General rationale for the Book
As teachers, we play critical roles in the lives of children and adolescents. Some of us help them learn to read and write. Some of us help them understand their physical and social worlds through explorations of science, mathematics, geography, history, or literature. Some of us help
them express themselves through physical movement, the visual arts, or music. And some of us teach them specific skills they will need as adult professionals in, say, auto mechanics, cooking, or computer technology. But regardless of the subject matter we teach, we help those in the generations that follow us to become knowledgeable, self-confident, and productive citizens.
In my mind, teaching is the most rewarding profession we could possibly choose. Yet it’s often a challenging profession as well. Students don’t always come to us ready or eager to learn classroom subject matter. How can we help them develop the knowledge and skills they need to become productive adults? What strategies can we use to motivate them? What tasks and instructional materials are appropriate for students at different developmental levels? Over the years, researchers and practitioners have worked together to answer such questions. Collectively, we’re in the fortunate position of being able to benefit from the many insights that such experts offer.
I’ve been teaching educational psychology since 1974, and I’ve loved every minute of it. How children and adolescents learn and think, how they change as they grow and develop, why they do the things they do, how they’re often very different from one another—our understandings of all of these things have innumerable implications for classroom practice and, ultimately, for the lives of young people.
In this and the previous eight editions, I’ve written this textbook in much the same way that I’ve taught my college classes. Because I want the field of educational psychology to captivate you the way it has captivated me, I’ve tried to make the book interesting, meaningful, and thoughtprovoking as well as informative. I have a definite philosophy about how future teachers can best learn and apply educational psychology, and this philosophy has guided me as I’ve written every edition. In particular, I believe that human learners of all ages actively construct their own understandings of what they read in textbooks—an idea reflected in the puzzle-piece motif you’ll see throughout the book.
Helping Our readers learn and apply educational Psychology
You can gain much more from your study of educational psychology when you:
• Focus on core concepts and principles of the discipline
• See these principles in action in your own learning and behavior
• Use the principles to understand the learning and behavior of children and adolescents
• Consistently apply the principles to classroom practice
You’ll find numerous features throughout the book to help you do all of these things. We authors hope you’ll learn a great deal from what educational psychology has to offer, not only about the students you may be teaching but also about yourself.
Focusing on c ore c oncepts an D p rinciples
Rather than superficially explore every aspect of educational psychology, this book zeroes in on fundamental concepts and principles that have broad applicability to classroom practice. Throughout the book, core concepts appear in boldfaced blue font. Core principles are clearly identified in sections labeled “Basic Principles” or “Basic Assumptions” and then often summarized in Principles/Assumptions tables. Each table includes educational implications and concrete examples. See the following pages for some examples: 42, 195, and 270.
s eeing c oncepts an D p rinciples in a ction in Your o wn l earning
A central goal of this book has always been to help our readers discover more about themselves as thinkers and learners. Thus we include Experiencing Firsthand exercises throughout the book—exercises that illustrate such diverse concepts as constructive processes, working memory, sense of self, social cognition, ethnic stereotyping, and confidentiality in assessment. All of these exercises are designed to do exactly what their name implies: help our readers observe principles of educational psychology in themselves. See the following pages for some examples: 132, 194, and 199.
u n D erstan D ing c hil D ren’s an D aD olescents’ l
earning an D Behavior
Throughout the book we continually urge our readers to look closely at and try to make sense of what children and adolescents do and say. Each chapter begins with a Case Study that situates chapter content in a real-life scenario; for instance, see page 191. We also make frequent use of real artifacts from children’s journals and school assignments to illustrate concepts and principles in action. For examples, see pages 54, 203, and 356.
e xamining Developmental t ren D s
Unique to this book is a focus on children’s and adolescents’ development in every chapter. For example, Chapters 2 through 4 and 6 through 15 all have one or more Developmental Trends tables that summarize age-typical characteristics at four grade levels (K–2, 3–5, 6–8, and 9–12), present concrete examples, and offer suggested classroom strategies for each level. You can find three of these tables on pages 210, 289, and 491.
a pplY ing c ore iD eas o F eD ucational p s Y cholog Y to c lassroom p ractice
Throughout this text, psychological concepts and principles are consistently applied to classroom practice. We also provide Into the Classroom and Creating a Productive Classroom Environment boxes that suggest and illustrate strategies related to particular areas of concern for teachers. You can find three such features on pages 131, 242, and 416.
