ListofFigures
2.1MorpheusintheDreamofOrpheus.NeilGaiman, TheSandman v.6. Fables&Reflections (1993),artby BrianTalbot,etal.80 © DCComics.
3.1Coralineandthelureofthe flower. Coraline,dir.Henry Selick(2009). 119 ©LaikaandPandemoniumFilms.
3.2Celinaatthebottomoftheocean. ElenaFerrante, TheBeachatNight (2016).132 ©EuropaEditions.
4.1ArrivalatKurtz’scompoundandthe “soulsontheshore.” ApocalypseNow,dir.FrancisFordCoppola(1979). 193 ©OmniZoetrope.
Whilsteveryefforthasbeenmadetosecurepermissions,wemayhave failedinafewcasestotracethecopyrightholders.Weapologizeforany apparentnegligence.Shouldthecopyrightholderswishtocontactus afterpublication,wewouldbehappytoincludeanacknowledgementin subsequentreprints.
Introduction
Whathappenstousafterdeathisatalethatonlyourdyingcantell, althoughthisdiscouragingtruismhardlypreventsthelivingfrom imaginingthehereafter.Theoldeststoriesinournarrativetradition arethoseinwhichamortalordivinebeingdescendstoandreturns fromthelandofthedead,aplacewhereheroismisdefined,insight obtained,andidentitiestransformed.Thisbookisastudyofnine contemporaryauthorswhodrawonafantasythathasintriguedstorytellers,theiraudiences,andreadersforoverfourthousandyears and thatisonlyaccordingtowrittenrecords.¹AncientNearEasternmythsof thedescentofthegoddessInannatotherealmofhersisterEreshkigal, queenofthenetherworld,surviveasa415lineSumerianpoemin cuneiform(c.1900–1600 ),althoughscholarsestimatethatthestory hadbeencirculatingforatleast1000yearsbeforethisinscription.² DuringherdownwardjourneyInannaisgraduallystrippedofher clothingandpoweratthesevengatesofHell,thensentencedtodeath, andsuspendedfromahook.Ereshkigal’sjudgesdecreethatInannacan ascendifshe findsanotherlivingsoultotakeherplace;sheselectsher husbandDumuzi,whoisenjoyinglifewithouthertoocheerfully,but whosedevotedsisteragreestosharehissentenceforhalftheyear. The DescentofInanna isamongthe firstinalonglineofunderworldstories
¹Zaleski(1987:12–13)speculatesthatcavepaintingsfromtheUpperPaleolithicperiod mightdepictsomeformofashamanistic,otherworldlyjourney.
²KramerdiscussesdatingtheInannapoems(WolksteinandKramer1983:xii–xiv);for furtherdiscussion,seeLaneri2002:9–51.IntheAkkadianversion, TheDescentofIshtar, theentrapmentordeathofIshtar,goddessoffertilityandsexuality,resultsinharmful effectsinthehumanrealm,whichmightrecallDemeter’sresponsetoPersephone’ s abduction.ItwasnotonlygoddesseswhodescendedtothenetherworldinNearEastern myth,butalsogodssuchastheCanaaniteBaal.Lease(1926:602–6)offersthumbnail sketchesofdifferentversionsofdescentstoriesfromancientNearEasternandEgyptian sourcesuptoearlymodernEuropeanliterature.
