoitsreckoning thanthereckoningofthetimeoftheearthuponwhichthoustandest.
8 Andwherethesetwofactsexist,thereshallbeanotherfactabovethem,that is,thereshallbeanotherplanetwhosereckoningoftimeshallbelongerstill;
9 Andthusthereshallbethereckoningofthetimeofoneplanetabove another,untilthoucomenighuntoKolob,whichKolobisafterthereckoningof theLord’stime;whichKolobissetnighuntothethroneofGod,togovernall thoseplanetswhichbelongtothesameorderasthatuponwhichthoustandest.
14 TheBookofAbrahamisincludedinthePearlofGreatPrice,acanonicalscriptureoftheLDS Church.
15 AccordingtoJosephSmith,thepapyricontainedatextwrittenbythebiblicalpatriarch Abraham,whereasEgyptologistshaveidentifieditasanexampleofanEgyptianfunerarytext, the BookofBreathings.Unsurprisingly,theseincommensurableassessmentsofthetexthave inspiredarangeofapologeticanddebunkingresponses.Foradetailedreviewoftheissues,see Vogel(2021).
16 Onecannotethatanarticleonscripturalreferencestoastronomyinthe Encyclopediaof Mormonism,aworkcompiledbyLDSinsiders,alsotreatsthediscussionsofKolobas “not clear” (Paul1992).Seealso Athay(1968).
Inadditiontothesmatteringofreferencesfoundinthesetwotexts,thereaderof DoctrineandCovenants,asetofrevelationsgiventoJosephSmithalso consideredscripturebytheLDSChurch,will findapassagestatingthatthere islifeonnumerousotherplanets(D&C76:24)andthatthebeingsthatinhabit thesecelestialbodiesare “begottensonsanddaughtersuntoGod,” butthe ultimatefocusofLDSmythologyisourownworld.
HistoriographicalMythsandEndtimeScenarios
Besidesrecountingstoriesaboutadistantpastwhentheworldasweknowit cameintoexistence,manyreligions,traditionalaswellasnew,havenarratives thatpresentthecourseofhistoryasadheringtoanoverarchingmodel.For instance,onewidespreadProtestantperspectiveseeshistoryasaseriesof dispensations,whereasacommonHinduunderstandingisthataGoldenAge hasbeenfollowedbyaseriesoffurtherperiodscharacterizedbydecline.Many religions,especiallythosethatarehistoricallyrootedinJewishandChristian traditions,alsohavestoriesabouttheEndtimes.Asisalsothecasewiththeir originmyths,afamiliaritywiththeconceptionsofhistoryandthefuturefound intheparenttraditioniscrucialtounderstandingthenarrativesofeachindividualNRM.
TheInternationalSocietyforKrishnaConsciousness,orISKCON,hasborrowedfromitspredecessorsinIndia,andmorespecificallyfromdescriptions foundintheBhagavataPurana(atextthatISKCONsourcesrefertoasthe ŚrīmadBhagavatam),theideathatwearepresentlylivingintheworstofall ages, kaliyuga.Currenteventsandsocialmorescanberegardedthroughthe lensofPuranicpassagessuchasthis:
Religion,truthfulness,cleanliness,tolerance,mercy,durationoflife,physical strengthandmemorywillalldiminishdaybydaybecauseofthepowerful influenceoftheageofKali.SrimadBhagavatam12.2.1(Translationby A.C.BhaktivedantaSwamiPrabhupada)
Itrequireslittleeffortto findevidenceoftheexistenceofsomeoftheelements appearingonthelistofevilscharacterizingkaliyugainourpresenttimes.17
Secularism,somewouldsay,isrampant,andagenerallackoftoleranceand mercyintheworldtodaycanbeseenastherootcauseoftheinnumerable conflictsthatseemtoberagingatanygivenmoment.Whileitmight,inlightof advancesthathavebeenmadeinmedicalscience,seemcounterintuitivetoposit thatlifespanshavebecomeshorter,suchprogress,seenfromanISKCON perspective,isminorandlimitedsincekaliyuga,accordingtothisparticular
17 See,e.g., https://krishna.org/kali-yuga-the-problems-and-the-solution/ .
viewofhistory,wasprecededbyfarsuperiorageswhenliveswereconsiderably longer.During dvaparayuga,thesecond-worstageandtheonethatdirectly precededkaliyuga,peoplelivedforroughly1,000years,anumberthatis dwarfedincomparisonwiththelifespansof100,000yearsthataresaidtohave beenthenormduring satyayuga,thebestofallages.TheGoldenAgemotifwe seehereservestolegitimizethepracticesoftheISKCONmovement:sincewe liveinadegenerateageandhaveseverelylimitedcapabilities,theonlyrealistic spiritualpathavailabletousistodevoteourlivestoservingKrishna.