This book is consistently praised for its emphasis on application. Throughout the book we identify suggested strategies—within the text, in tables, and in the margins—with apple icons; for instance, see pages 47 and 50.
h elping You p repare F or l icensure
All chapters end with Practice for Your Licensure Exam exercises. These exercises provide readers with opportunities to use the content they’ve learned in a particular chapter to answer multiplechoice and constructed-response questions similar to those that appear on many teacher licensure tests. Three of these exercises are on pages 113, 188, and 341.
ancillary materials
The following resources are available for instructors to download on www.pearsonglobaleditions .com/ormrod
i nstructor’s r esource m anual
An Instructor’s Resource Manual includes suggestions for learning activities, additional Experiencing Firsthand exercises, supplementary lectures, case study analyses, discussion topics, group activities, and additional media resources.
p ower p oint ® s li D es
The PowerPoint slides include key concept summarizations, diagrams, and other graphic aids to enhance learning. They are designed to help students understand, organize, and remember core concepts and theories.
t est Bank
I (Jeanne Ormrod) have personally written many of the test questions in the Test Bank that accompanies the book; Test Bank coauthors have added new ones to reflect the updates to the eighth and ninth editions. Some items (lower-level questions) simply ask students to identify or explain concepts and principles they have learned. But many others (higher-level questions) ask students to apply those same concepts and principles to specific classroom situations—that is, to actual
student behaviors and teaching strategies. Ultimately it is these higher-level questions that assess students’ ability to use principles of educational psychology in their own teaching practice.
t est g en
TestGen is a powerful test generator that you install on your computer and use in conjunction with the TestGen test bank file for your text. Assessments, including equations, graphs, and scientific notation, may be created for both print and online testing.
TestGen is available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. You install TestGen on your personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for your use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material.
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:
TestGen Test bank file—MAC
TestGen Test bank file—PC
Angel TestGen Conversion
Test Bank for Blackboard Learning System
Desire to Learn TestGen Conversion
Moodle TestGen Conversion
Sakai TestGen Conversion
Test Bank for Blackboard CE/Vista
acknowledgments
I’ve been fortunate to have had a great deal of help in writing the many editions of this book. First and foremost, the book wouldn’t be what it is today without long-term partnerships with my editor and publisher, Kevin Davis. Kevin first came on board as developmental editor for the book in 1989 and, except for a 2-year hiatus while he served in other roles at Pearson, has continued to guide the book through its multiple iterations, first only in paper and now in the ever-changing digital world. Although Kevin hasn’t penned the words, his influence permeates every page of text and every activity. His ideas, suggestions, and occasional gentle demands have consistently pushed and stretched me to new heights in my efforts to create the best possible pedagogical experience for readers.
My coauthors and I are also deeply indebted to developmental editor Gail Gottfried, who has kept all three of us on course, reminding us of our long-term targets and nudging us ever closer to those targets. Whereas authors can sometimes get lost in the nitpicky details of a monumental writing task such as this one, Gail has an amazing ability to direct our attention simultaneously to both the specific trees and the overall forest of which each one is a part. Especially with two new authors coming on board, Gail has gone way, way, way beyond the call of duty this time around. I hope that she is finally finding the time to sit back and relax with a big glass of wine as she celebrates the book’s final arrival on the scene.
Three other critical players have been project managers Lauren Carlson, Pam Bennett, and Norine Strang, who have expertly organized and overseen the countless steps involved in transforming our word-processed manuscripts and rough sketches into the finished product you see before you. In this high-tech day and age, publishing a book is a very complicated process that I’m grateful they know how to complete. Many thanks, too, to Raye Lakey, who has created all of the Self-Check Quizzes and some of the new Application Exercises in MyEducationLab. In fact, she took charge of the overall media plan for Chapters 4, 5, 10, 11, and 13 and created all of the Application Exercises for those chapters.