thatfeaturetestsofendurance,substitutionsandcycles,andareturnto therealmoftheliving.InitwedetectUr-versionsoftheGreekmythof AphroditeandAdonis,Persephone’scyclebetweenHadesandtheupper world,orthestoryofAlcestiswhodiedasasubstituteforherhusband Admetus,andthencamebacktolife.Fromtheperspectiveofancient peoplesoftheMediterraneanbasin,includingtheAkkadian,Ugaritic, Hittite,Hebrew,andGreekcultures,thesoulwentdownwardafter death.³Thusavisitortothelandofthedead,likeInanna,undertakesa catabasis(fromtheGreek katabainein,togodown),adescenttothe underworld,butthenperformsthesupernaturalfeatofascendingback totheterrestrialrealm(ananabasis).⁴
Noteveryattempttoreturnfromthenetherworldissuccessful, needlesstosay,andnoteveryunderworldtaleinvolvesanactualvisit tothelandofthedead.ThetwelfthtabletoftheAkkadian Epicof Gilgamesh (alsotoldseparatelyas Gilgamesh,EnkiduandtheNetherworld)relateshowthesemi-divinehero’sclosestfriend,themortal Enkidu,descendstoIrkalla,andalthoughheneverreturns,hisghost cantransmitknowledgeaboutthegreatbeyondtoGilgameshthrougha portallinkingthetwoworlds.Thisdialoguewiththedead,or evocatio ,is precursortoOdysseus’ conversationswiththeparadeofshadesatthe mouthofHadesin Odyssey 11.Intheirinterviewswithghosts,Gilgamesh andOdysseusenacttheappealingfantasyofgainingknowledgeabout theafterlifewithoutactuallydying.Thetopicwasapopularone. AfragmentaryHittitetext(c.thirteenthcentury ),entitled TheVoyage oftheImmortalHumanSoul describestopographicaldetailsofthe underworld,suchasmeadows,acommonfeatureofGreco-Roman Hades,andthedrearydietservedtothedead,elementsthatrecurin Greekgoldleaftabletsover1000yearslater.⁵ Knowledgeofthelayoutof
³West1997:152.Thatdeathisconsideredtobeadescentisevidentfrompassagesinthe HebrewBible,forexample: “TheLordkillsandbringstolife;hebringsdowntoSheoland raisesup” (1Sa.2.6).
⁴ Bernabé(2015:17)offersthisdefinitionofthecatabasis: “ataleofthejourneytothe subterraneanworldofthedeadledbyanextraordinarycharacterwhilealivewhohasa determinedpurposeandiskeenonreturning.” SinceIincludethedescentofthegoddess Persephoneinthisbook,thisisanimprovementonClark(1978:3): “ a catabasis canbe definedasaJourneyoftheDeadmadebyalivingpersoninthe fleshwhoreturnstoour worldtotellthetale.”
⁵ SeeWatkins(1995:284–90)fortext,translationandanalysis.Healsoobservessome similaritieswithOrphicgoldleaftexts.
theunderworldapparentlyprovidedsomeassurancethatonecould achieveacomfortableafterlife,butstoriesofvisitstoasubterranean kingdomalsorelatedtothehereandnowbyadvisingthelivingonhow tobehave.Aseventh-century cuneiformtextknownasthe UnderworldVisionofanAssyrianCrownPrince isdistinguishedbyitshuman protagonist,oneofthe firstofmanymortalsinliteraturetotakeatourof thenetherworld,duringwhichheseestheghostofhisfather,andahost offearfulbeingsincludingagrimferrymanwiththeheadofabird.The prince,Kummay,obtainslife-changinginstructionandanapocalyptic prophecyfromNergal,kingofthedead,beforeheawakensinterror. ⁶ ThetextistheprototypeofastoryrepeatedinJewishandChristian accountsoftoursofHell,suchastheapocryphal BookofEnoch,aswellas literaryversionsinVergil’ s Aeneid 6,Dante’ s Inferno ,andindeedseveral ofthecontemporaryversionsdiscussedinthisbook.Ofspecialinterestis theconceptualoverlapbetweendreamsandthelandofthedead,a connectionthatweshallseerepeatedthroughoutthisvolume.