Inadditiontoregardinghistoryasaprocessthatunfoldsaccordingtoan overarchingplan,manyreligions,botholdandnew,offermythological accountsofwhatthefuturewillholdandhowitallwillend.Whatunites theseverydiverseformsofmillennialism,simplyput,isthenotionthatthe future,regardlessofwhethertheeventsdescribedaretotakeplaceinthisworld orinaradicallydifferentdimension,willofferfarbetterconditionsthanthe onesexistingatpresent – atleastforthosewhohavechosentherightreligion.In theWesternworld,millennialismhastraditionallybeenbasedontheinsome respectsquitecrypticEndtimescenariooftheNewTestamentBookof RevelationaswellasvariouspassagesscatteredthroughouttheBiblethat lendthemselvestobeingcombinedandreadinsuchawaysoastoprovide informationaboutthingstocome.Duenotleasttotheinfluenceofpopular culture,onewayofinterpretingtheeschaton,dispensationalism,isatleast minimallyfamiliartoawideaudience.Thisparticularviewisrootedinthe ideathatsupernaturalinterventionwillsoondisruptthecourseofhistoryand thatvariouseventsleadinguptotheendofthingsasweknowthem,suchasthe Rapture,theruleoftheAntichrist,andthebattleofArmageddon,havebeen foretoldintheBible(fordetails,seethediscussionin Section4 onthecreative reuseoftexts).
Thebasicelementsofthismillennialistmessagecanalsobereinterpretedand subsequentlyusedbyNRMsthatata firstglancemayappeartobefarremoved fromtheChristianfamilyofreligions.TheHeaven’sGatemovement,for example,notoriousforthemasssuicideofthirty-nineofitsmembersin1997, mightseemlikeanexoticcacophonyofufology,beliefsfromtheNewAge scene,andtheratheridiosyncraticideasofitsfounders,butthekeyroleof dispensationalismhasbeennotedbyscholarssuchasBenjaminE. Zeller(2014: 106–12).Totakebutoneexample,thereisapassageintheBookofRevelation (11:3–13)thatspeaksof “twowitnesses” whoattheendoftimewillprophesy for1,290daysbeforebeingkilledby “theBeast.” Threeandahalfdayslater, theywillcomebacktolifeandascendtoheaveninacloud.Theleadersof Heaven ’sGate,MarshallApplewhite(1931 – 1997)andBonnieNettles (1927 – 1985),interpretedthispassageas referringtothemselves,andthey
understoodthepartaboutajourneytoheavenasinvolvingaspaceship.The dispensationalistconceptoftheRapturereliesuponapassageinPaul ’sFirst EpistletotheThessalonians(4:17),accordingtowhichtherighteous,bothamong thelivinganddead,willatthetimeinquestionriseupintheairandmeetJesus. This,too,wasinterpretedbyApplewhiteandNettlesinufologicaltermsas amountingtoapromisethatthosewhoheededtheirmessagewouldbepicked upinbodilyformbyaUFOthatwouldtakethemtothenextevolutionarylevel. However,afterNettlespassedaway,thisunderstandingchangeddramatically. Accordingtothenewreading,Heaven’sGatememberswould,insteadofbeing transportedbyaspaceship,needtoshedtheirphysicalbodiesinordertotransition towhattheycalledTELAH – TheEvolutionaryLevelAboveHuman.Ultimately, thisreinterpretationoftheRaptureservedtojustifytheactionsofthoseadherents whochosetotaketheirownlives.
