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INTERNATIONAL REFUGEE LAW AND THE PROTECTION OF STATELESS PERSONS

International Refugee Law and the Protection of Stateless Persons. Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert. © Michelle

Foster and Hélène Lambert 2019. Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.

International Refugee Law and the Protection of Stateless

Persons

MICHELLE FOSTER

and

HÉLÈNE LAMBERT

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted

First Edition published in 2019

Impression: 1

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above

You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

Crown copyright material is reproduced under Class Licence Number C01P0000148 with the permission of OPSI and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Data available

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018967680

ISBN 978–0–19–879601–5

Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY

Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

Acknowledgements

This book is the result of several wonderful years of collaboration. Cathryn Costello, whose invitation to Michelle to participate in the Oxford Refugee Studies Centre’s Short Course on Statelessness and International Law in May 2014, was the catalyst for our collaboration on this project. We are indebted to Cathryn for her ongoing interest and support of our project. Over the years we have also benefitted enormously from discussions with other colleagues and friends. We wish in particular to thank Matthew Albert (Victorian Bar), Adrienne Anderson (PhD candidate, Melbourne Law School), Timnah Baker (Research Fellow, Peter McMullin Centre on Statelessness, Melbourne Law School), Claudia Barbarano (Community Engagement Coordinator, DLA Piper Rome), Bruce Burson (Immigration and Protection Tribunal, New Zealand), Judith Carter (Liverpool Law Clinic), Karen Hamann (Swiss State Secretariat for Migration), Erika Feller (Professorial Fellow, Melbourne School of Government), Guy S. Goodwin-Gill (UNSW and All Souls College Oxford), Radha Govil, (Senior Legal Officer (Statelessness), UNHCR), Gabor Gyulai (Hungarian Helsinki Committee and European Network on Statelessness), Susan Kneebone (Professorial Fellow, MLS), Cynthia Orchard and Ian Kane (Asylum Aid UK), Mark Manly (UNHCR), Hugo Storey (judge of the UK Upper Tribunal and former President of the IARMJ-Europe), Inge Sturkenboom (UNHCR), and Laura van Waas (Tilburg University and Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion) for their generous comments, feedback and encouragement.

We benefitted also from opportunities to present our ideas and receive valuable feedback at various fora. Hélène wishes to thank fellow participants from the Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion and the European Network on Statelessness (Scoping Meeting - European Context), the Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion and the Norwegian Refugee Council (Regional Expert Meeting - Syrian Context), and the UNHCR and Tilburg University (First Global Forum on Statelessness), as well as fellow academics at the University of Wollongong, the University of Reading, and the University of London to whom aspects of the research was presented, for their constructive feedback over the past six years. Michelle wishes to thank Professor Gregor Noll for the invitation to present our ideas to the Lund/Uppsala Migration Law Network at the University of Lund, to the International Association of Refugee and Migration Judges, Asia-Pacific Chapter, for the opportunity to test our ideas before a body of judicial experts, and to colleagues at the University of Melbourne Law School and Melbourne Social Equity Institute who provided feedback at various public seminars and lectures.

We also acknowledge the financial support of the University of Melbourne. The University’s Dyason fellowship (2015) funded a research visit for Hélène to Melbourne at a crucial stage in the project, and the award of the International Collaboration Fund (ICF) grant over two years from Melbourne Law School funded much-needed research assistance. We also acknowledge the UNHCR for engaging

Acknowledgements

Hélène as a consultant on a project on claims to refugee status based on arbitrary deprivation of nationality that eventually led to this book. We benefitted from excellent research assistance over several years. Most importantly Rebecca Dowd took on the role of research fellow on this project, and undertook the identification and synthesis of the bulk of the case-law research. We are indebted to her for her efficiency, acuity and insightfulness. We also wish to thank the Melbourne Law School Academic Research Service for initial literature reviews, Grace Duncan, JD, MLS for important historical research, Anna Saunders, MPhil candidate, MLS for editorial assistance and Henry Bantick, JD MLS for research and editorial work. Mimi Oorloff, JD, MLS deserves particular mention as she undertook the enormous task of cite-checking and copy-editing the entire manuscript- all with good humour, efficiency and patience. We are very grateful to the generous and infallible support of our respective institutions, the University of Melbourne and the University of Westminster during the past six years.

Furthermore, we are grateful to Oxford University Press for their tremendous support and patience! In particular, Merel Alston sourced extremely helpful anonymous reviews of our book proposal and we benefitted significantly from that feedback in our shaping of the book’s scope and focus.

It goes without saying that the work is our own, as are any errors within it.

Michelle and Hélène

February 2019

Table of Cases

INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND COMMITTEES

African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR)

Malawi Africa Association v Mauritania (11 May 2000), African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Communication Nos 54/91, 61/91, 98/93, 164/97, 196/97, 210/98 69

Modise v Botswana (6 November 2000), Communication No 97/93 52, 62–63, 69, 71–72

African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACERWC)

Institute for Human Rights and Development in Africa and the Open Society Justice Initiative (On Behalf of Children of Nubian Descent in Kenya) v Kenya (22 March 2011) Comm No 002/Com/002/2009, ACERWC, ‘Decision No 002’

64, 69–70

European Court of Justice (ECJ)

Abdulla v Germany [2010] ECR I–1532, Joined Cases C-175/08, C-176/08, C-178/08 and C-179/08 199

Bolbol v Bevándorlási és Állampolgársági Hivatal, Case C-31/09 [2010] ECR I–05539 203–5

El Kott v Bevándorlási és Állampolgársági Hivatal, Case C-364/11 [2012] ECR 203, 204

Rottmann v Bayern, Case C-135/08 [2010] ECR I–1449 76

European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)

Abdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v United Kingdom (1985) 7 EHRR 471 66

Abuhmaid v Ukraine, Application No 31183/13 (12 January 2017)

Andrejeva v Latvia (2010) 51 EHRR 28

Anudo Ochieng Anudo v United Republic of Tanzania, Application No 012/2015 (22 March 2018)

Auad v Bulgaria, Application No 46390/10 (11 January 2012)

Belgian Linguistic Case (No 2) (1968) 1 EHRR 252

190–91, 213–14

Daoudi v France, Application No 19576/08 (3 December 2009) 71–72

DH v Czech Republic (2008) 47 EHRR 3 70

Family K and W v Netherlands, Application No 11278/84 (1 July 1985) 220 70–71

Foulon and Bouvet v France, Applications Nos 9063/14, 10410/14 (21 July 2016) 70–71

Genovese v Malta (2014) 58 EHRR 25 62–63, 70–71

Giama v Belgium, Application No 7612/76 (17 July 1980) 71–72

Harabi v Netherlands, Application No 10798/84 (5 March 1986) 71–72

Hoti v Croatia, Application No 63311/14 (26 April 2018) 84, 87, 117–18

Kim v Russia, Application No 44260/13 (17 July 2014)

Kuric v Slovenia (2013) 56 EHRR 20

Labassee v France, Application No 65941/11 (26 June 2014)

Maslov v Austria (2008) 47 EHRR 20

Mennesson v France, Application No 65192/11 (26 June 2014)

MSS v Belgium (2011) 53 EHRR 2

71–72, 84, 86

62–63, 70–71

189–90

NA v United Kingdom (2009) 48 EHRR 15 192

Petropavlovskis v Latvia (2017) 65 EHRR 7 71

Ramadan v Malta (2017) 65 EHRR 32 71

Tarakhel v Switzerland (2015) 60 EHRR 28 189–90

Vijayanathan v France (1993) 15 EHRR 62 101–3, 190

Zeibek v Greece, Application No 46368/06 (9 July 2009) 87

International Refugee Law and the Protection of Stateless Persons. Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert. © Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert 2019. Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.