Overaperiodofseveralmillennia,ancientMediterraneancultures, includingthoseofGreeceandRome,exchangedstoriesthatresponded tohumancuriosityabouttheafterlife,althoughthesetalesoftenhad moreobliquepurposes.The UnderworldVisionofanAssyrianCrown Prince servedthepoliticalobjectivesofKingAssurbanipal,justasits literarydescendant, Aeneid 6,enhancedtheimperialisticagendaofthe firstRomanemperor,Augustus.Storiesofadescent,byfarthemost commontypeofunderworldnarrative,oftensupportedGreekand Romanmysteryreligions,therebyfunctioningas “anideologicalguarantee” tolegitimateritualsandotherculticpracticesthathelpedindividualsprepareforlifeafterdeath.⁷ SomescholarsbelievethatVergil’ s detaileddescriptionofAeneas’ touroftheunderworldreflectsthe experienceofaninitiateoftheEleusinianMysteries,thusappealingto AugustuswhohadundergonethepopularritualthathonoredthegoddessDemeterandherdaughter.⁸ Everytellingofthemythofajourneyto thelandofthedeadhasauniqueresonancewithinitsspecificsocial
⁶ Sanders(2009:157–61)providesasummaryofthetextandacomparisonwithJewish andChristianapocalypticToursofHell,orvisionarytextssuchas Ezekiel 40–8,(whichwas composedinBabylon c.sixthcentury ),or TheBookofEnoch (c.300 ).SeeAlmond (2016:14–18)ontheJewishunderworldin TheBookofEnoch ⁷ Bernabé2015:31. ⁸ Bremmer2014:181.
context,andalthoughwesuspectinfluencesthatgobackveryfarindeed, wearealsomissinglargechunksofdatathatwouldhelpchartthe shiftingmeaningsoftheinfernalvoyage.Inanyevent,thestoryof Inanna’sdescentmeantsomethingverydifferenttoitsaudiencethan thatofAeneasmeanttotheRomans.⁹ Whileunderworldstorieshave servedvariouspurposesthroughouttheages nottheleastofwhichwas toentertain theydrawonanarchiveofsharedfeatures.Amongthe mostimportantistheconceptofaphysicallocationinhabitedbythe dead.Hades,accordingtothespeculativeetymologyoftheGreeks,was “A-ides” orthe “unseenplace,” difficulttoaccess,butwhichcertain exceptionalindividualscouldentertemporarilythroughaportalsuch asadoor,aholeintheground,thejawsofamonster,oracrossabodyof water.¹⁰ Hadesisgovernedbythegodofthesamename(alsoknownas Aidoneus,Pluto,Dis,orOrcus);sotootheHebrewunderworldSheol canbepersonifiedasaninsatiablebeingwith “hands,womb,throat,and amouthtoswallowthedead.”¹¹Therecurring figureoftheinfernal ferryman,whotakesthetravelertothelandofthedead,suggestsa dynamicculturalexchangebetweenBabylonian,Hittite,Assyrian, Canaanite,Phoenician,Greek,Egyptian,Etruscan,Roman,andother ancientMediterraneansocieties.¹²Thisconceptofaphysicallocation, informedbytheconvictionthatthedeadmustbe somewhere,ispervasive,andalsoripeforparody.Inhis Cataplus theSyrianpoetLucian
⁹ Edmonds(2004:14–15)justifiablywarnsagainstputtingtoomuchimportanceon cross-culturalinfluenceswheninterpretingancientunderworldmythology,sincean emphasisonthetransmissionofmotifsstilldoesnotrevealwhattheseelementsofthe mythsmeanttotheGreeks.
¹⁰ Mesopotamianmythstellofa “GreatDoor” totheunderworldthatcanonlybe reachedaftertravellingtothefarWestthroughbarrenlandsandoverariverwiththehelp ofaboatman(Bernabé2015:21).InCanaanitemythology,thegodBaaldescendsintothe Underworldthrougha “voraciousmouth” (Clark1978:35).
¹¹Almond(2016:9).ReferencestotheinsatiableappetiteofSheolinclude: “Therefore Sheolhasenlargeditsappetiteandopeneditsmouthbeyondmeasure,andthenobilityof Jerusalemandhermultitudegodown,herthrongandhewhoexultsinher” (Isa.5.14).See furtherAlmond’sdiscussion(2016:12)ofthetranslationoftheJewishunderworldSheol intoHadesintheGreekSeptuagint,theversionoftheOldTestamentproducedin Alexandriainthethirdcentury fortheJewishpopulationofGreek-speakingEgypt.
