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HUNGERINWARANDPEACE OXFORDHISTORICALMONOGRAPHS The OxfordHistoricalMonographs seriespublishessomeofthebest OxfordUniversitydoctoralthesesonhistoricaltopics,especially thoselikelytoengagetheinterestofabroadacademicreadership.
Editors
HungerinWar andPeace WomenandChildreninGermany, 1914–1924 MARYELISABETHCOX GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
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©MaryElisabethCox2019
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Formyparents,whoareverygood. Acknowledgements Inthisefforttobetterunderstandthelivingconditionsofwomen,children, andothervulnerableGermannon-combatantsduringtheFirstWorld War,IamgratefultomydoctoraladvisorProfessorDeborahOxley,who helpedmewithmydissertationandanarticleIpublishedearlierinthe EconomicHistoryReview.Iwasstronglyencouragedbyaprizethatthe RoyalHistoricalSocietyawardedforthatarticle.IamgratefultoProfessor AvnerOfferwhograciouslysharedwithmehisideasonblackmarkets duringthewar,andhispersonalarchiveofscholarlymaterials.Ithankmy editors,ProfessorPatriciaClavinandCathrynSteele,theOxfordHistorical MonographsEditorialCommittee,PriyankaSwansiandAmandaAnstee andtheentireeditorialteamatOxfordUniversityPress,aswellasthe externalreviewerofthemanuscript,ProfessorJayWinter,fortheirsuggestionsandencouragement.SeveralcolleaguesalsokindlyreadandcommentedonlaterdraftsofpartsofthisbookincludingDrGeorgeH.Nash andSirProfessorHewStrachan.Finally,IwishtothankProfessorJane Humphries,whoreadandcommentedontheentirebookbeforeitwas senttobepublished.Iamsincerelygratefulfortheirgenerosity.
Manythankstothearchivistsandlibrarianswhowentoutoftheirway toassistme:MichaelAthanson(BodleianSpecialCollectionsandMaps, Oxford),MarkEccleston(CadburyResearchLibrarySpecialCollections, Birmingham),BorghildNiemannandDagmarBouziane(Staatsbibliothek zuBerlin),EusebioLocatelli(StaatsbibliothekzuBerlin,Zeitungsabteilung), ClaudiaHinzeandOlafHillert(StadtarchivLeipzig),UteKrepper (DeutschesHygiene-Museum,Dresden),HeideHaarländer(Universität Rostock),FabrizioBensi(ArchivesoftheInternationalCommitteeof theRedCross,Geneva),GrantMitchell(InternationalFederationofRed CrossandRedCrescentSocietiesArchives,Geneva),archivistsatArchives d’ÉtatdeGenève,DonDavis(AmericanFriendsServiceCommittee, Philadelphia),MattSchaeffer,LynnSmith,SpencerHoward,andTom Schwartz(HooverPresidentialLibrary,WestBranch,Iowa),EricWakin, MaciejSiekierski,LindaBernard,DanielJarvis,PaulThomas,Carol Leadenham,andSarahPatton(HooverInstitutionLibraryandArchives, Stanford),IngridBerg(Kungligabiblioteket,Stockholm),DanJibréus (Hagströmerbiblioteket,KarolinksaIntitutet,Stockholm),andClifton Wennerström(CarolinaRediviva,Uppsala).
IthanktheEconomicHistorySociety,theEconomicHistoryAssociation,theGermanHistorySociety,theRoyalHistoricalSociety,the E.O.JamesBequestAllSoulsCollege,theHistoryProjectandthe
InstituteforNewEconomicThinking,theArnoldBryceandReadTrust, theEuropaeum,StAntony’sCollege,andtheJohnFellFundforfunding myresearch,aswellastheHistoryFacultyattheUniversityofOxford. IalsothanktheHooverInstitutionatStanfordUniversityforaVisiting Fellowship,BrasenoseCollege,OxfordforaWilliamGoldingJunior ResearchFellowshipintheArts,HumanitiesandSocialSciences,and theBritishAcademyforaPostdoctoralFellowshipforOutstandingEarly CareerScholars.
Finally,Iwishtothankmyfamilyfortheirencouragementandsupport.Ilovethemverymuch.