In addition, numerous colleagues across the nation have strengthened the book itself by reviewing one or more of its previous versions. Reviewers for the first eight editions were Jane Abraham, Virginia Tech University; Joyce Alexander, Indiana University; Eric M. Anderman, then at University of Kentucky; Linda M. Anderson, Michigan State University; Margaret D. Anderson, SUNY–Cortland; Cindy Ballantyne, Northern Arizona University; J. C. Barton,
Tennessee Technical University; Timothy A. Bender, Southwest Missouri State University; Angela Bloomquist, California University of Pennsylvania; Phyllis Blumenfeld, University of Michigan; Gregory Braswell, Illinois State University; Kathy Brown, University of Central Oklahoma; Randy L. Brown, University of Central Oklahoma; Stephen L. Benton, Kansas State University; Karen L. Block, University of Pittsburgh; Kathryn J. Biacindo, California State University–Fresno; Barbara Bishop, Eastern New Mexico University; Robert Braswell, Winthrop College; Kay S. Bull, Oklahoma State University; Margaret W. Cohen, University of Missouri–St. Louis; Theodore Coladarci, University of Maine; Sharon Cordell, Roane State Community College; Roberta Corrigan, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Richard D. Craig, Towson State University; José Cruz, Jr., The Ohio State University; David Yun Dai, SUNY–University at Albany; Peggy Dettmer, Kansas State University; Joan Dixon, Gonzaga University; Leland K. Doebler, University of Montevallo; Kellah Edens, University of South Carolina; Catherine Emilhovich, SUNY–Buffalo; Joanne B. Engel, Oregon State University; Kathy Farber, Bowling Green State University; William R. Fisk, Clemson University; Victoria Fleming, Miami University of Ohio; M. Arthur Garmon, Western Michigan University; Roberta J. Garza, Pan American University–Brownsville; Mary Gauvain, University of California–Riverside; Sister Nancy Gilchriest, St. Joseph’s College; Nathan Gonyea, SUNY–Oneonta; Cheryl Greenberg, University of North Carolina–Greensboro; Richard Hamilton, University of Houston; Jennifer Mistretta Hampston, Youngstown State University; Ken Hay, Indiana University; Arthur Hernandez, University of Texas–San Antonio; Lynley Hicks, University of Missouri-Kansas City; Heather Higgins, University of North Carolina—Greensboro; Frederick C. Howe, Buffalo State College; Peggy Hsieh, University of Texas–San Antonio; Dinah Jackson, University of Northern Colorado; Janina M. Jolley, Clarion University of Pennsylvania; Caroline Kaczala, Cleveland State University; CarolAnne M. Kardash, University of Missouri–Columbia; Pamela Kidder-Ashley, Appalachian State University; Kenneth Kiewra, University of Nebraska–Lincoln; Nancy F. Knapp, University of Georgia; Mary Lou Koran, University of Florida; Randy Lennon, University of Northern Colorado; Howard Lloyd, University of Kentucky; Susan C. Losh, Florida State University; Pamela Manners, Troy State University; Hermine H. Marshall, San Francisco State University; Teresa McDevitt, University of Northern Colorado; Sharon McNeely, Northeastern Illinois University; Michael Meloth, University of Colorado–Boulder; Kelly S. Mix, Michigan State University; Bruce P. Mortenson, Louisiana State University; Janet Moursund, University of Oregon; P. Karen Murphy, The Pennsylvania State University; Gary A. Negin, California State University; Joe Olmi, The University of Southern Mississippi; Helena Osana, Concordia University; James Persinger, Emporia State University; Judy Pierce, Western Kentucky University; James R. Pullen, Central Missouri State University; Gary F. Render, University of Wyoming; Robert S. Ristow, Western Illinois University; Jeff Sandoz, University of Louisiana—Lafayette; Rolando Santos, California State University—Los Angeles; Gregg Schraw, University of Nebraska–Lincoln; Dale H. Schunk, University of North Carolina—Greensboro; Mark Seng, University of Texas; Glenn E. Snelbecker, Temple University; Johnna Shapiro, University of California–Davis; Kenneth Springer, Southern Methodist University; Harry L. Steger, Boise State University; Bruce Torff, Hofstra University; Ann Turnbull, University of Kansas; Julianne C. Turner, University of Notre Dame; Tina Van Prooyen, Heartland Community College; Enedina Vazquez, New Mexico State University; Courtney Vorell, Minnesota School of Business; Alice A. Walker, SUNY–Cortland; Mary Wellman, Rhode Island College; Jane A. Wolfle, Bowling Green State University; Ya-Shu Yang, University of Nebraska–Lincoln; and Karen Zabrucky, Georgia State University.
Coming on board for the ninth edition were these reviewers, who offered helpful suggestions now reflected in the book: E. Namisi Chilungu, Georgia State University; Darlene DeMarie, University of South Florida; Beverly K. McIntyre, University of North Carolina–Charlotte; Joseph Pizzillo, Rowan University; Thomas R. Scheira, SUNY–Buffalo; and Julia Yoo, Lamar University. Some of our own students and teacher interns—especially Jenny Bressler, Kathryn Broadhead, Ryan Francoeur, Gerry Holly, Michele Minichiello, Shelly Lamb, Kim Sandman, Melissa Tillman, Nick Valente, and Brian Zottoli—have at one time or another agreed to let us use their interviews, essays, and experiences as examples. Teachers and administrators at schools both home and abroad (including two of my own children, now teachers themselves) have allowed us to share their strategies with our readers; we thank Liz Birnam, Berneen Bratt, Tom Carroll, Barbara Dee, Jackie Filion, Tina Ormrod Fox, Sarah Gagnon, Dinah Jackson, Sheila Johnson, Don Lafferty,
Gary MacDonald, Sharon McManus, Linda Mengers, Mark Nichols, Jeff Ormrod, Ann Reilly, and Gwen Ross. The Andermans are particularly grateful to two of their graduate students, Megan Sanders and Alyssa Emery, who assisted them with several administrative tasks in the preparation of their chapters.