¹²Grinsell(1957)studiestheEgyptianfunerarytextsoflateFifthDynasty, c.2450 , whichdescribetheboatmanwhotransportsthedeadkingtotheafterlife.Lincoln (1980:41–59)identifiesthecross-cultural figureoftheferrymanofthedead.According toHorsfall(2013:254),the firstoccurrenceofCharonisinasurvivingfragmentofaGreek poemknownasthe Minyas (perhapscomposedinthesixthcentury );healsoappearsin fifth-centuryGreekvasepaintings.Cf.Bremmer(2014:184–5)andWest(1997:155).
(writinginGreekinthesecondcentury )playedwiththemillenniaoldideaoftheunderworldasavastcitybysatiricallyrepresentingHades asabureaucracyadministeredbytheferrymanCharonandotherinfernalpersonnelwhoexhibitofficiousconcernwithpaperworkand accounting.¹³Throughoutliteraryhistorypoetsbuiltonthisinherited senseofplace:physicalfeaturesoftheVergilianunderworldreappearin Dante’ s Inferno ,Milton’ s ParadiseLost,andSpenser ’ s FaerieQueene.In thelatter(1.i.37 –44)theconnivingsorcerer,Archimago,dispatchesa spirittotheunderworld(theHouseofMorpheus)tobringbackafalse dream;hisentrancethroughembellisheddoublegatesrecallsthatof AeneasatthebeginningofhistriptoDis,whilethequestitselfreminds thelearnedreaderthatAeneaslefttheunderworldthroughthegateof falsedreams(Aen.6.893–8).Ofcourse,these finepoetsemulatetheir classicalpredecessorsinmuchmoreintellectualways.PhilipHardie observesthatforbothVergilandSpenser, “themythologicalunderworld isavividsettingforissuesofcosmic,psychological,theological,and moralorderanddisorder.”¹⁴ Alesselevatedcomposition,theEnglish satiristMauriceAtkins’ Cataplus (1672),adherestothestructureof Aeneid 6,butalludestoLucian’sironiccritiquewhenheshapesAeneas’ descentasacommentaryontheEnglishcivilwar,allinajoculartone pepperedwithcolloquialisms.¹⁵
AsculturalcriticLindaHutcheonarguesin ATheoryofAdaptation, therearereallynonewstories,andthisbookis,amongotherthings,an illustrationofthatassertion.Thefollowingchaptersofferastudyofthe adaptationofunderworldmythologyinaselectionofcontemporary culturalproductscreatedinthepasthalf-century.Allofthempreserve theliteraryfootprintsoftheirGreco-Romanpredecessors,mostobviouslyinhowtheyborrowanddevelopthewell-establishedphysical featuresofHell,butalsointheiruseoftheunderworldasplaceto examinepsychosocialmatterspertinenttoourlivesaboveground.The temporalrangeextendsfromJohnBarth’spostmoderntourdeforce, LostintheFunhouse,publishedin1968,totheenigmaticItalianauthor ElenaFerrante’shighlyacclaimednovels,mostrecently TheStoryofthe
¹³ Cataplus narratesthejourneyofaboatloadofsoulsbeingferriedtotheunderworld. Nesselrath(2017:42–50)discussesseveralofLucian’sworksfeaturingsatiricallypragmatic treatmentsoftheconstitutionandgovernanceofHades.
¹⁴ Hardie2010:185.¹⁵ SeefurtherPower2010:191–2.