Table of Cases

Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)

Case of Expelled Dominicans and Haitians v Dominican Republic (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs) Inter-American Court of Human Rights Series C No 282 (28 August 2014)

68–69

Case of the Yean and Bosico Children v Dominican Republic (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs) Inter-American Court of Human Rights Series C No 130 (8 September 2005) 52, 64–65, 68, 115, 163

Case of Ivcher-Bronstein v Peru (Merits, Reparations and Costs) Inter-American Court of Human Rights Series C No 74 (6 February 2001) 67 Gelman v Uruguay (Merits and Reparations) Inter-American Court of Human Rights Series C No 221 (24 February 2011) 68

Proposed Amendments to the Naturalization Provision of the Constitution of Costa Rica, Advisory Opinion OC-4/84, Inter-American Court of Human Rights Series A No 4 (19 January 1984)

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

57, 67

Case concerning the Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v Spain) (Second Phase) [1970] ICJ Rep 3 85, 191–92

Nottebohm Case (Liechtenstein v Guatemala) (Second Phase (Judgment)) [1955] ICJ Rep 4 52, 56, 79–80

United Nations Committee against Torture (UNCAT)

AD v Netherlands (12 November 1999) UN Doc CAT/C/23/D/96/1997, UN Committee Against Torture, ‘Communication No 96/1997

United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHRC)

190

Adam v Czech Republic (23 July 1996) UN Doc CCPR/C/57/D/586/1994, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 586/1994’ 86

Aumeeruddy-Cziffra v Mauritius (9 April 1981) UN Doc CCPR/C/OP/1, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 35/1978’ 190

Gratzinger v Czech Republic (25 October 2007) UN Doc CCPR/C/91/D/1463/200, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 1463/2006’ 86

Nystrom v Australia (1 September 2011) UN Doc CCPR/C/102/D/1557/2007, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 1557/2007 83–84, 169 Q v Denmark, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 2001/2010 (1 April 2015) UN Doc CCPR/C/113/D/2001/2010

Stewart v Canada (16 December 1996) UN Doc CCPR/C/58/D/538/1993, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 538/1993

Toala v New Zealand (22 November 2000) UN Doc CCPR/C/70/D/675/1995, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 675/1995

66–67

83–84, 168

Vaca v Colombia (25 March 2002) UN Doc CCPR/C/859/1999, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 859/1999 169–70 Warsame v Canada (1 September 2011) UN Doc CCPR/C/102/D/1959/2010, UN Human Rights Committee, ‘Communication No 1959/2010 83–84, 169

NATIONAL CASE LAW

Australia 071454724 [2007] RRTA 200 (30 August 2007) 175–76, 184 071626084 [2007] RRTA 304 (21 November 2007) 25 150, 155–56, 170–71, 173–75

0904796 [2010] RRTA 1005 (15 November 2010) 206 1000094 [2010] RRTA 277 (16 April 2010) 144–45, 173–75 1005911 [2010] RRTA 923 (20 October 2010) 178–79

Table of Cases

1010968 [2011] RRTA 203 (9 March 2011) 178–79

1108899 [2012] RRTA 133 (7 March 2012)

1113683 [2012] RRTA 611 (9 August 2012)

1114181 [2013] RRTA 2 (4 January 2013)

1303526 [2013] RRTA 815 (19 November 2013)

1311115 [2013] RRTA 822 (25 November 2013)

1317610 [2014] RRTA 472 (28 May 2014) �

1407022 (Refugee) [2015] AATA 3606 (6 November 2015)

173–75, 206

173–75

112–13, 142–43, 144–45, 178

179, 191–92

189

118, 119, 173–75

189–90

1504584 (Refugee) [2017] AATA 650 (4 April 2017) 132–33

1606601 (Refugee) [2016] AATA 4488 (14 September 2016) 111–12, 136–37

1617142 (Refugee) [2017] AATA 990 (7 June 2017) 136–37, 152–53, 186

1707843 (Refugee) [2018] AATA 1004 (7 March 2018) 117–18

1708563 [2017] AATA 2223 (23 August 2017) 117–18

AZK15 v Minister for Immigration [2015] FCCA 2303 (25 August 2015) 112–13

BZAAH v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship [2013] FCAFC 72 (12 July 2013) 133

BZADW v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection [2014] FCA 541 (26 May 2014)

150, 151–52, 155, 172, 179

Diatlov v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (1999) 167 ALR 313

Diatlov v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs [1999] FCA 468 (25 October 1999)

DZABG v Minister for Immigration [2012] FMCA 36 (25 January 2012)

97–98, 159

159, 165

DZACV v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship [2012] FCA 1443 (17 December 2012) 108

GRF(Re), Nos AAO-01454, AAO-01462, AAO-01463 [2001] CRDD No 88 (12 July 2001) 16 136–37, 138, 151–52

Husein Ali Haris v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs [1998] FCA 78 (12 February 1998) 96, 178

Koe v Minister for Immigration & Ethnic Affairs (1997) 78 FCR 289 132–33

Koe v Minister for Immigration & Ethnic Affairs [1997] FCA 912 (8 September 1997) 133

Koe v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (1997) 74 FCR 508

LK v Director-General, Department of Community Services [2009] HCA 9 (11 March 2009)

Minister of Citizenship and Immigration v Alsha’bi, 2015 FC 1381

Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v Savvin (2000) 171 ALR 483

Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v WABQ [2002] FCAFC 329 (8 November 2002)

110

136

119, 142

96, 97

205–6

Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness v Rooney, 2016 FC 1097 116

MZXAN v Minister for Immigration [2006] FMCA 847 (30 June 2006) 159, 165

MZZQN v Minister for Immigration [2014] FCCA 2886 (10 December 2014) 101–3, 191–92

N00/35614 [2001] RRTA 34 (15 January 2001) 207–8

N00/35689 [2001] RRTA 40 (16 January 2001) 207–8

N01/37373 [2001] RRTA 610 (29 June 2001) 207–8

N99/31199 [2000] RRTA 1058 (20 November 2000) 145–46, 151–52

NBKE v Minister for Immigration & Citizenship [2007] FCA 126 (15 February 2007) 112–13

Poorvadi v Minister for Immigration & Multicultural Affairs [2002] FCA 234 (13 March 2002) �

Rishmawi v Minister for Immigration & Multicultural Affairs (1997) 77 FCR 421

Savvin v Minister for Immigration & Multicultural Affairs (1999) 166 ALR 348

SZCZJ v Minister for Immigration [2006] FMCA 1583 (25 October 2006)

SZEOH v Minister for Immigration [2005] FMCA 1178 (26 August 2005)

SZIPL v Minister for Immigration [2007] FMCA 643 (17 May 2007)

� � 184

96, 100, 101–3

96, 98, 159

199–200

136

101–3, 108

SZOXM v Minister for Immigration [2011] FMCA 564 (22 July 2011) 117–18

SZPZI v Minister for Immigration & Anor [2011] FMCA 530 (22 July 2011) 129–30, 144–45, 173–75, 184

SZQOX v Minister for Immigration [2012] FMCA 566 (29 June 2012) 108

SZSFK v Minister for Immigration [2013] FCCA 7 (16 May 2013) 189

SZSPX v Minister for Immigration [2013] FCCA 1715 (25 October 2013)

101–3

SZSVT v Minister for Immigration [2014] FCCA 768 (17 April 2014) (AUS) � � � � 175–76, 184, 191–92

SZTEO v Minister for Immigration [2015] FCCA 2228 (21 August 2015) AUS

SZTFX v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection [2015] FCA 402 (30 April 2015)

101–3, 184

147, 175

SZUNZ v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection [2015] FCAFC 32 (13 March 2015) 132–33, 135–36, 138–39, 219

Taiem v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (2002) 186 ALR 361 101–3, 138–39

Tahiri v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship [2012] HCA 61 (13 December 2012) 136

Tesfamichael v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs [1999] FCA 1661 (2 December 1999) 170–71