Many young people, too, deserve thanks for letting us use their work. In particular, I want to acknowledge the contributions of the following present and former elementary and secondary school students: Andrew and Katie Belcher; Noah and Shea Davis; Zachary Derr; Amaryth, Andrew, and Anthony Gass; Ben and Darcy Geraud; Dana Gogolin; Colin Hedges; Erin Islo; Charlotte Jeppsen; Laura Linton; Michael McShane; Frederik Meissner; Alex, Jeff, and Tina Ormrod; Patrick Paddock; Isabelle Peters; Cooper Remignanti; Ian Rhoads; David and Laura Riordan; Corey and Trisha Ross; Ashton and Haley Russo; Alex and Connor Sheehan; Matt and Melinda Shump; Andrew Teplitz; Emma Thompson; Grace Tober; Grant Valentine; Caroline and Hannah Wilson; and Geoff Wuehrmann.
Last but certainly not least, the Andermans and I must thank our families, who have forgiven our countless hours spent either buried in our books and journals or else glued to our computers. Without their continuing understanding and support, this ninth edition would never have seen the light of day.
J. E. O.
For their contributions to the Global Edition, Pearson would like to thank Alizeh Batra Merchant, New York University Abu Dhabi; Sivanes Phillipson, Monash University; and Tarryn Brown, Bryanwood Therapy Centre, Johannesburg; and for their review of the content, Sivanes Phillipson, Monash University; Alizeh Batra Merchant, New York University Abu Dhabi; Ashum Gupta; and Catherine Wing Chee So, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Contents
1 Teaching and Educational Psychology 22
case study: the “no D” policy 23 teaching as evidence-Based practice 24
understanding and interpreting research Findings 26
Quantitative research 26
Qualitative research 29
mixed-methods research 30 interpreting research results: a cautionary note 31 From research to practice: the importance of principles and theories 31 collecting Data and Drawing conclusions about Your own students 33 assessing students’ achievements and interpreting their classroom Behaviors 33 conducting action research 33
Developing as a teacher 34 strategies for studying and learning effectively 36
p art i
d evel OP men T and d iversi T y
2 Cognitive and Linguistic Development 40
case study: apple tarts 41
general principles of human Development 42 the multiple layers of environmental influence: Bioecological systems and the importance of culture 43
role of the Brain in learning and Development 45 piaget’s theory of cognitive Development 47
piaget’s Basic assumptions 49
piaget’s proposed stages of cognitive Development 50 critiquing piaget’s theory 55 considering Diversity From the perspective of piaget’s theory 56
contemporary extensions and applications of piaget’s theory 56
vygotsky’s theory of cognitive Development 59 vygotsky’s Basic assumptions 59 critiquing vygotsky’s theory 62 considering Diversity from the perspective of vygotsky’s theory 63
contemporary extensions and applications of vygotsky’s theory 63 contrasting piaget’s and vygotsky’s theories 67 language Development 68 theoretical issues regarding language Development 68
Diversity in language Development 70 second-language learning and english language learners 71
3
Personal and Social Development 76
case study: hidden treasure 77 personality Development 78 temperament 78 environmental influences on personality Development 78 the “Big Five” personality traits 81 temperament, personality, and goodness of Fit 82
Development of a sense of self 82
Factors influencing sense of self 83
Developmental changes in sense of self 84
Diversity in sense of self 87
Development of peer relationships and interpersonal understandings 89 roles of peers in children’s Development 89 common social groups in childhood and adolescence 91 popularity and social isolation 93 social cognition 94 aggression 97
technology and peer relationships 98
Diversity in peer relationships and social cognition 99 promoting healthy peer relationships 100
moral and prosocial Development 103
Developmental trends in morality and prosocial Behavior 103
Factors influencing moral and prosocial Development 107
Diversity in moral and prosocial Development 108 encouraging moral and prosocial Development at school 109
4 Group Differences 116
case study: why Jack wasn’t in school 117 cultural and ethnic Differences 119
navigating Different cultures at home and at school 120 examples of cultural and ethnic Diversity 121 creating a culturally inclusive classroom environment 126 gender Differences 132 research Findings regarding gender Differences 132 origins of gender Differences 135 making appropriate accommodations for gender Differences 137 socioeconomic Differences 138 challenges associated with poverty 139 Fostering resilience 141 working with homeless students 142 students at risk 143 characteristics of students at risk 143 why students Drop out 144 supporting students at risk 144
5 Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs 148
case study: tim 149 intelligence 149 theoretical perspectives of intelligence 150 measuring intelligence 154 nature and nurture in the Development of intelligence 156 cultural and ethnic Diversity in intelligence 157 Being smart about intelligence and iQ scores 157 cognitive styles and Dispositions 159 Do students have Distinct learning styles? 159 Does it make sense to teach to students’ “right Brains” or “left Brains”? 160 analytic and holistic thinking 160
educating students with special needs in general education classrooms 161 public law 94-142: individuals with Disabilities education act (iDea) 162 potential Benefits and Drawbacks of inclusion 163 identifying students’ special needs: response to intervention and people-First language 164 students with specific cognitive or academic Difficulties 165 learning Disabilities 165 attention-Deficit hyperactivity Disorder (aDhD) 168 speech and communication Disorders 170 general recommendations 172