LostChild (translatedintoEnglishin2015).Otherspecimensinclude SalmanRushdie’ s TheGroundBeneathHerFeet,A.S.Byatt’ s Angelsand Insects,ToniMorrison’ s SongofSolomon,AnnPatchett’ s StateofWonder,andAmyBloom’ s Away.TheprolificgothicenergyofNeilGaiman isrepresentedby TheSandman comicseries,andHenrySelick’ s filmic adaptationofhischildren’snovel, Coraline.Thismélangeofdifferent culturalregisters,fromNobelandBookerprizewinnerstopopularand children’smedia,iscomprisedofadaptationsoftheancientstorypattern ofthedescenttotheunderworld(catabasis),oraconversationwith ghosts(a Nekyia or evocatio ).Thesamecouldbesaidofaverylong listofnovels, films,music,art,andvideogamesproducedwithinthelast fiftyyears;mybookmakesnoclaimtocomprehensiveness.Ihavetried toincorporatearangeofgenres,includingnovels,shortstories,comics,a cinematicadaptation,juvenileliterature,andtheoccasionalreferenceto poetryandmusic,inordertoillustratenotonlytheubiquityofthemotif inourcontemporaryculture,butalsotoidentifyhowthefantasyofa visittotheunderworldlocatesspecificconcernsofahistoricalmoment withinanever-evolvingandcomplextradition.Theselectionsshare severalcommonelements,whichstudiedcollectivelybringtolightthe richpossibilitiesoftheunderworldthemeinthecontextofthreeintersectingdiscourses postmodernism,feminism,andpostcolonialism representedbyculturalproductsthatciteandadapttheliterarycanon whileironicallyundercuttingit.Thisdisruptiveimpulsecanbesymbolizedbyboundariescrossedortransgressedinsomefashion.Thestories thatweareabouttoencounterinvolveversionsofthearchetypalpassage betweenlifeanddeath,andthenbackagain.Althoughthesebordercrossingsareoftenphysicalandevengeopolitical,manyofourheroic protagonistsarepositionedalongdivisionsbetweensocialgroups (includinggender,class,andage),orevenstraddledifferentgenres (epicpoetryandrockmusic,forexample).Consequentlyallusionsto ancientprototypesinwhichadivinityormortalcrossesbetweenthe realmsofthelivingandthedead,theultimatetransgressionofboundaries,andthenreturnstoquotidianreality,infusesuchcrossings,actual orsymbolic,withconnotationsthatspeaktocontemporarysensibilities inwaysthattakeintoaccounttheexperienceofwomen,children, refugees,andothersocialgroupsnottraditionallyvalorizedbythe Europeancanon.Suchcitationsofclassicalunderworldstoriesposition theseworksof fiction,andthusthelivedrealitiesoftheiraudiences,
withinacontinuumthatstretchesbacktothedeepestantiquity,butthey alsoquestionthecanonicalstatusofthesourcetextswithinthesocieties thattransmitandpreservethosemyths.
Thesecitations,playfullyironic,de fiantlycritical,orevenrespectfully complicit,arepossiblebecausetheculturallyresonanttropeofthe catabasishasbeensuchade finitiveelementofliteratureformillennia uptothepresent.In TheSecularScripture:AStudyoftheStructureof Romance NorthropFryeidentifiedthedescentasoneoffourmajor themesinWesternliterature,anobservationthatemphasizestheprivilegedplacethatthisstorypatternoccupiesinourculturalheritage.¹⁶ Fromtheirpositioninthegenealogyofunderworldmythmakers,contemporaryauthorscandrawonandcritiqueatraditionthathasbeen foundationaltoWesterncultureandliteratureformillennia.Thefantasy hasneverdied.StoriesofavisittoHellremainedpopularduringthe MiddleAges:forexample, TheVisionsoftheKnightTondal,originally writteninLatinbyatwelfth-centuryIrishmonkandtranslatedinto fifteendifferentlanguagesincludingIcelandic,tellshowTondalfalls unconsciousatabanquetandisledbyanangelicguidetowitnessthe tormentsofHellandpleasuresofHeaven,anotheriterationofthetour oftheunderworld.Theexperience,asitdoesforPrinceKummay, Odysseus,andAeneas,transformshimforthebetter.Theinfluenceof Vergil’sdescriptionoftheunderworldisunmistakableinthepoem,and DanteinturnwasinfluencedbytaleofTondal(andofcourseits prototype,the Aeneid)whenhewrotehis DivineComedy. WhiletheancienttraditioncontributedtotheprestigeofDante ’ s Inferno orMilton’ s ParadiseLost,itsveryantiquityandfamiliarity exposeitsconventionstoparody,critique,andsubversion thatwas trueasearlyasAristophanes’ Frogs,andLucian’ s Cataplus.ThatMilton ’ s nephew,JohnPhillips,publishedhisowntravestyof Aeneid 6inthe seventeenthcenturytestifiestothepersistenceofasubversiveurgeto deflatethecanon.¹⁷ TodayanauthorsuchasMargaretAtwoodcanstand thetraditionofthe Nekyia onitsheadinher Penelopiad (2005)by channelingtheghostofPenelopetocritiquethepatriarchalunderpinningsofthe Odyssey.Atwood’sslyrevisionprovidesampletestimonythat theancientmythofthe descensusadinfernos canbeadaptedinwaysthat
¹⁶ Frye1976:95–226.