V00/11398 [2001] RRTA 419 (2 May 2001) 132–33, 167, 168, 170–71, 172–73

VO3/16458 [2004] RRTA 592 (2 September 2004) 5

WACG v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs [2002] FCAFC 332 (8 November 2002)

WAJB v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs [2002] FCA 1443 (22 November 2002)

WZAPK v Minister for Immigration [2013] FMCA 19 (22 January 2013)

WZAPN v Minister for Immigration [2013] FMCA 6 (31 January 2013)

159, 178–79

206

184

172, 184

WZAQH v Minister for Immigration [2013] FCCA 182 (9 May 2013) 110

Austria

DA v Federal Asylum Authority, decision no°203.029/0–II/28/98, 10 November 1999, Austrian Independent Federal Asylum Senate 172–73

Belgium

AMM v Procureur General près de La Cour D’Appel de Bruxelles, arrêt no°C.06.0427.F, 22 January 2009, CCE

Houssam v Commissaire général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides, arrêt no°27366, 14 May 2009, CCE

X v Commissaire général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides, arrêt no°103.509, 27 May 2013, CCE

201–2

173–75

173–75, 204

X v Commissaire général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides, arrêt no°22144, 28 January 2009, CCE 171

X v Commissaire général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides, arrêt no°26112, 21 April 2009, CCE 173–75

X v de Commissaris-generaal voor de vluchtelingen en de staatlozen, arrêt no°102.283, 2 May 2013, CCE 204

X v de Commissaris-generaal voor de vluchtelingen en de staatlozen, arrêt no°37.912, 29 January 2010, CCE 204

X v l’Etat belge, arrêt n°134185, 28 November 2014, CCE 191

X v l’Etat belge, arrêt n°142096, 27 March 2015, CCE

X v l’Etat belge, arrêt n°155732, 29 October 2015, CCE

X v l’Etat belge, arrêt n°157845, 8 December 2015, CCE

X v le Commissaire général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides, arrêt no°87989, 21 September 2012, Belgian Council for Alien Law Litigation

Bulgaria

Madjid v Head of the State Agency for Refugees, 11261/2009, 28 October 2010, Върховен административен

CANADA

191

118

[Bulgarian Supreme Administrative Court] 178–79

Abdel-Khalik v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) [1994] FCJ No 111 101–3

Abdelrazik v Canada (Minister of Foreign Affairs & International Trade) 2009 FC 580 (4 June 2009)

146–47

Abeleira v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2015 FC 1340 189–90

Abeleira v Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (2017) FC 1008 (7 November 2017)

Abu-Fahra v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2003 FC 860 (10 July 2007)

Adjei v Minister of Employment and Immigration, RSC 1976, C 52 (27 January 1989)

Al-Anezi v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (1999) 92 FCR 283

Asali v Canada (Minister of Public Safety & Emergency Preparedness), 2007 FC 991 (1 October 2001)

219

205

119

138–39, 142–43

173–75

Bohaisy v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) 1994 CarswellNat 645 101–3

Bouianova v Canada [1993] FCJ No 576 127–28, 131

Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) v Alsha’bi, 2015 FC 1381 (14 December 2015) 207, 208

Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) v Zeng, 2010 FCA 118 (10 May 2010) 207

Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v Hamdan, 2006 FC 290 (6 March 2006) 183

Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v Patel [2009] 2 FCR 196 185–86

Chehade v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) 2017 FC 282 (16 March 2017

Chehade v Minister of Citizenship and Immigration 2017 FC 282

Desai v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [1994] FCJ No 2032

Drozdov v Canada [1995] FCJ No 20

Elastal v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [1999] FCJ No 328

170–71

119, 135–36

101–3

129

138

Kadoura v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [2003] FCJ No 1328 (10 September 2003) 135–36, 165

Katkova v Canada (Minister of Citizenship & Immigration) [1997] FCJ No 549 130, 136, 138, 170–71

Khalifeh v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2003 FC 1044 175–76

Kruchkov v Canada (Solicitor General) [1994] FCJ No 1264 135–36

Kukhon v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2003 FCT 69 (23 January 2003) 205

Lhazom v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2015 FC 886

Maarouf v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) [1994] 1 FC 723 (13 December 1993)

110, 111–12

91, 100, 136, 137, 138, 139–40, 165, 170–71

Mathews v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [2003] FCJ No 1777

Mijatovic v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [2006] FCJ No 860 (QL)

Petrov v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2014 FC 658

112–13

128

Popov v Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, 2009 FC 898 140–41

Qassim v Minister of Immigration, Refugees, Citizenship Canada (2018) FC 226 (28 February 2018) 173–75

Rahman v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2016 FC 1355 (8 December 2016) 138–39, 170–71, 172–75

Reza v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2009 FC 606 128

Salah v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [2005] FC 944 (6 July 2005) 165

Shaat v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) [1994] FCJ No 1149 101–3

Solodjankin v Canada (Minister of Citizenship & Immigration) [1995] FCJ No 155

Thabet v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [1998] 4 FC 21 (11 May 1998)

130

96, 101–3, 119, 138–39, 140–41, 142, 170–71, 207

Tretsetsang v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) [2015] 4 FCR 521, 2015 FC 455

X (Re), 2000 CanLII 21408 (CA IRB) 4

X (Re), 2002 CanLII 52637 (CA IRB) 3

108, 115

172, 183, 205

147

X (Re), 2002 CanLII 52679 (CA IRB) 178–79

X (Re), 2005 CanLII 77811 (CA IRB) 180

X (Re), 2008 CanLII 88011 (CA IRB) 181

X (Re), 2010 CanLII 96825 (CA IRB) 181

X (Re), 2010 CarswellNat 2654 115

X (Re), 2012 CanLII 100060 (CA IRB)

X (Re), 2013 Can LII 99310 (CA IRB)

X (Re), 2013 CanLII 100828 (CA IRB)

X (Re), 2013 CanLII 99979 (CA IRB)

X (Re), 2013 CarswellNat 6584

Table of Cases

192

X (Re), 2014 CanLII 81883 (CA IRB) 183

X (Re), 2014 CarswellNat 5790 151

X (Re), 2015 CarswellNat 3329 CAN 111–12

X (Re), 2015 CarswellNat 3687 173–75

X (Re), 2015 CarswellNat 4673 192

X (Re), 2016 CanLii 105364(CA IRB) 172

X (Re), 2016 CarswellNat 10720 138, 140

X v Canada (Immigration and Refugee Board), 2001 Can LII 26883 (CA IRB)

X v Canada (Immigration and Refugee Board), 2001 CanLII 26842 (CA IRB) 7

Yah Abedalaziz v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2011 FC 1066

Younes v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2013 FC 1122

Zdanov v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) [1994] FCJ No 1090

Czech Republic

178–79

183

128

181–82

S v Ministry of Interior, 25 November 2011, 6 Azs 29/2010–85, Czech Republic Supreme Administrative Court 132

France

CE, decision no°190036, 20 March 2000 112–13

CE, decision no°216121, 29 December 2000 189

CE, decision no°255687, 18 January 2006 132

CE, decision no°277373, 22 November 2006

CE, decision no°318356, 23 July 2010

CE, decision no°330338, 15 December 2010

CE, decision no°335236, 30 March 2011

CE, decision no°336441, 11 May 2011

CE, decision no°344265, 26 May 2014

CE, decision no°357433, 26 May 2014

CE, decision nos°362703, 362704, 362705, 18 June 2014 104

CE decision nos°363069, 363070, 363071, 5 February 2014 132

CE, decision no°363181, 5 November 2014 192

CNDA, decision nos°04020557, 04020558, 24 May 2013 204

CNDA, decision no°09002572 C+ 96, 127–28, 162

CNDA, decision no°10015655 C, 5 January 2011 155, 156, 173

CNDA, decision no°10018108

CNDA, decision no°12013646 C, 26 June 2013

CNDA, decision no°493412, 14 May 2008

CNDA, decision no°640897/08021356, 14 December 2009 Mlle H

Germany

96, 127–28

125, 162, 173

204

155, 156

A v Bundesamt für Migration, C-1873/2013, 9 May 2014, Bundesverwaltungsgericht [German Federal Administrative Court] 104, 109 Bundesverwaltungsgerichts [German Federal Administrative Court], 10 C 50.07, 26 February 2009 125–26, 138, 139, 149–50, 162, 163, 164