MythsinCulticMilieus
Themythswehavepresentedsofararethebrainchildrenofthefoundersand leadersofstructuredsocialmovements,butcosmologicalspeculationaswell asstoriesaboutthedistantpastortheEndtimesalsocirculateinthecultic milieu.Here,mythscanbecreatedbyauthorsofbooksthatwillbewidely disseminated,ortheymaybeconstructedthroughprocessesofnegotiation involvinglargergroupsofpeoplewithlittleornodiscerniblehierarchical structureinplacethatwouldallowanyonepersontoimposetheirown narrativeintop-downfashion.Suchnarrativesmayhavefeaturesthatsituate theminanindeterminatespacebetweenthesecularandthereligious.One exampleismythsthattelloftheoriginsofvariousfundamentalelementsof humancultureinthedistantpast.Two well-knowncasesfromancientmythologicaltraditionsare, fi rst,thestoryofPrometheusastheheroic figurewho brought firefromtherealmofthegodstohumanity;and,second,theaccount foundinGenesis4:4 –5thatrelateshowtheinstitutionofanimalsacri ficehad itsorigininthedeity ’sacceptanceofAbel ’ssacri fice.Moderncounterparts alsogivecreditformajorculturaladvancestoancientencounterswithmythicalcreatures,butratherthanpresentingthesebeingsasdivine,theyarein someinstancesdescribedasemissariesfromatechnicallyandspiritually advancedIceAgecivilizationandinothersashumanoidvisitorsfromouter spacethatourancestorsmistookasgods.Theformertheme – thatalost civilizationintroducedculturalinnovationstovarioushunter-gathererpopulations – hasbeenpromotedbytheimmenselysuccessfulBritishauthorand mediapersonalityGrahamHancock(b.1950).SwisshotelierandauthorErich vonDäniken(b.1935)gainedcelebritystatuswhenhisbook Chariotsofthe
Gods (1968)popularizedthelatteridea,thatis,thatalienshadkick-started signi ficantculturaldevelopmentsaroundtheglobe.Althoughbothofthese nowubiquitousmotifsareassociatedwithwell-knownindividuals,theyare theresultsofanongoingprocessofbricolagecarriedoutbyarangeofauthors combiningnarrativeelementsthatinsomecasescanbetracedbacktothe nineteenthcentury(cf. Hammer&Swartz2021 , 2024 ).
Theideathatthingswerebetterinthepastisasentimentthatresonateswith manypeopleandiscommonplaceoutsidethecontextofNRMsaswell. Romanticizednotionsofthesplendorsoflifeinapreindustrialsocietyinform suchpopularmotifsasthenoblesavage,whichisfrequentlyencounteredin variousculturalproductssuchasKevinCostner ’shugelysuccessful film
DanceswithWolves (1990).Inthetwenty-firstcentury,anewmythological versionofthemotifofaGoldenAgefollowedbyaperiodofculturaldeclinehas emergedasanInternetphenomenonwithdistinctconspiratorialundertones promotedbybothasmallnumberofactiveYouTubersandamuchlarger groupofpeoplewhotogethernegotiatethecontoursandmeaningofthis nascentnarrative.Thebasicstorylinegoessomethinglikethis:Theviewof historypromotedbytheculturalmainstreamisinessenceacompletefabricationcraftedbyashadowyeliteinanattempttoerasealltracesofaglorious earliercivilization,theTartarianEmpire,whichonceruledtheworld.The evidenceforitsgreatachievementscannonethelessbefoundallaroundusby thosewhohavebeenawakenedtothetruth.Lavishbuildingsdatingfromatime priortotherapidspreadofmodernistarchitectureareseenwithintheframeworkofthisconspiracy-tingedmythologyasjustsuchtraces.Someversionsof theTartarianEmpiretalesuggestthatcertaindetails,likelightningrodsor spires,areactuallytheremainsofTartariantechnologicaldevicesthatcould gatherenergyfromtheethers.This,thestorygoes,isoneofthereasonswhythe elitewanttodupeusintobelievingafakeversionofhistory:simplyput, Tartariantechnologywouldunderminethemonopolyofthepetrochemical industry.