¹⁷ ThereisabriefdiscussionofPhillips’ poeminPower2010:92.
challengehowdominantideologiesshapeliteraryhistory.Thisbookisan inquiryintohowandwhyapersistentfascinationwithlifeafterdeath, andfantasiesofaccessingtheworldofthedeadwhilewearestillalive, worksopowerfullywiththemesofculturalrebellioninpostmodern authors,thesocialmarginalityandalterityaddressedbyfeminist fiction, andthefragmentationofidentityenduredbythediasporicsubject.
Theendlesslyadaptableunderworldnarrativecanbeidentifiedin countlesscontemporarynovels,poetry, films,thevisualarts,children’ s andpopularculture.Forexample,scholarshavediscernedelementsof thedescentmythinvariousAmericanWesternsincluding TheSearchers andtheCoens’ TrueGrit,althoughthereisnoovertsignposttolinkthe filmstoancienttexts.¹⁸ Thisbook,however,focusesonworkwith explicitreferencestoancientdescentmyths.WriterssuchasWendy Lesserin TheLifeBelowtheGround (1988)andRachelFalconerin HellinContemporaryLiterature: WesternDescentNarrativessince 1945 (2005)haveexaminedsubterraneanmotifsinliteratureofthe recentpastintheircreativeandilluminatingstudies.AndDavid L.Pike(PassagethroughHell:ModernistDescents,MedievalUnderworlds,1997)makestheintriguingargumentthatDante’smedievalist descentnarrativestructuresmodernistworksthatoftenhaveverylittleto dowithHell.MichaelThurstonhaswrittenanelegantanalysisofhow modernistpoetssuchasEzraPound,andT.S.Eliotexploitacatabatic genealogylinkingthemselveswithOdysseus,Aeneas,andDante.Thurston(The UnderworldinTwentieth-CenturyPoetry,2009)offersan insightfulanalysisthatlocatestheseliteraryunderworldsassitesof confrontationwiththepast,andcruciblesofpoeticinnovation.As Thurstonremarks,Pound’sevocationoftheOdyssean Nekyia atthe beginningof TheCantos declares, “nothisindependencefromthe traditionbutratherhisinterdependence. ”¹⁹ Byexaminingthedescent themeincultureofthepostmodernera(fromthelate1960suntilthe present),Iarguethatanengagementwiththedescenttradition,so centraltotheself-fashionedidentitiesofmodernistliterarycelebrities, becomesadifferent,moresubversiveproject.
¹⁸ Holtsmark(2001)discussesthecatabasisthemeincinemaincludingWesterns;Clauss (1999)looksspecificallyatthethemeinJohnFord’ s TheSearchers (1956);seealsoFletcher (2014)formyanalysisofthecatabaticsubtextoftheCoenBrothers’ TrueGrit (2010).
¹⁹ Thurston2009:29.
Whilethisbookhasprofitedfromthesecontributionstothereception ofunderworldmythologyinrecentliteraryculture,Ifocusonmaterial withexplicitreferencestocanonicalunderworldnarratives,ortorelated ancienttexts,ratherthanworksthatsuggestlessovertstructuralor psychologicalfeatures.Thus,forexample,Falconerquitepersuasively identifiesthedescentmotifinworksuchasAnnMichaels’ FugitivePieces (1996),the fictionalmemoirofaHolocaustsurvivorwhosepsychological traumareflectsaDanteandescentintoHell.HollyVirginiaBlackford detectsaresonancewiththemythofPersephoneinchildren’sliterature suchasE.B.White ’ s Charlotte’sWeb (1952),despitetheabsenceofany overtreferencetothemythitself.Undoubtedlythesereadingsarewell suitedfortheirauthors’ specificprojects,butmyselectionssharean explicitengagementwithclassicalmythology.Someofthesewriters, suchasByatt,Morrison,andFerrante,havepublicallyacknowledged aneducationinClassicalStudies;others,includingBarth,Gaiman,and Rushdie,demonstratesuchasophisticatedengagementwithancient literaturethattherecanbelittledoubttheyhavereadHomer,Vergil, andotherclassicalauthorswithcloseattention.Astheanalysesoftheir novelswilldemonstrate,theirinteractionwiththesetextsisacrucial elementoftheirpoetics.