Hungary

AAA v Bevándorlási és Állampolgársági Hivatal, 6.K.30.092/2013/12, 7 March 2013, Budapest Administrative and Labour Court 204

HAI v Bevándorlási és Állampolgársági Hivatal, 3.K.30.602/2013/15, 29 August 2013, Fővárosi Közigazgatási és Munkaügyi Bíróság (‘Budapest Administrative and Labour Court’) [Budapest Metropolitan Court of Administration and Labour]

HAI v Office of Immigration and Nationality (OIN), decision no 3.K. 30.602/2013/15, 29 August 2013

KKF v Bevándorlási és Állampolgársági Hivatal, 15.K30.590/2013/5, 21 March 2013, Budapest Administrative and Labour Court

Ireland

AAAAD v Refugee Appeals Tribunal and the Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform [2009] IEHC 326 (17 July 2009)

204, 211

173–75

204

96, 97, 171

D T (No 2) v Refugee Appeal Tribunal, 2012 IEHC 562 139–40

D T v Minister for Justice and Law Reform [2017] IESC 45 139–40

D T v Refugee Appeals Tribunal [2012] IEHC 562 125–26

MA v Refugee Appeals Tribunal [2013] IEHC 36 202–3

SHM v Refugee Appeals Tribunal [2009] IEHC 128 (12 March 2009) 154, 172

Spila v Minister for Justice, Equality & Law Reform [2012] IEHC 336 (31 July 2012) 107–8

New Zealand

AD (Palestine) [2015] NZIPT 800693–695 (23 December 2015) 202–4, 205

BG (Fiji) [2012] NZIPT 800091 (20 January 2012) 107–8, 112

Chief Executive of the Department of Labour v Yadegary [2008] NZCA 295 (13 August 2008)

Refugee Appeal No 1/92 Re SA [1992] NZRSAA 5 (30 April 1992)

Refugee Appeal No 72024 [2000] NZRSAA 281 (13 July 2000)

165

96, 107–8, 118–19, 136, 154

Refugee Appeal No 72645/01 [2001] NZRSAA 298 (24 September 2001)

Refugee Appeal No 72635 [2002] NZRSAA 344 (6 September 2002)

180

150

96, 98, 101–3, 106–8, 118, 119–20, 134–36, 138–39, 140–41, 142, 145, 147, 151, 153, 162, 210

Refugee Appeal No 73512 [2003] NZRSAA 7 (13 January 2003) 101, 137

Refugee Appeal No 73575 [2004] NZRSAA 215 (30 June 2004) 112–13, 118, 127–28

Refugee Appeal Nos 73861, 73862 [2005] NZRSAA 228 (30 June 2005) 8–9, 99–100, 101–3, 138–39, 140–41, 145–46, 171, 172–75

Refugee Appeal No 73952 [2005] NZRSAA 145 (26 May 2005) 187

Refugee Appeal No 73958 [2005] NZRSAA 151 (26 May 2005) 180, 184

Refugee Appeal No 74236 [2005] NZRSAA 351 (2 December 2005) 109–10, 112–13, 173–75

Refugee Appeal No 74308 [2002] NZRSAA 401 (18 October 2002)

Refugee Appeal No 74449 [2003] NZRSAA 332 (26 August 2003)

Refugee Appeal No 74467 [2004] NZRSAA 283 (1 September 2004)

Refugee Appeal No 74880 [2005] NZRSAA 294 (29 September 2005)

101, 112–13

151, 179

101–3, 118, 150, 151, 152–53, 162, 179–80

99–100, 101–3, 145–46, 179–80

Refugee Appeal No 75093 [2005] NZRSAA 136 (23 May 2005) 101, 116, 118

Refugee Appeal No 75221 [2005] NZRSAA 289 (23 September 2005) 182

Refugee Appeal No 73873 [2006] NZRSAA 77 (28 April 2006) 101, 111–12, 118, 173–75, 205

Refugee Appeal No 75694 [2006] NZRSAA 97 (24 May 2006) 101–3, 125–26, 127–28, 173–75

Refugee Appeal No 76187 [2008] NZRSAA 53 (18 June 2008) 131–32

Refugee Appeal No 76254 [2008] NZRSAA 82 (16 September 2008) 156, 167, 168, 171, 173–75

Refugee Appeal No 76077 [2009] NZRSAA 37 (19 May 2009) 125–26, 162–63, 164

Refugee Appeal No 76506 [2010] NZRSAA 90 (29 July 2010)

South Africa

101–3, 162, 179

DGLR v Minister of Home Affairs, Case No 38429/13 (3 July 2014), High Court of Pretoria, South Africa

M v Minister of Home Affairs (6871/2013) [2014] ZAGPPHC 649 (22 August 2014) �

Minister of Home Affairs v DGLR, Appeal Case No 1051/2015 (6 September 2016), Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa

Sweden

� 160

Migrationsöverdomstolen [Swedish Migration Court of Appeal], mål nr UM 1590–13, 26 November 2013 204

United Kingdom (UK)

AB v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] UKIAT 00046 (1 February 2005) 154

Adan v Secretary of State for the Home Department [1999] 1 AC 293 96

AK v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2006] EWCA Civ 1117

Al-Shimeary v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2011] EWHC 564 (17 January 2011)

A-S v SSHD [2011] EWHC 564 (Admin)

B (Lebanon) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] UKIAT 00104

B2 v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2013] EWCA Civ 616

BA v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKIAT 00256

166, 192

219

116

114

212

101–3, 113–14, 115, 147, 150, 152–53, 155, 178, 179, 190

Darji v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] EWCA Civ 1419 110

E-Ali v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] UKAIT 00159 177–78

EB (Ethiopia) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2007] EWCA Civ 809, [2008] 3 WLR 1188 125–26, 160, 166

El-Ali v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] EWCA Civ 1103 204–5

Federovski, Re Judicial Review [2007] NIQB 119 107–8

GP v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2014] UKUT 391 (IAC)

HE v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2006] UKAIT 00051

HS v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKIAT 00090

HS v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2011] UKUT 124 (IAC)

127–28

179, 189–90

113–14

166, 181, 182, 192

JA v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] UKIAT 00045 (27 January 2005)

JV (Tanzania) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2007] EWCA Civ 1532

181

101–3, 155

KA v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] UKAIT 00042, UK Asylum and Immigration Tribunal 103, 112, 189

Kelzani v Secretary of State for the Home Department [1978] Imm AR 193 165

KK IH HE v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKIAT 00293 154

KK v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2011] UKUT 92 (IAC) 110, 127–28, 154, 181, 182, 187

Lazarevic v Secretary of State for the Home Department [1997] EWCA Civ 1007 (Hutchison LJ)

LM v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2012] UKUT 00390 (IAC)

MA (Disputed Nationality) Ethiopia [2008] UKAIT 00032

MA (Ethiopia) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2009] EWCA Civ 289, [2010] INLR 1

165–66

171

112–13

101–3, 160, 164, 165, 166

MA (Palestinian Territories) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] EWCA Civ 304 166, 167, 170–71, 189–90

MA v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2007] UKAIT 00017 115, 166, 181

MM and FH v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] UKAIT 00014 154, 187

MT (Palestinian Territories) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] EWCA Civ 1149 166

NA v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2005] UKIAT 00094 181, 184–85, 189–90

NA v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] UKAIT 00046 173–75

NM v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2013] UKUT 356(IAC)

151, 179–80, 189–90

OH v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKIAT 00254 101–3

Pham v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2015] UKSC 19

Queen on the Application of (ZA) (Kuwait) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2011] EWCA Civ 1082