students with social or Behavioral problems 172 emotional and Behavioral Disorders 172 autism spectrum Disorders 175 general recommendations 176
students with general Delays in cognitive and social Functioning 177 intellectual Disabilities 177 students with physical or sensory challenges 179 physical and health impairments 179 visual impairments 180 hearing loss 181 general recommendations 182 students with advanced cognitive Development 183 giftedness 183
considering Diversity when identifying and addressing special needs 185
general recommendations for working with students who have special needs 186
p art ii l earnin G and mOT iva T i O n
6 Learning, Cognition, and Memory 190
case study: Bones 191
Basic assumptions of cognitive psychology 192 a model of human memory 195 the nature of the sensory register 196 moving information to working memory: the role of attention 197 the nature of working (short-term) memory 198 moving information to long-term memory: connecting new information with prior knowledge 199
the nature of long-term memory 200 learning, memory, and the Brain 200 critiquing the three-component model 201 long-term memory storage 201 how knowledge can Be organized 203 how Declarative knowledge is learned 205 how procedural knowledge is learned 209 roles of prior knowledge and working memory in long-term memory storage 211 encouraging a meaningful learning set and conceptual understanding 212 using mnemonics in the absence of relevant prior knowledge 213 when knowledge construction goes awry: addressing learners’ misconceptions 215 obstacles to conceptual change 217 promoting conceptual change 218 long-term memory retrieval 219 Factors affecting retrieval 220 why learners sometimes Forget 224 Diversity in cognitive processes 226
Facilitating cognitive processing in students with special needs 226
7 Complex Cognitive Processes 232
case study: taking over 233 metacognition and learning strategies 234 effective learning strategies 234
Factors affecting strategy use 239 metacognitive strategies in the Digital age 243 Diversity, Disabilities, and exceptional abilities in metacognition 244 transfer 245
Factors affecting transfer 247 problem solving 250 problem encoding 252 problem-solving strategies: algorithms and heuristics 253 working memory and problem solving 254 metacognition in problem solving 255 using computer technology to teach problem-solving skills 255 creativity 256
Fostering creativity 258 critical thinking 259
Fostering critical thinking 261
Diversity in creativity, critical thinking, and other complex cognitive processes 263 accommodating students with special needs 264
8
Learning and Cognition in Context 268
case study: it’s all in how You look at things 269 Basic assumptions of contextual theories 270 social interactions as contexts 273 interactions with more advanced individuals 273 interactions with peers 274 creating a community of learners 275 cultures as contexts 276 schemas, scripts, and worldviews as aspects of culture 277 communities of practice as aspects of culture 279 society and technology as contexts 280 authentic activities 280 technological innovations 282 academic content Domains as contexts 285 literacy 286 mathematics 294 science 296 social studies 300 taking student Diversity into account 303
9 Behaviorist Views of Learning 308
case study: the attention getter 309 Basic assumptions of Behaviorism 309 Building on existing stimulus–response associations: classical conditioning 311 classical conditioning of involuntary emotional responses 313 common phenomena in classical conditioning 313 addressing counterproductive emotional responses 314 learning from consequences: instrumental conditioning 314 contrasting classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning 315 the various Forms that reinforcement can take 316 the various Forms that punishment can take 321 strategies for encouraging productive Behaviors 324 using reinforcement effectively 324 shaping new Behaviors 329 Bringing antecedent stimuli and responses into the picture 330 strategies for Discouraging undesirable Behaviors 331 creating conditions for extinction 332 cueing inappropriate Behaviors 332 reinforcing incompatible Behaviors 332 using punishment when necessary 333
addressing especially Difficult classroom Behaviors 334 applied Behavior analysis 334
Functional analysis 335
positive Behavioral interventions and supports 336
Diversity in student Behaviors and reactions to consequences 337 accommodating students with special needs 339
10 Social Cognitive Views of Learning 342
case study: parlez-vous Français? 343
Basic assumptions of social cognitive theory 343 the social cognitive view of reinforcement and punishment 345 modeling 348
Behaviors and skills that can Be learned through modeling 349 characteristics of effective models 350 essential conditions for successful modeling 351 self-efficacy 353 how self-efficacy affects Behavior and cognition 354 Factors in the Development of self-efficacy 355 teacher self-efficacy 358 self-regulation 359 self-regulated Behavior 360 self-regulated learning 365 self-regulated problem solving 367
Diversity in self-regulation 368 revisiting reciprocal causation 372 comparing theoretical perspectives of learning 374
11 Motivation and Affect 378