AlthoughtherearemanyversionsofthecatabasismythIfocuson adaptationsofthefourbestknownancientliteraryversions:the Nekyia ofHomer ’ s Odyssey 11,themythofOrpheusandEurydicefromVergil’ s FourthGeorgic andOvid’ s Metamorphoses ,thedescentofAeneasin Vergil’ s Aeneid 6,andthemythofPersephoneintheanonymous HomericHymntoDemeter andOvid’ s Metamorphoses. Theworks discussedinthefollowingchapterssignifytheirdebttoatleastoneof thesetexts,andoftencitemorethanone,withconspicuousclues.Some authorssuchasRushdieareveryexplicitabouttheirancientsourcetext, othersmoreunderstated,butthesigns,alwaysdiscernible,areinvitations toparticipateinaformofliteraryarchaeology.Incertaincases,for examplePatchett’ s StateofWonder,themostovertallusionistoan adaptationofaclassicalpredecessor(inthiscaseGluck’soperaticversion oftheOrpheustale),butdiggingdeeperweinevitablyreachanancient substratum.Andthatrealizationleadsustounderstandwhyunderworld mythsaresoenduring:Hadeshastakenonanarchivalqualityasa repositoryforcatabatictales;theunderworldisaliteraryspacewhere narrativeghostsreside,waitingtobereanimated,butalsoexisting
amongearlierversionsofthemselves.Thusanauthorwhowantstocite andchallengeanancientculturaltraditionwillhavenobetterrecourse thantoentertherealmofHades,andaccessacacheofseveralmillennia’ s worthofghostlynarrativelayers:aninterventionthatautomatically engagesherorhiminaself-reflexiveenterprisethatconsidersthe relationshipbetweenauthor,reader,tradition,andtext.Inshort,atrip totheunderworldisoftenastoryaboutstorytelling.
Thebookisdividedintofourchaptersandashortconclusion.The firstchapter “SourceTexts” isanoverviewofancientGreekandRoman descenttales,whichalsoservesasasynthesisofsomeoftheimportant themesthattheysharewitheachotherandwiththeadaptationstreated inthisbook.ThefocusisontheOdyssean Nekyia ;thestoriesof Heracles ’ descent,reenactedbythegodDionysusinAristophanes ’ Frogs ;thecatabasisofAeneasinVergil ’ s Aeneid;twoLatinversions (byVergilandOvid)ofOrpheus ’ triptoHadestoretrieveEurydice; and fi nallythemythofPersephoneinthe HomericHymntoDemeter Bearinmindthatalthoughthesearethemostwidelydisseminated descentstoriesfromtheancientMediterraneanworld,therewere numerousothertalesoftheunderworld,forexamplebytheRoman playwrightSenecaandtheepicpoetStatius,bothwritinginthe fi rst century .ThecontemporaryadaptationsthatIhaveselectedarefor themostpartbasedonthedescentsofOdysseus,Aeneas,Orpheus,and Persephone,buttheyoccasionally evokePlatonicphilosophy,and othersignifi canttreatmentsoftheunderworld,whichwillbeconsideredattheappropriatetime.
Chapter2, “TheGhostoftheFather:SpiritsofthePostmodern,” examineshowJohnBarth’sexperimentalnovel, LostintheFunhouse, andNeilGaiman’ s TheSandman comicbookseriesdeploytwoclassical mythsofthedescent,thatofOdysseusintheformerandOrpheusin latter,setintensionwithliteraturebyJamesJoyceandJohnMilton.Both authorsengagewiththemythicalstorypatternasametafictionaldevice thatpayshomagetoliterarytraditionwhilealsocritiquingtheirown literaryforefathers.Thischapterarguesthatthepolemicalstancesof BarthandGaimanepitomizepostmodernliterarypracticesbyfragmentingandrecombiningtheirsourcetexts,drawingattentiontotheexistenceoftheirownworkas fiction,andbysettingtheheroicparadigmin culturallymarginalcontexts,orusingmedianotconventionallyassociatedwithhighculture.