ListofFigures 0.1.TheMarketsoftheWorld.OpentoGreatBritain:Closedto Germany.[Map]9
0.2.FreiheitderMeere.EnglandderBlutsaugerderWelt. (FreedomoftheSeas.EnglandtheBloodsuckeroftheWorld). [Poster]10
1.1. ‘TheStoppingofNeutralShips.EnglandlovestheNeutrals somuchthatsheholdsinhergripmuchthatbelongsto them.’ ADutchcartoonpokesfunattheBritishsystemof stoppingandcheckingneutralmerchantships.30
1.2. Unpuebloenlamiseria (Apeopleinmisery).50
2.1.SmilingPotatoPostcard,1915.72
2.2.RationingstampsforfruitpureeinMülhausenandpotatoesin Königsberg.80
3.1.ExampletableofanthropometricdataforFamily ‘Kr’ inLeipzig.97
3.2.MeancaloricintakeperpersonperdayinLeipzig households.99
3.3.Averagecaloricconsumptionperpersonperday byhousehold.99
3.4.Leipzigweightovertime,allindividuals.101
3.5.Changingweightovertime,males.102
3.6.Changingweightovertime,females.102
3.7.TotalproteinovertimeamongLeipzighouseholds.106
3.8.PercentofrequiredproteinreceivedbyLeipzighouseholds in1917.106
3.9.PercentoftotalproteininLeipzighouseholdsfromanimal products.107
3.10.Totalfatconsumption,allhouseholds.108
3.11.Percentofrequiredfat,accordingtoHintzeandKruse, receivedbyLeipzighouseholdsin1917.109
3.12.BMIforwomenover20measuredintheLeipzigstudy.111
3.13.Physicalactivitylevels(PAL)forLeipzighouseholdsbycaloric availability.114
3.14.FAOcategorizationofadultchronicenergy deficiency(CED).122
3.15.PercentofLeipzigwomen,20to40yearsofage, sufferingfromadultchronicenergydeficiency(CED).122
3.16.PercentofLeipzigwomen,over40yearsofage,suffering fromadultchronicenergydeficiency(CED)fromsample.123
3.17.BMIofindividualsinhousehold ‘K’.Averagecaloriesare theaveragecaloriesperpersoninthehouseholdiftheyhad beendividedequally.125
4.1.Heightsofsix-year-oldboysinStraßburg,1911/13 and1918. 166
4.2.Weightsofsix-year-oldboysinStraßburg,1911/13 and1918.167
5.1.Hypotheticalexplanationofincompletecatch-upfollowing prolongedstarvation.174
5.2.Expectedgrowthvelocityfromhypotheticalfamine,using velocitiesfromFigure5.1.174
5.3.HeightsofGermanboysandgirlsfrom1914comparedto modernstandards.178
5.4.Femalegrowthcurvefor1910birthcohortcomparedtomodern standards.179
5.5.Femalegrowthvelocityfor1910birthcohortcomparedto modernstandards.180
5.6.Malegrowthcurvefor1910birthcohortcomparedtomodern standards.180
5.7.Malegrowthvelocityfor1910birthcohortcomparedtomodern standards.180
5.8.Changesinboys’ weights.193
5.9.Changesingirls’ weights.193
5.10.Changesinboys’ heights.194
5.11.Changesingirls’ heights.194
5.12.ChangesinHAZscoresforsocialclassbyyear.197
5.13.ChangesinWAZscoresforsocialclassbyyear.197
5.14.HAZscoresbygenderandage.200
5.15.WAZscoresbygenderandage.200
6.1.Fishingrestrictionsduringarmistice.[Map]218
6.2.Cartoon,publishedin1917,inwhichtheUSisrepresented asamatronly figure,wearingastripeddressandstar-spangled apronasshecansfruitandvegetables.Hooverwheelsoutabarrow fullofemptyofwastecans,designatingthatnothingwaslost.227
6.3.Foodwillwinthewar.[Poster]229
6.4.BePatriotic.Signyourcountry’spledgetosavethefood, byPaulStahr,fortheU.S.Food Administration.[Poster]230
6.5.German–AmericanCartoon,exhortingAmericanstolimittheir foodconsumptioninsupportofthewar,byH.Nap,probably around1917.231
7.1.PressImageofaMalnourishedGermanchild.244
7.2. ‘PeaceProblems’ , UticaSaturdayGlobe (30November1918).247
7.3.HungerDrawsTheMap.251
7.4.Differentiterationsofthebureaucraciesthatoversawfood distributionduringarmistice.257
7.5.TypewrittenStatementontheneedtofeedGermany,with handwrittencorrections.272
8.1.FoodDraftsfromtheAmericanReliefAdministration.277
8.2.ThesewillbeEuropetomorrow.HaydonJones,artworkfor TheNewYorkEveningPost (December1920).283