Inadditiontotheirscientificsavvy,theTartarianswerealsospiritually superior.OneclaimassertsthatTartarianculturewas “basedonunity,oneness, peace,love,andharmony,whichwedon’tseeintoday’ssociety.”18 Muchofthe architectureattributedtotheTartariansisbuiltonagrandscale,withceilings soaringhighabovetheheadsofvisitors.Afrequentlyencounteredexplanation forthischoiceisthattheTartarians,oratleastanumberofthem,weregiants, beingspossiblyconnectedtothemysteriousNephilimmentionedinGenesis
18 FromaninterviewwithTartarianEmpiretheorysupporterJoachimSkaar,citedin www .bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-04-27/inside-architecture-s-wildest-conspiracy-theory.
6:4.Differentviewsaboundwhenitcomestothematterofwhatcausedthe TartarianEmpiretodisappear,withoneexplanationattributingitto acataclysmicmudslide.Anabundanceofideas,whicharecombinedinvarious creativeways,thus flourishesonsocialmediaplatformslikeYouTubeand Facebook.Thesearespaceswheretheyarereworkedanewaspeoplecomment uponpostingsandfreshelementsareadded.Intermsofstructure,muchofthis mythologyresemblesaccountsalsofoundinmoretraditionalmyths,likethe storytoldinthe firstchaptersofGenesis:apeoplethatmasteredsuchskillsas cityplanning(Genesis4:17)andmetalworking(4:22)livedatatimewhen giantspopulatedtheEarth(6:4)butwerewipedoutbyaglobal flood(Genesis 6:5tochapter8).TheTartariancomplexofmythsretainsthisbasicskeletal narrative,except,here,theTartariansarethegoodguyswhoarewipedoutby theancestorsofthepeoplewhocurrentlydominatetheEarth,ratherthanthe wickedoneswhoareannihilatedbyacataclysm.
Liketheirmorestructuredcounterparts,culticmilieuscanalsoencompass mythsabouttheunfoldingofhistoryandmillennialaspirations.19 Duringthe 1960sand1970s,andalsotoalesserextentinsubsequentdecades,theideathat thepassageoftimecomprisesasuccessionofastrologicalages flourished.The beliefthattheAgeofPisces,whichaccordingtothisunderstandingofhistory wascharacterizedbythepredominanceofChristianity,wastransitioninginto theAgeofAquarius,aperiodthatwouldusherinanevolutionaryleapinhuman consciousness,wasawidespreadone.Theconceptofastrologicalagesisbased onthephenomenonofaxialprecession,thatis,agradualshiftinthewaythe rotationalaxisoftheEarthisoriented.Foranobserverlookingattheskyfrom thevantagepointofourplanet,theslowmovementoftheaxismakesthe apparentpositionofthesunrelativetothebackdropofthestarsseemtotravel veryslowlythroughthezodiac.Theideathattransitionsfromonesigntothe nextareinsomewayconnectedtomajorculturalchangeswasmostnotably expressedbyTheosophicalwriterssuchasAliceBailey(1880–1949).Inher book TheDestinyoftheNations (1949),forinstance,we findachapterentitled “InitiationintheAquarianAge.” Itwasalsotheopeningnumberofthemusical Hair (1967),inwhichreferencestoastrologicalloreareencapsulatedinlyrics like “peacewillguidetheplanetsandlovewillsteerthestars,” thatintroducedit toamuchwideraudience.Thegenerallyutopian-huedunderstandingofwhat theAgeofAquariuswouldbelikeenteredNewAgediscourseinthe1970s,and MarilynFerguson’sbook TheAquarianConspiracy (1980)placedtheideathat theemergenceofnewformsofspiritualitysignifiedashiftinhumanconsciousness firmlyontheculturalmap.Therewas,however,as Lucas(2011) notes,
19 Onthistopic,seealsoseveralofthecontributionsin Harvey&Newcombe(2013).
widespreaddisagreementinthisparticularmilieu,duetoitsfuzzycontoursand lackofcentralauthority,aboutpreciselywhenthistransitionwastohappen.In additiontonumerousoptimisticrenditionsofthismillennialisticmyth,there werealsovoicesthatspokeofaconsiderablydarkertimetocome.Thosewho drewonthepropheticutterancesofEdgarCayce,forexample,couldimagine theroadaheadasonesigntransitionedtothenextasmarkedbycatastrophic geologicalchange(Lucas2011:581–4).Extensivedivergencesinopinion resurfacedafewdecadeslaterasanothermillennialmythwasnegotiated,this timeinconnectionwithdiscussionsregardingtheso-called2012phenomenon. ThebeliefthattheMayancalendarwouldcometoanendonDecember21of thatyear,aneventthatwouldhavemomentousconsequencesfortheentire world,inspiredaspectrumofviewsrangingfromoptimisticideasabout collectivespiritualadvancementforallofhumanitytodirewarningsabout impendingglobaldisaster(Hoopes2011).