Queen on the application of Hermon Tewolde v Immigration Appeal Tribunal [2004] EWHC 162 (Admin)

78–79, 110–11, 158–59, 212

108, 179

109–10, 114–15

Queen on the application of Nhamo v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2012] EWHC 422 (Admin), 2012 WL 382718 114

R v Secretary of State for Home Department, ex parte Bradshaw [1994] Imm AR 359 109–10, 115, 116–17

Revenko v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2000] EWCA Civ 500; [2000] 3 WLR 1519 95–96, 97, 98

Revenko v Secretary of State for the Home Department: Report on Behalf of the Appellant’ (UK Court of Appeal Civil Division, 23 July 2000) 92–93

S v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] UKIAT 00019

SA (Kuwait) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2009] EWCA Civ 1157

SA and IA v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2009] UKAIT 00006

Saad, Diriye and Osorio v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] EWCA Civ 2008; [2002] INLR 34

Said v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2012] UKUT 00413 (IAC)

184–85

116

173–75, 189–90

101–3

204–5

Secretary of State for the Home Department v Al-Jedda [2013] UKSC 62 212

Secretary of State for the Home Department v AS [2002] UKIAT 05943 128, 189–90

Secretary of State for the Home Department v KF [2005] UKIAT 00109, [2006] INLR 42 115, 128

Secretary of State for the Home Department v SP (North Korea) [2012] EWCA Civ 114 127–28

SH (Palestinian Territories) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2008] EWCA Civ 1150 166

Smith v Secretary of State for the Home Department (Liberia) [2000] UKIAT 00TH02130

ST v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2011] UKUT 00252 (IAC)

103, 113–14, 119

110–11, 120, 123–24, 160, 170–71

TG (Interaction of Directives and Rules) [2016] UKUT 00374 (IAC) (18 May 2016)

208

Tikhonov v Secretary of State for the Home Department [1998] UKIAT G0052, [1998] INLR 737 115

VD v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] UKIAT 00002 132

YL v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2003] UKIAT 00016 101–3, 109, 114–15, 116–17, 136, 165, 177–78, 190

United States (US)

Abauaelian v Gonzales, 132 Fed Appx 121 (9th Cir, 2005) 146

Aboushehata v United States AG, 143 Fed Appx 302 (11th Cir, 2005) 176–77

Aburuwaida v US Attorney General, 446 Fed Appx 207 (11th Cir, 2011)

Agha v Holder, 743 F 3d 609 (8th Cir, 2014)

Ahmed v Ashcroft, 341 F 3d 214 (3rd Cir, 2003)

Al Najjar v Ashcroft 257 F 3d 1261 (11th Cir, 2001)

Al-Fara v Gonzales, 404 F 3d 733, 740 (3rd Cir, 2005)

Ali v Ashcroft, 394 F 3d 780 (9th Cir, 2005)

176, 192

192

96, 153, 176–77

135–36, 140

177–78

209

Almuhtaseb v Gonzales, 453 F 3d 743, 749 (6th Cir, 2006) 192

Asad v Ashcroft, 135 Fed Appx 839 (6th Cir, 2005) 112–13, 180

Baballah v Ashcroft, 367 F 3d 1067, 1075–76 (9th Cir, 2004) 183

Camposeco-Montejo v Ashcroft, 384 F 3d 814 (9th Cir, 2004) 209

Chen v Mayflower Transit Inc (2004) 315 F Supp 2d 886 136

De Souza v INS, 999 F 2d 1156 (7th Cir, 1993)

El Assadi v Holder, 418 Fed Appx 484 (6th Cir, 2011) 485

El Bitar v Ashcroft, 109 Fed Appx 179 (9th Cir, 2004)

El Himri v Ashcroft, 378 F 3d 932 (9th Cir, 2004) 936

Elfarra v Ashcroft, 88 Fed Appx 141 (8th Cir, 2004)

157

135–36, 180, 192

176–77

180, 183

153, 180

Faddoul v INS, 37 F 3d 185 (5th Cir, 1994) 153, 157

Fedosseeva v Gonzales, 492 F 3d 840 (7th Cir, 2007) 96, 139, 151–52

Gebkirstos v Gonzales, 177 Fed Appx 584 (9th Cir, 2006) 585 161–62

Giday v Gonzales, 434 F 3d 543 (7th Cir, 2006) 156, 157, 161, 162

Haile v Gonzales, 421 F 3d 493 (7th Cir, 2005) 125–26, 139, 156, 157, 161

Haile v Holder, 591 F 3d 572 (7th Cir, 2010) 161

Jourbina v Holder, 532 Fed Appx 1 (2nd Cir, 2013) 2 158, 161

Kennedy v Mendoza-Martinez, 372 US 144 (1963) 573

Maharaj v Gonzales, 450 F 3d 961 (9th Cir, 2006) 976

Maksimova v Holder, 361 Fed Appx 690 (6th Cir, 2010)

Marouf v Lynch, 811 F 3d 174 (6th Cir, 2016)

Mengstu v Holder, 560 F 3d 1055 (9th Cir, 2009) 1058

Najjar v Ashcroft, 257 F 3d 1262 (11th Cir, 2001)

Ouda v Immigration and Naturalization Service, 324 F 3d 445 (6th Cir, 2003)

163–64

209

159, 192

173–75

161, 209

153

101–3, 139, 170–71, 175, 180, 183

Paripovic v Gonzales 418 F 3d 240 (3rd Cir, 2005) 244 134–35, 136, 140

Pavlovich v Gonzales, 476 F 3d 613 (8th Cir, 2007) 176

Perez v Brownell (1958) 356 US 44 146, 161

Protsenko v US Attorney General, 149 Fed Appx 947 (11th Cir, 2005) 184–85

Stserba v Holder, 646 F 3d 964 (6th Cir, 2011) 161, 163, 184

Trop v Dulles, 356 US 86 (1958) 161, 163

Urgen v Holder 768 F 3d 269 (2nd Cir, 2014) 273

Zahren v Gonazales, 487 F 3d 1039, 1040 [3] (7th Cir, 2007)

117–18

Table of Legislation

AUSTRALIA

Migration Act 1958, amended from 16 December 2014

s 5(1) 101–3, 191–92

s 5J(5) �

s 36

BANGLADESH

175

108, 189

GERMANY

German Asylum Procedure Act 2008 s 3(1) 139

NEW ZEALAND

Immigration Act 2009 s 131 189

Bangladesh Citizenship Act 2008 111–12

CANADA

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 17 April 1982

s 6(1)

Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, SC 2001

c 27

c 27, s 97(1)

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Constitution of the Dominican Republic 1844

166

205

189

TURKEY

Constitution of the Republic of Turkey 1982

UNITED KINGDOM (UK)

British Nationality Act 1981

s 40(2)

s 40(4)

s 40(4A)

68, 110–11

7–8

78–79

211–12

International Refugee Law and the Protection of Stateless Persons. Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert. © Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert 2019. Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.