8.3.TheFoundationStone.Charity.[Cartoon]285
8.4.GermanchildrenarrivinginBaselwithcardsaround theirnecks.290
8.5.PermissionformallowingGermanchildrentobe transportedtoSwitzerland.291
8.6.FeedingoperationsforchildreninGermanyledby theAFSC.[Map]306
8.7.GirlsoutsideaschoolinBreslauwaitingtoreceiveaQuaker meal,1919/1920.309
8.8.GermanschoolchildrenatanAmericanFriendsService CommitteeFeedingCentreinErlangen.310
8.9.Girlseatingatafeedingcentreatanunknownlocation inGermany.311
8.10.AgroupofboyseatingQuakerfoodatanunknownlocation inGermany.312
8.11.AdvertisementforMellin’sfood.315
8.12.AnappealsenttotheSavetheChildrenFundrequestingfunds inLeipzig.319
8.13.AdvertfortheDeclarationofGeneva,inverseform,published intheSavetheChildrenFundMagazine.328
8.14.Askeletonexhortsotherstohelp ‘children,theweak,and theold’.[Poster]330
8.15.ChildrensunbathinginCharlottenburg,Germany, 21November1920.333
8.16.Schoolgirlsbeingmeasuredforheightandweighedintheir stockingsandundergarments.334
8.17.Changesinboys’ weights.335
8.18.Changesingirls’ weights.335
8.19.ChangesinHAZscoresforsocialclassbyyear.336
8.20.ChangesinWAZscoresforsocialclassbyyear.336
9.1.TitlepageofscrapbookgiventoJamesG.Vail,June1921.342
9.2.LetterfromJohnBeertoAFSCArchivist,November2,1982.343
9.3.Song ‘DearQuakers,wethankyouforthenicebreakfast drink/forthefreshwhitebreadthathelpedusoutof greatmisery’.357
9.4.PhotographicpostcardoftheZ.R.IIIoverBerlin.364
10.1.ChildparticipantsintheQuakerfeedingprogramme,with signatures.368
ListofPlates 9.1.TitlepageofscrapbookgiventoQuakerAFSCMissionaryMaryHannum inAugust1921.
9.2.PhotosfromthephotobookofJamesG.VailofanAFSCwarehouse fulloffoodandwomencookingmealsinalargecentralizedkitchenin Hamburg.
9.3.Watercoloursofschoolboysgettingfoodthatincludepassagesfromthe NewTestament.The firstwaspaintedbyachildwiththelastnameLersch, andthesecondbyachildwiththelastnameVogel.
9.4.WatercolourofAngelandChristmastreewiththankyouletterbyJosefa Hermann.
9.5.PencilsketchoftablesetwithcrossandeitherapoemtotheQuakers,or aprayertoGod.
9.6.WatercolourofboybeforeandaftertheQuakerscametoGermany, includingacrestofAmericanandGerman flagswithbellontopandStar ofDavidbeneath.
9.7.LetterfromDorotheaRankerttotheInternationalRedCross,6December 1924.
9.8.Girlbeforethefeeding duringthefeeding afterthefeeding.
9.9.Boybeforeandafterfeeding,withweightsandsportsbar.Paintedbychild withlastnameDeiler.
9.10.Boysinlineforfoodwithboyonscalesatback.Paintedbyachildwiththe lastnameGriehl.
9.11.Boyonscaleswithlargeglobe.
9.12.Diptychofgirlonscalesbeforeandafterfeeding.
9.13. ‘TheFatteningCure’.PoemonbeingfedandmeasuredbyQuakers.
9.14.CrayonsketchbyKarl(lastnameillegible)ofchildrenqueueingoutsidea schoolwaitingtobefed.
9.15.WatercolourbychildwithlastnameHabersetzerofchildreninsidefeeding centrewithbowlsandfeedingcards.
9.16.Pencildrawingoffeedingcard,spoon,andbowlbyKarlStolber.
9.17.AFSCfeedingcard.
9.18.WeeklymenuinpastelandwatercolourbyLuanaP.
9.19.WatercolourbyachildattheMädschenschuleWeilheim.Bordermadeup ofbowls,spoons,andpretzels.
9.20.WatercolourofchildrenwithfoodbyE.Schacht. ‘Whogivesusbeautiful milkandwhitebread?Itis ‘America’ theSaviourinneed!’
9.21.DaswarmeinIdeal.(Thatwasmyideal.)
9.22.Boysittingonlargeboxofchocolate ‘forGerman children’ byK.Dupke, Age11,inCöpenick.
9.23.DrawingandletterfromAdelheitBehrtotheAFSC,1921.
9.24.DiesesSchiffMitMilchBeladdenkommtvonAmrikasGestaden,Trägtim BaucheMilchUndBrotDassDieWangenWerdenRot.(Thisshipladen withmilkcomesfromtheshoresofAmerica,initsbellyitcarriesmilkand breadsoourcheekswillbered.)PaintingbyR.Pleuer.