Finally,besidesbeingpresentinbotholderandmorerecentlyfounded religiousmovements,cosmologiesthatdepartfromthoseespousedbythe culturalmainstreamcanalsobefoundintheculticmilieu.Weconcludethis sectionbypresentingacosmologythatdepartsradicallyfromtheconsensus view:FlatEarththeory.LiketheTartarianmyth,itislargelyabricolage constructedwithinanetworkofinterestedindividualswhomaybemoreor lesspassiveandasmallernumberofhighlyactiveproponents.Ithasbeen widelyunderstoodsincethedaysofancientGreecethattheEarthisroughly spherical,andFlatEarththeoryofthekinddiscussedhereisnotareflectionof apremoderncosmologicalconceptbutamodernmovementwhichoriginatedin themid-nineteenthcentury.ItsrootscanbetracedtotheworkofSamuelBirley Rowbotham(1816–1884),whopublishedthreesuccessiveandincreasingly elaborateversionsofatextentitled ZeteticAstronomy:EarthNotaGlobe, underthepseudonymParallax.The firstversion,whichappearedin1846, consistsofameresixteenpages.Thethirdversion,publishedin1881andthe onecitedhere,isasubstantialvolumeof430pages.InmodernFlatEarth theories,we findthecoreelementsofhiscosmologyreproduced,suchas envisioningtheEarthasa flatdiscencircledbyawalloficeoverwhichthe sunandmoon,tworelativelysmallobjects,moveatadistanceofnomorethan afewthousandmiles(Rowbotham1881:353–4).Rowbothamdevotesasizeable portionofthebooktorecountingobservationsandexperimentsthatheinsists supporthisviewsandrefutingargumentssuggestingthattheEarthisasphere. Inthebook’sfourteenthchapter,highlydetailedreligiousreasoningentersthe pictureasheaffirmstheabsoluteauthorityoftheBibleinthismatterand endorsesaviewofhistorythatconsiderstheEarthtoberoughly6,000years old.VariouspassagesintheBible,Rowbothamargues,affirmthattheEarthis
flatandthatthesunmovesacrossit;hethereforedenouncesacosmology depictingtheEarthasasphereas “aprolificsourceofirreligionandofatheism, ofwhichitsadvocatesarepracticallysupporters [by]defendingasystem whichisdirectlyopposedtothatwhichistaughtinconnectionwiththeJewish andChristianreligion” (Rowbotham1881:354).Tracingthemanytwistsand turnsofthepathleadingfromsuchearlyexponentsofFlatEarththeoryto today’slargelyInternet-basedpocketsofbeliefgoes,however,beyondthe confinesofthisElement.20
Theexamplesofmythsthathaveemergedinculticmilieusillustratewith particularclarityoneofthemainpointsofthissection,namelythewayinwhich eventhemostvigorousoppositiontovariousvaluesandbeliefsthatare prevalentinmainstreamsocietyisconstructedbydrawinguponfamiliartropes. EvensuchminoritynarrativesastheTartarianmythandFlatEarthcosmology thathavebeendebunkedandridiculedbyoutsidersbuilduponsuchwell-known motifsasnostalgiaforagoldenage,distrustoftheinstitutionalpillarsofsociety, andanindividualisticethosthatinsiststhatfactsareimmediatelyavailableto commonsense.Theseunderlyingmotifsaresopervasiveincontemporary Westernsocietiesthatthe2022Netflixseries AncientApocalypse,featuring GrahamHancock’snarrativeofagloriousculture-bearingIceAgecivilization thathaslefttracesinthearchaeologicalevidencethatarereadilyapparentto unbiasedinvestigatorssuchasHancockhimselfbutinvisibletooractively deniedbythe “archaeologicalorthodoxy,” becameoneofthecompany’smost widelystreamedproductions.