Chapter3, “EngenderingtheHauntedText,” acknowledgesthatHades hascometorepresentanintertextualarchive,butexploreshowtwo feminist,postmodernnovelists,A.S.ByattandElenaFerrante,approach thetraditionofthecatabaticnarratorbyrevisingapatrilinealconvention toincludethefemalenovelist.Byatt’ s AngelsandInsects bearsthe imprintofHomer ’ s Odyssey butintheformofpostmodernfragments thatincorporatesomeofthescientific,intellectual,andculturalmodesof theVictorianperiod.Byatt’scriticalinterventionistorewritethe Nekyia asachildren’sfableinonenovellaandaséanceintheother,bothof whichhighlighttheroleofthefemalestoryteller.SetbetweentheanalysesofByatt’sandFerrante’snovelsisadiscussionofGaiman’ s children’snovella, Coraline,asa filmicadaptationbyHenrySelick. Thisanalysisservesasanintermezzo,whichdevelopstheinquiryinto whygirlsbutnotwomencantaketripstotheunderworld,andthinks abouttheroleofthefemalecreator,thehorrifyingbeldamthatCoraline encountersthere.ThuspreparedweadvancetotheworkofElena Ferrantetoexplorehowsheincorporatesthechthonicfemaledemon andthePersephonemythinthecontextoffemaleauthorship.
Chapter4, “TheWanderer’sDescent:TheUnderworldsofDiaspora, ” outlineshowthestoryofatriptotheunderworldcancapturethe experiencesofdiasporicpopulations,includingrefugees,enslaved peoples,exiles,andimmigrants.Aselectionoffournovelsexemplifies thepotentialforthecatabasis,themostdramaticborder-crossingpossible,toworkasametaphorforatransitionbetweencontinents.The descendantofanex-slaveinToniMorrison ’ s SongofSolomon entersa cavethatevokestheOdyssean Nekyia,andalsosymbolizeshisfamily’ s past.Intheremainingnovelsothermigrantcharactersmetaphorically reenacttheinfernalvoyagesofOrpheus,Aeneas,andPersephone.Postcolonialtheoryguidessomeoftheinterpretationsoftheseappropriations,but,acknowledgingtheaffinitybetweenpostmodernand postcolonialpoetics,wecanalsorecognizethemesdevelopedinthe precedingsections.ThusRushdie’ s TheGroundBeneathHerFeet critiquesthemasternarrativeoftheWestbyutilizingSaïd’sconceptof Orientalism,butalsoblendseliteandmainstreamculturewitharevision ofacanonicaltextthatreinventsOrpheusasarockstar.Highstatus literatureagainmeldswithmainstreamculture,asitdoesforNeilGaiman. AmyBloom’ s Away makesparallelsbetweenthestoryofaJewishrefugee womanandthemythofDemeterandPersephone.Althoughthecentral
charactermakestheseconnectionsherself,shedoesnotaccessthemyth throughtheoriginalGreekandLatintexts,butbymeansofapopularizedversionofthestoryinBullfinch’smythology.AndwhileAnn Patchett’ s StateofWonder makesanexplicitreferencetotheOrpheus story,itisthroughGluck’sopera,ratherthanclassicalversions.These citationsofdifferentpointsinthelonghistoryofunderworldthemed fictionconveyasenseofarecursivelylayeredtradition;eachlayer replicatesthepreviousiterationofthetale,andyetadaptsthemythto itshistoricalcontext.
Thebookconcludeswithabriefepiloguethatdrawstogethersomeof thethemesandideasthatrecurthroughout.Thetopicisalargeone,and thefollowingpagesarenotmeanttobethe finalwordonamyththathas seeminglyinfinitepossibilitiesforadaptationincontemporarycontexts.