Table of Treaties and International and Regional Instruments

Additional Protocol to the Provisional Arrangement and to the Convention (signed at Geneva on 4 July and 10 February 1938) 23

Arab Charter on Human Rights 2004 (Arab Charter 2004)

Art 29 61, 62

Art 29(2) 61

African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (adopted 1 July 1990, entered into force 29 November 1999) (African Children’s Charter)

Art 3

Art 6

69–70

African (Banjul) Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (adopted 27 June 1981, entered into force 21 October 1986) 21 ILM 58 (African Charter) 62–63, 149

Art 3 149

Art 3(2) 69

Art 5 62–63, 69

Art 12(1) 69

American Convention on Human Rights (adopted 22 November 1969, entered into force 19 July 1978) 1144 UNTS 123 (American Convention)

Art 20

57, 61, 68

57, 61, 67

Art 20(1) 149

Art 20(2) 61

Art 20(3) 62

Art 24 65–66

Arrangement with respect to the Issue of Certificates of Identity to Russian Refugees (signed 5 July 1922) 355 LNTS 238 (1922 Arrangement)

Annex

Arrangement relating to the Issue of Identity Certificates to Russian and Armenian Refugees, Supplementing and Amending the Previous Arrangements dated

20–21

July 5, 1922, and May 31, 1924 (signed 12 May 1926) 89 LNTS 47(1926 Arrangement)

Res (2) 21

Arrangement relating to the Legal Status of Russian and Armenian Refugees (signed 30 June 1928, entered into force 5 March 1929) 89 LNTS 53, 55 (1928 Arrangement) 21

Res (2) 21

ASEAN Human Rights Declaration 2012 (ASEAN Human Rights Declaration)

Art 18

Commonwealth of Independent States Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1995 (Commonwealth Convention on Human Rights)

61, 62

Art 24 61

Art 24(2) 62

Constitution of the International Refugee Organization (opened for signature 15 December 1946, entered into force 20 August 1948) 18 UNTS 3 (IRO Constitution)

Preamble

Annex I, Pt 1, s A, Art 1

Annex I, Pt 1, s A, Art 1(a)

Annex I, Pt 1, s A, Art 1(b)

Annex I, Pt 1, s A, Art 1(c)

123–24

25–26

24–25, 134

24–26

24–25

Annex I, Pt 1, s A, Art 2 24–25

Annex I, Pt 1, s B 24–25

Convention on Certain Questions relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws (signed 12 April 1930, entered into force 1 July 1937) 179 LNTS 89 (1930 Hague Convention)

Art 1

Art 2

17, 55, 56, 72–73

104

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force

International Refugee Law and the Protection of Stateless Persons. Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert. © Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert 2019. Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.

Table of Treaties and International and Regional Instruments

3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS

13 (CEDAW)

Art 1

Art 4(1)

Art 9

148, 149

65–66

59–60, 64–65

Convention relating to the International Status of Refugees (signed 28 October 1933, entered into force

13 June 1935) 159 LNTS 3663 (1933 Convention) 22–23

Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (adopted 4 November 1950, entered into force 3 September 1953) 213 UTNS 221 (ECHR)

Art 3

Art 4

62–63, 149, 189–91, 213–14

71–72, 171, 184–85, 189–91, 192, 213–14

190

Art 5(1)(f) 71–72

Art 8 62–63, 70–72, 86–87, 192

Art 13 86

Art 14 65–66, 70–71, 87

Art 19(2) 190

Art 34(1) 190

Art 46 84

Protocol No 1, Art 1

Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (adopted 30 August 1961, entered into force 13 December 1975) 989 UNTS 175 (1961 Convention)

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (adopted 13 December 2006, entered into force 3 May 2008) 2515 UNTS 3 (Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities)

Art 18 59–60, 62

Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954) 189 UNTS 137 (Refugee Convention) 1, 2–3, 5, 6–11, 12–14, 15–18, 31–42, 43–44, 45, 46–47, 48–49, 82, 91, 92–94, 95, 96, 97–98, 99, 100–3, 104, 105, 106–8, 109, 112, 114, 115, 116–17, 118, 119, 122, 125–26, 128, 134, 138, 139, 141–42, 143, 144–46, 149, 155, 160, 161, 162, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, 175, 177–78, 182, 188–90, 192–93, 195–96

Art 1 2–3, 35

Art 1(1) 217–18

Art 1(2)(i)(ii)(iii) 201–2

Art 1A(2) 1–3, 12–13, 64, 99, 103, 125, 129–30, 140, 141–42, 175, 204, 205, 210, 212, 217–18

Art 1C �

�1, 5, 6, 7–8, 47, 51, 52, 62, 72–73, 75–77, 119–20, 158–59, 216

Arts 1–4 59–60

Art 5 158–59

Arts 5–9 62

Art 6 158–59

Art 7 158–59, 196

Art 8

Art 8(1)

Art 8(2)(b)

Art 8(3)

Art 9

196, 212

74–75, 158–59

75–76

212

64–65

Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3 (CRC) 68

Art 2(1) 54

Art 3 59–60

Art 7(1) 54, 59–60

Art 7(2) 59–60

Art 8

79–80

� 13, 109, 129–30, 194, 195, 199–200, 201, 210, 217–18

Art 1C(1) � � � � � � � � 195–96, 197–98, 214–15

Art 1C(2) � � �

Art 1C(3) � �

� 195, 196, 197–98, 214–15

� 195, 196–97, 207, 214–15

Art 1C(4) 195, 197–99, 201, 214–15

Art 1C(5) 195–96, 198–200, 214–15

Art 1C(6) 195, 198–200, 201, 214–15

Art 1D 173–75, 194, 201–4, 205–6, 207–8, 214–15

Art 1E 129–30, 137, 142, 194, 201–2, 204, 207–10, 214–15

Art 1F

Art 1F(a)

Art 1F(b)

Arts 2–34

Art 8

190–91, 194, 201–2, 204, 210, 211–12, 213–15

210, 211

212–13

206

103

Art 12 134–35

Art 12(1) 134–35

Art 15 8–9, 43

Art 17 8–9, 43, 103

Art 31 8–9, 43–44

Art 32 206

Art 33 8–9, 43–44, 192, 206

Art 33(2)

213

Art 34 45

Art 35

Art 35(1)

Art 36

Art 38

8–9, 46

Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (adopted 28 September 1954, entered into force 6 June 1960) 360 UNTS 117 (1954 Convention) 1, 2–3, 5–6, 7–11, 13–14, 15–16, 37, 39, 40–48, 49, 87, 91–92, 94, 95, 97–98, 99, 105, 106–7, 108, 109–10, 112, 114, 116–17,119, 122, 196, 216, 217–18, 219–20

Preamble

Art 1

Art 1(1)

Art 1(2)(i)

42, 95

15–16, 72–73, 105–6, 107–8, 131–32, 196

12–13, 78–79, 104, 122, 130, 217–18

201–2

Art 1(2)(ii) 196

Art 1(2)(i)(ii)(iii) 201–2

Art 15 43

Art 17 43

Art 31 16

Art 32 45

Art 33 16, 47

Art 34

Convention Against Torture (adopted 10 December 1984, entered into force 26 June 1987) 1465 UNTS 85) (CAT)

Art 22(1)

Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 concerning the status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents, COM(2016) 466 final (13 July 2016)

Art 2(3)

189, 190–91, 192

190

Covenant on the Rights of the Child in Islam 2004 (Covenant on the Rights of the Child in Islam)

Art 7 61

Council of Europe Convention on the Avoidance of Statelessness in Relation to State Succession (opened for signature 19 May 2006, entered into force 1 May 2009) CETS 200

Art 1

Art 4

Art 5

Art 11

63, 120–21

Art 11(2) 197–98

Art 13 63

Art 15 63

Art 16 63

Art 25 74–75

Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection and the Content of the Protection Granted (30 September 2004) OJ L 304/12, 15 128, 129–30

Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted (recast) [2011] OJ L 337/9, 13 (Qualification Directive 2011/95/EU) 97, 139, 190, 203

Art 2(d)

Art 2(n)

Art 4(3)(e)

Art 9

Art 9(1)(a)

Art 12

Art 15

96–97, 107, 139–40

107

128

149, 179–80

149

190–91

189

Art 17 190–91, 213–14

European Convention on Nationality 1997 (opened for signature 6 November 1997, entered into force 1st March 2000) E.T.S. No. 166 (ECN) 61–62, 64–65, 75–77

Art 2 52

Art 4

Art 4(b)

Art 4(c)

Art 6(4)(g)

Art 7(1)

Art 7(3)

Art 8(1) 75

Final Act of the Intergovernmental Conference on the Adoption of a Travel Document for Refugees and Agreement relating to the Issue of