case study: passing algebra 379 the nature of motivation 380 intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation 381 early views of Basic human needs 384 arousal 385 cognitive and sociocultural Factors in motivation 385 expectancies and values 386 interests 387 self-Determination theory 388
Diversity in addressing needs 394 attributions 396 goals 400 mindsets 406
Diversity in cognitive and sociocultural Factors affecting motivation 408
effects of teacher attributions and expectations on students’ motivation 413 how teacher attributions and expectations affect students’ achievement 414 a targets mnemonic for remembering motivational strategies 416 affect and its effects 418 how affect and motivation are interrelated 418 anxiety in the classroom 420 Diversity in affect 425 motivating students in any environment 427
p art iii
c lassr OO m sT ra T e G ies
12 Instructional Strategies 432
case study: westward expansion 433 general principles that can guide instruction 434 planning for instruction 436 identifying the goals of instruction 437 conducting a task analysis 441 Developing a lesson plan 442 creating a class website to share goals and Facilitate communication throughout the school Year 443
teacher-Directed instructional strategies 444 presenting new material through traditional expository methods: lectures and textbooks 444 asking Questions and giving Feedback 446 providing practice through in-class assignments 447 giving homework 448 conducting Direct instruction 449 promoting mastery 450 using instructional websites 452 using technology to individualize instruction 453
learner-Directed instructional strategies 454 stimulating and guiding class Discussions 454 conducting reciprocal teaching sessions 456 conducting Discovery and inquiry activities 458 using technology-Based simulations and games 459 conducting cooperative learning activities 462 structuring peer tutoring sessions 465 conducting technology-Based collaborative learning activities 468
taking instructional goals and student Diversity into account 468
considering group Differences 470 accommodating students with special needs 471
13 Creating a Productive Learning Environment 476
case study: a contagious situation 477
creating a setting conducive to learning 477 arranging the classroom 479 establishing and maintaining productive teacher–student relationships 480 creating an effective psychological climate 482 setting limits 484
planning activities that keep students on task 487
monitoring what students are Doing 489 modifying instructional strategies 490 taking Developmental Differences into account 490 taking individual and group Differences into account 490
expanding the sense of community Beyond the classroom 495 working with other Faculty members 495 working with the community at large 496 working with parents 496
Dealing with misbehaviors 500 ignoring certain Behaviors 501 cueing students 502
Discussing problems privately with students 502 teaching self-regulation skills 504 conferring with parents 504 conducting planned, systematic interventions 506 taking students’ cultural Backgrounds into account 508
addressing aggression and violence at school 509 a three-level approach 510 addressing gang-related problems 512
14 Classroom Assessment Strategies 516
case study: the math test 517 the many Forms and purposes of assessment 518 guiding instructional Decision making 520
Determining what students have learned from instruction 520 evaluating the Quality of instruction 521
Diagnosing learning and performance problems 521 promoting learning 522
enhancing learning through ongoing assessments and regular Feedback 524
including students in the assessment process 526 using Digital technologies in Formative assessment 527
important Qualities of good assessments 528 reliability 528
standardization 530 validity 530 practicality 535
assessing students’ progress and achievement Both informally and Formally 536
informally observing students’ Behaviors 536 using paper–pencil assessments 538 using performance assessments 546 additional considerations in Formal assessment 551
taking student Diversity into account in classroom assessments 555 accommodating group Differences 556 accommodating students with special needs 556
15 Summarizing Students’ Achievements and Abilities 560
case study: B in history 561
summarizing the results of a single assessment 562 raw scores 562
criterion-referenced scores 562 norm-referenced scores 563 using criterion-referenced versus norm-referenced scores in the classroom 567
Determining Final class grades 568 considering—or not considering—other Factors in grading 571 including students in the grading process 573 using portfolios 573 types and purposes of portfolios 574
Benefits and limitations of portfolios 575 helping students construct portfolios 575 standardized tests 577 types of standardized tests 577
individual versus group administration of standardized tests 579
guidelines for choosing and using standardized tests 579
interpreting standardized test scores 582 high-stakes testing and teacher accountability 584 the u s no child left Behind act 585
problems with high-stakes testing 585 productive steps Forward in high-stakes testing 587 taking student Diversity into account 588 cultural Bias in test content 589
cultural and ethnic Differences 590 language Differences and english language learners 590
accommodating students with special needs 591 confidentiality and communication about assessment results 593
communicating assessment results to students and parents 594
Appendix A: Describing Associations with Correlation Coefficients 598
Appendix B: Determining Reliability and Predictive Validity 600
Appendix C: Matching Book and MyEdLab Content to the Praxis® Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests 603