2Rituals
Peopleperformawiderangeofactionsaspartoftheirallegiancetoareligious tradition:theyfast,pray,goonpilgrimages,dance,sing,consultdiviners,attend communalactsofworship,celebratekeymomentsoftheyear,initiateyoung membersofthecommunityintotheadultworld,andcarryoutnumerousother activitiesinwaysthatareinonesenseoranotherconnectedtotheirconceptsof asuprahumandimension.Inbrief:theycarryoutrituals.If,asanthropologist RoyRappaportsuggested,ritualsare “thesocialactbasictohumanity” (1999: 31),itfollowsthatritualsareubiquitousandwouldbeanessentialpartof emergentcontemporaryreligionsaswell,afactthatwillbeamplyillustratedin thissection.
Thereferencetoasuprahumandimensioninourdescriptionofwhatrituals arehastheadvantageofseparatingoutreligiousritualsfromotherkindsof culturallyprescribed,setwaysofbehaving(e.g.,ahandshakecouldbeseenas
20 Thishistoryhasbeendocumentedindepthin Garwood(2007).
anonreligiousritual).Althoughthepresentsectionfocusessquarelyonreligiousrituals,wewillin Section5 brieflyreturntothefactthatsuchritualsare neverthelessoftencloselyrelatedtootherculturalbehaviors.Ritualpurification andtheordinarywashingofhandsinordertomaintainhygienebuildonsimilar cognitivelyhardwiredimpulsestoavoidcontagion(see Section5 ofthis Element),butonlytheformerwouldqualifyasritualunderanydefinition commonlyencounteredinthestudyofreligion.Talkingtoanotherpersonand addressingapersonalprayertoadeitycanactivatesimilarsocialandcognitive mechanisms(Schjødtetal.2009),andagain,onlyoneoftheseactivitieswould normallybecalledaritual.
Althoughritualshavebeenofinteresttopeopleengagedinthestudyofreligions sincethe field’searliestdays,nogenerallyagreed-upondefinitionofwhattheterm “ritual” actuallymeanshaseverbeenformulated,norhasanytaxonomyeverbeen constructedthathasmanagedtogaingeneralacceptancewithinthescholarly community(see,e.g., Grimes2000 and Bell2009b:69–70foranoverviewofthe definitionalproblems).Oneofthemostinfluentialtheoristsofritualstudies, Catherine Bell(2009a:91),notesthatsomecategorieshaveneverthelessbecome commonreferencepointsinmuchoftheliterature.Herheuristicclassification includessix “fairlystandardritualgenres”:ritesofpassage;seasonalandcommemorativerites;ritesofexchangeandcommunion;ritesofaffliction;ritesof feasting,fasting,andfestivals;andpoliticalrituals.Whatfollowsarebriefillustrationsofthesecategories,withanemphasisonthe firstfour.
RitesofPassage
Oneclassicareaofstudyconcernsritesofpassage,ritualsthatmarkthetransition fromonestationinlifetoanother.AmodeloriginallyformulatedbyArnoldvan Gennep(1873–1957)inhisbook TheRitesofPassage (firstpublishedin1909as Lesritesdepassage)andlaterrefinedandextendedbyanthropologistVictor Turner(1920–1983),dividessuchritualsintothreestages.Theindividualundergoingtheritualis firstseparatedfromthesocialgrouptowhichtheybelong. Duringtheliminalstage,theindividualisseenasbeingmalleable:nolonger belongingtotheoldgroup,theyarereadytobetransformed – oftenbysymbolic means – intoamemberofanewgroup.Finally,inthethirdphase,thepersonreenterssociety,nowwithanewsocialroleorstatus.Ofparticularinterestforour presentpurposesareinitiatorysocieties,allofwhichwillhaveritualsthatserveto movemembersfromoneleveltothenextwithintheorganization.Typically,such multilevelreligiousmovementswill,atleastintheory,trytoregulatetheinformationmadeavailabletoanindividualdependingupontheleveltheyhave reached.