Table of Treaties and International and Regional Instruments

a Travel Document to Refugees Who Are the Concern of the Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees (signed 15 October 1946)

150 UNTS 73

Art 1 24

Immigration and Nationality Act 1965 189, 192

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (opened for signature 7 March 1966, entered into force 4 January 1969) 660 UNTS 195 (ICERD)

Art 1(2)

Art 1(3)

Art 1(4)

Art 5

66, 148, 149, 153

88–89

64–65, 148

65–66

64–65

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) (ICCPR) 7–8, 27, 30–31, 58, 62–63, 66, 149, 189–91 preamble 64–65

Art 2 177

Art 2(1) 85

Art 3

Art 12

Art 12(3)

Art 12(4)

Art 13

Art 23

64–65

82–83, 170

168

82, 83–84, 167, 171, 218

175

Art 25 87

Art 26 64–67, 86

Art 27 7–8

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR)

27, 30–31, 85, 87–88, 187

Preamble

Art 2(2)

Art 2(3)

Art 3

London Agreement 1946

64–65

27, 65–66, 85, 188

88, 188

64–65

Protocol No 12 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (entered into force 1 April 2005) ETS 177 (Protocol No 12 to the ECHR)

Preamble 64–65

Art 1 64–66

Protocol relating to a Certain Case of Statelessness (signed 12 April 1930,

entered into force 1 July 1937) 179

LNTS 115

Art 1

Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 31 January 1967, entered into force 4 October 1967) 606 UNTS 267 (1967 Protocol) 2–3, 48–49, 93–94, 97–98, 144–45

Art 1A(2) 1–2

Art 1(2) 95–96

Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171

Art 1

Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)

190

Art 20 76

Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923 7–8

UNGA Res 71/1 (3 October 2016)

UN Doc A/RES/71/1 (New York Declaration) 5

para 11(a) 82

para 42 84

para 58

para 75

United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI

Art 1

7–8

Art 2 7–8, 45

United Nations General Assembly ‘Draft Protocol relating to the Status of Stateless Persons. Draft Final Clauses (Prepared by the Secretariat on the Request of the President of the Conference)’ (19 July 1951) (Draft Protocol on Stateless Persons)

34, 36–39, 40–41, 43, 95, 105–6,44, 46–47, 95, 105–6

United Nations Human Rights Council (UN HRC) Res 32/5 (15 July 2016) UN Doc A/HRC/RES/32/5 (UN HRC Res 32/5) 59–60, 62, 63, 71, 73

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948)

UNGA Res 217 A(III) (UDHR) 27–28, 30–31, 56, 57–58, 61, 62–63

Preamble 64–65

Art 1

Art 7

64–65

Table of Treaties and International and Regional Instruments

Art 10 175

Art 13

Art 15

Art 15(2)

Art 21

27–28, 35, 56, 57, 58, 63

62–63

175

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (opened for signature

23 May 1969, entered into force

27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS

331 (VCLT)

Art 31

Art 31(3)(c)

Art 31(3)I

Art 31(4)

10, 107

10, 106–7

130

107

106–7

1 Statelessness through the Prism of International Refugee Law

The Revival of a Protection Issue

Part 1: Introduction

The protection of refugees and stateless persons has long been understood as a challenge for the international community. However, for decades a focus on refugees has dominated, indeed overshadowed, the plight and protection needs of stateless persons. Yet, as observed by Guy Goodwin-Gill, ‘refugees and stateless persons once walked hand in hand’.1 Indeed, after the First World War ‘their numbers and condition were almost coterminous’2 and in the wake of the Second World War the intention had been to draft a single convention for the protection of both stateless persons and refugees. This historical interlacing is fully captured in Hannah Arendt’s writing on the refugee in The Origins of Totalitarianism, which refers almost entirely to denationalized people, and thus to the de jure stateless.3 However, the consignment of a protection regime for non-refugee stateless persons first to an annex and ultimately to excision from the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (‘Refugee Convention’) undoubtedly contributed to a lack of concentrated effort to address the plight and protection needs of this category of ‘unprotected persons’4 notwithstanding the subsequent formulation of the Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons in 1954 (‘1954 Convention’)5 and the Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness in 1961 (‘1961 Convention’).6

The separation of the international regime for the protection of refugees and stateless persons respectively into two distinct instruments did not, of course, mean that there was no relationship between stateless persons and refugees as a matter of

1 Guy S Goodwin-Gill, ‘The Rights of Refugees and Stateless Persons’ in K P Saksena (ed), Human Rights Perspective and Challenges (Lancers Books 1994) 389.

2 ibid. 3 Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Schocken Books 1951).

4 See the British delegate’s suggestion for the definition of refugee and stateless persons to simply refer to ‘unprotected persons’: Ad Hoc Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems, ‘United Kingdom: Draft Proposal for Article 1’ (17 January 1950) UN Doc E/AC.32/L.2.

5 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (adopted 28 September 1954, entered into force 6 June 1960) 360 UNTS 117 (hereafter 1954 Convention).

6 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (adopted 30 August 1961, entered into force 13 December 1975) 989 UNTS 175.

International Refugee Law and the Protection of Stateless Persons. Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert. © Michelle Foster and Hélène Lambert 2019. Published 2019 by Oxford University Press.

international law. On the contrary, it was recognized in the very text of the Refugee Convention that stateless persons might be entitled to refugee protection. Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Refugee Convention contemplates a refugee as someone with or without a nationality,7 and provides that the country of reference for a person without a nationality is the place of ‘former habitual residence’. Hence, from the outset, stateless persons who are also refugees have been entitled to refugee protection as a matter of international law. Such protection includes the supervisory oversight and guidance provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (‘UNHCR’).

Yet the relationship between the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1954 Convention is radically underexplored and indeed there is scarce scholarly analysis of the capacity of the Refugee Convention to accommodate the subset of stateless persons who are also refugees. To date, statelessness has been examined by law academics through the framework of international statelessness law,8 international human rights law, nationality/citizenship law, and human security.9 Despite a renewed impetus over the past decade in the international community’s focus on stateless persons, attention to the phenomenon of stateless refugees remains inadequate. Although it has had responsibility for stateless refugees since 1950,10 the UNHCR has dedicated very little attention to stateless refugees, at least as a matter of doctrine and international protection.11 Indeed, no systematic argument has been made to date on the application

7 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954) 189 UNTS 137, art 1A(2) (hereafter Refugee Convention); Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (signed 31 January 1967, entered into force 4 October 1967) 606 UNTS 267, art 1A(2).

8 General texts on statelessness scarcely refer to refugee law. For example, a recent monograph by William E Conklin, Statelessness: The Enigma of the International Community (Hart 2014) dedicates half a page to the Refugee Convention: at 143.

9 For a comprehensive review of the literature, see Brad K Blitz and Maureen Lynch (eds), ‘Statelessness and the Benefits of Citizenship: A Comparative Study’ (Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights and the International Observatory on Statelessness 2009) https:// s3.amazonaws.com/ academia.edu.documents/ 35024663/ Blitz_ Lynch_ FINAL_ 08_ Oct_ 2009.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1544145830&Signatu re=E81KW9fqjAH9jEJLPiZ2UMVidIE%3D&response- content- disposition=inline%3B%20 filename%3DStatelessness_and_the_Benefits_of_Citize.pdf> accessed 9 December 2018. See also Alison Kesby, The Right to Have Rights: Citizenship, Humanity, and International Law (OUP 2012); Alice Edwards and Carla Ferstman (eds), Human Security and Non-Citizens: Law, Policy and International Affairs (CUP 2010); Laura van Waas, Nationality Matters: Statelessness under International Law (Intersentia 2008); Alice Edwards and Laura van Waas (eds), Nationality and Statelessness under International Law (CUP 2014); Rhoda E Howard-Hassmann and Margaret Walton-Roberts (eds), The Human Right to Citizenship: A Slippery Concept (University of Pennsylvania Press 2015).