Glossary 626
References 638
Name Index 751
Subject Index 767
Learning Outcomes
1.1 Explain the importance of research in classroom decision making.
1.2 Draw appropriate conclusions from different types of research studies.
1.3 Describe several strategies for collecting information about your own students.
1.4 Plan long-term strategies for gaining expertise as a teacher.
1.5 Use effective strategies when you read and study.
Moodboard
Case s tudy: t he “No d ” Poli C y
Anne Smith is a ninth-grade English teacher with 10 years of teaching experience, and by all accounts she is an excellent teacher. Even so, in previous years many of her students haven’t invested much time or energy in their writing assignments and seemingly haven’t been bothered by the Cs and Ds they’ve eventually earned in her classes. In an effort to more fully engage this year’s students in their schoolwork, Ms. Smith begins fall semester by initiating two new policies. First, to pass her course, students must earn at least a C; she won’t give anyone a final grade of D. Second, students will have multiple opportunities to revise and resubmit assignments; she’ll give whatever feedback students need—and, if necessary, one-onone instruction—to help them improve their work. She solicits students’ questions and concerns about the new policies, gains their agreement to “try something new,” and engages them in a discussion of specific, concrete characteristics of A-quality, B-quality, and C-quality work. Then, as the semester progresses, she regularly administers brief surveys to get students’ feedback about her innovations, asking such questions as “How is the ’no D’ working for you?” “Do you think your grade is an accurate reflection of your learning?” and “Any suggestions?”
Students’ responses on the surveys are overwhelmingly positive. Students mention noticeable improvements in the quality of their writing and increasingly report that they believe themselves to be in control of both their learning and their grades. Furthermore, they begin to see their teacher in a new light—“as one who will help them achieve their best work, not as one who just gives out grades . . . as a coach encouraging them along the long race of learning.” Final course grades also confirm the value of the new policies: A much higher percentage of students earn grades of C or better than has been true in past years. (Action research project described in A. K. Smith, 2009.)
• Effective teachers don’t simply transmit new information and skills to students; they also work hard to help students master the information and skills. In the case study just presented, what various strategies does Ms. Smith use to foster her students’ writing development?
Teaching other people—especially teaching the generation that will follow you into the adult world—can be one of the most rewarding professions on the planet. It can also be a very challenging profession. Certainly effective teaching involves presenting a topic or skill in such a way that students can understand and master it. Yet it involves many other
Cha PTE r O UTL in E
Teaching as Evidence-Based Practice
Understanding and Interpreting Research Findings
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Mixed-Methods Research
Interpreting Research Results: A Cautionary Note
From Research to Practice: The Importance of Principles and Theories
Collecting Data and Drawing Conclusions about Your Own Students
Assessing Students’ Achievements and Interpreting Their Classroom Behaviors
Conducting Action Research
Developing as a Teacher
Strategies for Studying and Learning Effectively
The brain’s structure, functioning, and development are discussed in Chapter 2 and in Applying Brain Research features throughout the book.
things as well. For instance, teachers must motivate students to want to learn the subject matter, must help students recognize what true mastery involves, and—in order to appropriately individualize instruction—must assess each student’s progress in his or her learning and development. And, in general, effective teachers create an environment in which students believe that if they work hard and have reasonable support, they can achieve at high levels. In the opening case study, Anne Smith does all of these things.
Mastering the multifaceted nature of teaching takes time and practice, of course. But it also takes knowledge about human learning and motivation, developmental trends, individual and group differences, and effective classroom practices. Such topics are the domain of educational psychology This book will help you understand children and adolescents—how they learn and develop, how they’re likely to be similar to but also different from one another, what topics and activities are apt to engage them in the classroom, and so on. It will also give you a toolbox of strategies for planning and carrying out instruction, creating an environment that keeps students motivated and on task, and assessing students’ progress and achievement.
Teaching as Evidence-Based Practice
You yourself have been a student for many years now, and in the process you’ve undoubtedly learned a great deal about how children change over time and about how teachers can foster their learning and development. But exactly how much do you know? To help you find out, we authors offer a short pretest, Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS).
Exp E ri E ncing Firsthand
Ormr O d’s Own p sy C h O l O gi C al s urvey (OO ps )
Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.
True False 1. Some children are predominantly left-brain thinkers, whereas others are predominantly right-brain thinkers.
True False 2. Children’s personalities are largely the results of their home environments.
True False 3. Instruction is most effective when it is tailored to students’ individual learning styles.
True False 4. The best way to learn and remember a new fact is to repeat it over and over.
True False 5. Students often misjudge how much they know about a topic.
True False 6. Anxiety sometimes helps students learn and perform more successfully in the classroom.
True False 7. Playing video games can enhance children’s cognitive development and school achievement.
True False 8. The ways in which teachers assess students’ learning influence what and how students actually learn.
Following are the correct answers to each item, along with an explanation regarding why it is true or false.
1. Some children are predominantly left-brain thinkers, whereas others are predominantly right-brain thinkers. FALSE. With the development of new medical technologies in recent years, researchers have learned a great deal about how the human brain works and which parts of it specialize in which aspects of human thinking. The two halves, or hemispheres, of the brain do seem to have somewhat different specialties, but they continually communicate and collaborate in tackling even the simplest of daily tasks. For all intents and purposes, there’s no such thing as left-brain or right-brain thinking (Bressler, 2002; M. I. Posner & Rothbart, 2007).
2. Children’s personalities are largely the results of their home environments. FALSE. Certainly children’s home environments mold their behaviors to some extent, but so, too, can teachers and other people outside the family have some influence (e.g., Morelli & Rothbaum, 2007).
Furthermore, inherited characteristics have a significant impact on children’s personalities. From day 1 infants are noticeably different in the extent to which they’re calm or fussy, shy or outgoing, fearful or adventurous, and attentive or easily distractible. Such differences in temperament appear to have their roots in biology and genetics, and they persist throughout the childhood years and into adulthood (Kagan & Snidman, 2007; Keogh, 2003; Rothbart, 2011).
3. Instruction is most effective when it is tailored to students’ individual learning styles . FALSE. Contrary to a popular belief, most measures of supposed “learning styles” merely reflect students’ self-reported preferences, and tailoring instruction to such preferences doesn’t noticeably enhance students’ learning or academic achievement (Kirschner & van Merriënboer, 2013; Kozhevnikov, Evans, & Kosslyn, 2014; Krätzig & Arbuthnott, 2006; Mayer & Massa, 2003). It is far more important that teachers base their instructional practices on knowledge of the cognitive processes that underlie how virtually all students think and learn.
4. The best way to learn and remember a new fact is to repeat it over and over. FALSE. Although repeating information several times is better than doing nothing at all, repetition of specific facts is a relatively ineffective way to learn. Students learn information more easily and remember it longer when they connect it with things they already know. One especially effective strategy is elaboration: using prior knowledge to expand or embellish on a new idea in some way, perhaps by drawing inferences from a historical fact, identifying new examples of a scientific concept, or thinking of situations in which a mathematical procedure might be helpful (J. R. Anderson, 2005; Graesser & Bower, 1990).
5. Students often misjudge how much they know about a topic. TRUE. Most adults and children are not the best judges of what they do and don’t know. For example, many students think that if they’ve spent a long time studying a textbook chapter, they must know its contents very well. Yet if they’ve spent most of their time studying ineffectively—perhaps by “reading” while thinking about something else altogether or by mindlessly copying definitions—they may know far less than they think they do (N. J. Stone, 2000; Thiede, Griffin, Wiley, & Redford, 2009).
6. Anxiety sometimes helps students learn and perform more successfully in the classroom . TRUE. Many people think that anxiety is always a bad thing. In fact, a little bit of anxiety can actually improve learning and performance, especially when students perceive a task to be something they can accomplish with reasonable effort. For instance, a small, manageable amount of anxiety can spur students to complete their work carefully and to study for tests (Cassady, 2010b; N. E. Perry, Turner, & Meyer, 2006; Shipman & Shipman, 1985).
7. Playing video games can enhance children’s cognitive development. TRUE—or more accurately, SOMETIMES TRUE. A great deal of time spent playing video games instead of reading, doing homework, and engaging in other school-related activities can definitely interfere with children’s long-term academic success. But some video games can be powerful tools for promoting important cognitive abilities, such as sustained attention and spatial reasoning (Gentile, 2011; Rothbart, 2011; Tobias & Fletcher, 2011). And increasingly, educational technologists have been designing highly motivating video games that simulate real-world problems and foster complex problem-solving skills (Barab, Gresalfi, & Ingram-Goble, 2010; Gee, 2010; Squire, 2011).
8. The ways in which teachers assess students’ learning influence what and how students actually learn TRUE. We see this principle in action in the opening case study: When Anne Smith’s “No D” and multiple-submission policies convey the message that students can’t get by with marginal work, students are more likely to seek feedback about their work, benefit from their mistakes, and enhance their writing skills. Good assessments encourage cognitive processes essential for high-quality learning. For example, students are more likely to pull class material into an integrated, meaningful whole if they expect assessment activities to require such synthesis, and they’re more likely to focus on applying what they learn to new situations if they think that assessments will involve application tasks (Carpenter, 2012; N. Frederiksen, 1984b; Lundeberg & Fox, 1991).
Chapter 3 discusses temperament and personality development.
Chapter 5 describes individual differences in cognitive abilities and dispositions that can significantly impact students’ learning and academic achievement. Chapter 6 describes general mental processes that underlie effective thinking, learning, and memory.
Chapter 6 discusses elaboration and its implications for instructional practice.
Chapter 7 describes this illusion of knowing in more detail.
Chapter 11 explores anxiety’s effects in different situations.
Chapter 3 describes potential adverse effects of violent video games on children’s aggression. Chapter 12 explores potential benefits of appropriately designed video games.
Chapter 14 and Chapter 15 explore numerous ways in which assessment practices affect students’ learning.