10 The Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (‘UNHCR’) defines the ‘competence of the High Commissioner’ in art 6, and it includes, in A(i), any person who ‘not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence, is unable or, owing to such fear or for reasons other than personal convenience, is unwilling to return to it’: UN General Assembly (UNGA), ‘Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ (14 December 1950) UN Doc A/RES/428(V).

11 There are no specific guidelines issued by the UNHCR relating to stateless refugees and very few of the existing Guidelines on International Protection mention issues particularly pertinent to stateless persons or indeed stateless persons at all as refugees. For example, the ‘Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-Related Persecution within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees’ mention ‘nationality’ as a protected ground but do not discuss gender discrimination in relation to citizenship: (7 May 2002) UN Doc HCR/GIP/ 02/01, para 27. However, more recent Guidelines have begun to address this. The most comprehensive

of the refugee definition in Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Refugee Convention to stateless refugees, in contrast to refugees with a nationality.12

As Maryellen Fullerton observes, the ‘crossroads of statelessness and international refugee law is uncharted territory, and the need for exploring it is urgent’.13

This book thus addresses a critical gap in existing scholarship by examining statelessness through the prism of international refugee law, in particular by examining the extent to which the 1951 Refugee Convention protects de jure stateless persons. It responds to the need for a ‘comprehensive legal framework . . . to ensure that refugee law fully addresses the plight of stateless individuals who fear persecution’.14 The central hypothesis of this book is that the capacity and potential of the 1951 Refugee Convention to protect stateless persons has been inadequately developed and understood. This is particularly so when we consider the significant transformation that has occurred over the past sixty years in delimiting state discretion in matters of nationality, including in relation to the acquisition and deprivation of nationality and the treatment of non-nationals. While it may once have been correct to assume that matters of nationality were outside the realm of international law, the advent of international human rights law in particular has limited sovereignty in this respect. Accordingly, whether a stateless person is also a refugee potentially admits of a very different answer in light of modern international human rights law as compared to 1951.

treatment of the issue is in ‘Guidelines on International Protection: The Application of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees to Victims of Trafficking and Persons at Risk of being Trafficked’: see (7 April 2006) UN Doc HCR/GIP/06/07, pt III. See also UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on International Protection: Child Asylum Claims under Articles 1(A)2 and 1(F) of the 1951 Convention and/or 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees’ (22 December 2009) UN Doc HCR/GIP/09/08, paras 18, 35. Hélène Lambert’s study, commissioned by the UNHCR, would appear to be the first work on this issue: ‘Refugee Status, Arbitrary Deprivation of Nationality, and Statelessness within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees’ (UNHCR Legal and Protection Policy Research Series PPLA/2014/01, October 2014) 58.

12 With the exception of a few country-specific articles and one book written by a practitioner that analyses some components of art 1 of the Refugee Convention as it applies to stateless refugees: Eric Fripp, Nationality and Statelessness in the International Law of Refugee Status (Hart 2016). See also James Hathaway and Michelle Foster, The Law of Refugee Status (2nd edn, CUP 2014) 64–75 (hereafter Hathaway and Foster, The Law of Refugee Status 2); Guy S Goodwin-Gill, ‘Nationality and Statelessness, Residence and Refugee Status: Issues Affecting Palestinians’ (March 1990) <http://repository.forcedmigration.org/show_metadata.jsp?pid=fmo:567>; Kate Darling, ‘Protection of Stateless Persons in International Asylum and Refugee Law’ (2009) 21 IJRL 742; Maryellen Fullerton, ‘Without Protection: Refugees and Statelessness—A Commentary and Challenge’ (Brooklyn Law School Legal Studies Paper No 351, 8 August 2013) (hereafter Fullerton, ‘Without Protection’); Maryellen Fullerton, ‘The Intersection of Statelessness and Refugee Protection in US Asylum Policy’ (2014) 2 JMHS 144; Stewart E Forbes, ‘ “Imagine There’s No Country”: Statelessness as Persecution in Light of Haile II’ (2013) 61 BuffLR 699. See also Audrey Macklin, ‘Who Is the Citizen’s Other? Considering the Heft of Citizenship’ (2007) 8 Theo Inq Law 333.

13 Fullerton, ‘Without Protection’ (n 12) 29. Now appears in Maryellen Fullerton, ‘Comparative Perspectives on Statelessness and Persecution’ (2015) 63 UKanLRev 863, 902 (hereafter Fullerton, ‘Comparative Perspectives on Statelessness and Persecution’).

14 Fullerton, ‘Comparative Perspectives on Statelessness and Persecution’ (n 13) 902.

Part 2: Context and Relevance

This book is primarily concerned with stateless persons on the move between states, or stateless persons who have already moved (and not with the stateless in situ), because it is members of this group who require recognition of their status in order to establish themselves in a new country following a decision to flee. In focusing on this group, we are not attempting to address the plight of the totality of the world’s stateless persons—currently estimated at around ten million15 but rather we examine the potential of stateless persons who are outside their country of former habitual residence to obtain protection as refugees in international law. The total estimated number of this subset of persons affected by statelessness currently stands at over 1.5 million.16 These figures are of course based on conservative estimates given the inherent challenges of identifying and accounting for a group of persons who are sometimes described as ‘invisible’.17 What is clear is that despite recent concerted efforts to respond to the challenge of statelessness, it remains an ongoing problem, with the UNHCR estimating that a child is born into statelessness every ten minutes.18 States continue to invoke denationalization in the ‘war on terror’,19 and to create ‘pockets of populations invisible in the state’s legal self image’,20 particularly in relation to ethnic minorities.21 Further, the potentially devastating consequences of statelessness, particularly for children, are now well documented and understood. These developments are all highly pertinent to an assessment of whether stateless persons can and should be protected within the international refugee regime and

15 The UNHCR estimates that there are at least ten million stateless persons today in the world: Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion, The World’s Stateless (Wolf Legal Publishers 2014) 35, ch 3 (hereafter ISI, The World’s Stateless).

16 ibid, 10.

17 See e.g., Nicoletta Policek, ‘Turning the Invisible into the Visible: Stateless Children in Italy’ in Marisa O Ensor and Elżbieta M Goździak (eds), Children and Forced Migration (Springer 2017) 79. On the challenge of mapping statelessness, see ISI, The World’s Stateless (n 15) 37. The same concept has been applied to statelessness in international law scholarship, see e.g., Will Hanley, ‘Statelessness: An Invisible Theme in the History of International Law’ (2014) 25 EJIL 321.

18 UNHCR, ‘I Am Here, I Belong: The Urgent Need to End Childhood Statelessness’ (November 2015) 1 (hereafter UNCHR, ‘I Am Here, I Belong’).

19 As Matthew Gibney observes, ‘in recent years, denationalization powers have gained increasing intellectual and political attention as many liberal states have created new laws or enforced old ones to strip citizenship from individuals involved with terrorism’: Matthew J Gibney, ‘Denationalization’ in Ayelet Shachar, Rainer Bauböck, Irene Bloemraad, and Maarten Vink (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship (OUP 2017) 358, 359.

20 Noora A Lori, ‘Statelessness, “In-Between” Statutes and Precarious Citizenship’ in Ayelet Shachar, Rainer Bauböck, Irene Bloemraad, and Maarten Vink (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship (OUP 2017) 743, 748.

21 See UNHCR, ‘ “This is Our Home”: Stateless Minorities and their Search for Citizenship’ (November 2017). In July 2018 it was reported that, ‘[a]bout 4 million people who live in the Indian border state of Assam have been excluded from a draft list of citizens, as Bengali-speaking Muslims fear they will be sent to detention centres or deported’: Amrit Dhillon, ‘India: 4 Million Excluded from Assam’s Draft List of Citizens’ The Guardian (London, 30 July 2018) <www.theguardian.com/ world/2018/jul/30/four-million-excluded-from-indian-states-assam-draft-list-of-citizens> accessed 4 August 2018.