9.25.ShippingroutesbetweentheUSandGermanybyRudolfWeber.
9.26. ‘Hurrah,theQuakershipisthere!’ byElsaUnger.
9.27.Trainarrivingwithmarchingfoodstuffs.
9.28.Truckdeliveringfoodtoschool,Munich,1921.
9.29.Horsescarryingcartoffoodwiththreemeninbackground.
9.30.O,ESSEN!(OH,FOOD!)CrayondrawingbyFritzLörfer.
9.31.ZR-3Zeppelincarryingthankyouletters,byAugustSchraml.
9.32. ‘TheZeppelin flieswayhigh/anduptheresitstheQuakercook,’ byHansSüss.
9.33.WatercolourbyKarlAlt.AllesgutekommtvonOben/vonAmerika geflogen/denninBayernherrschtdieNot/DrumAmerikaBringUnsBrot. (Everythinggoodcomesfromabove/flownfromAmerica/forinBavaria sufferingreigns/that’swhyAmericabringsusbread.)
9.34.InGratitudefortheGenerousChildFeedingofWittelsbacher Gymnasium.WatercolourbychildwithlastnameKranitzky.
ListofTables 2.1.AmountandTypeofFertilizerUsedinGermanagriculture, 1890and1913.68
2.2.EstimatesofOfficialGermanRationsofBasicFoodstuffsfrom 1916to1918ExpressedasaPercentageofpeace-time consumptionlevels.78
3.1.DietsBasedonBMRperIndividualHouseholdin1917.116
3.2.DietsBasedonBMRperIndividualHouseholdin1918.118
3.3.DietsBasedonBMRperIndividualHouseholdin1919.120
3.4.DietsBasedonBMRperIndividualHouseholdin1920.121
4.1.RobustOLSRegressionStraßburg,DependentVariable: Heightcm.160
4.2.RobustOLSRegressionStraßburg,DependentVariable: Weightkg.162
4.3.RobustOLSRegressionStraßburg,DependentVariable:HAZ.163
4.4.RobustOLSRegressionStraßburg,DependentVariable:WAZ.164
5.1.OLSRegressionFemaleStature,Germany1914–1924, DependentVariable:Height,cm.183
5.2.OLSRegressionMaleStature,Germany1914–1924,Dependent Variable:Height,cm.184
5.3.OLSRegressionFemaleWeight,Germany1914–1924,Dependent Variable:Weight,kg.186
5.4.OLSRegressionMaleWeight,Germany1914–1924,Dependent Variable:Weight,kg.187
5.5.OLSRegressionHeight-for-AgeZ-Scores,Germany 1914–1924,DependentVariable:HAZScore.189
5.6.OLSRegressionWeight-for-AgeZ-Scores,Germany 1914–1924,DependentVariable:WAZScore.191
6.1.FishingYieldsinGermanyPriortotheFirstWorldWar.217
6.2.USFoodExportstoEurope.237
7.1.FoodDeliveriestoGermanyDuringArmistice 266
8.1.FoodDraftOptionsandPrices,1920.278
8.2.SwissSoupKitchensinSouthernGermany,fromtheendof 1923throughtheSpringof1924.294
8.3.SwissPatronStateswiththeGermanCitiestheySupported.294
8.4.AidtoGermanyinSwissFrancs,byType.295
8.5.YearlyExpendituresforSavetheChildren,FiscalYear EndingApril30.316
8.6.USEstimationofGermanCostsTowardsChildFeeding.331
Plate9.1. TitlepageofscrapbookgiventoQuakerAFSCMissionaryMary HannuminAugust1921.Theinscriptionreads ‘SincereThanksAmerica’.This scrapbookwasdonatedtotheAFSCbyElseFernsier,herselfarecipientofthe Quakerfeedingin1919–1920.ElsereceivedthebookfromMaryFayeHannum Glass,anieceofQuakermissionaryMaryHannum.(Takenfromatyped, undatedletteratbeginningofthealbum.)AFSCArchives.
Plate9.2. PhotosfromthePhotoBookgiventoJamesG.Vail.Plate9.2a:the photoisofawarehousefullofAFSCfoodstorageinHamburg.Plate9.2b:the photodepictswomencookingmealsforGermanchildreninalargecentralized kitchen.AFSCArchives.
Plate9.3. WatercoloursofschoolboysgettingfoodwithpassagesfromtheNew Testament.Folder ‘Kinderspeisung.WittelsbacherGymnasium,1924’.AFSC Archives.
Plate9.3. Continued.
Plate9.4. WatercolourofAngelandChristmastreewiththankyouletterbyJosefaHermann.Fromacarvedwoodenboxcontaining booksofthankyoulettersandpicturesfromchildreninAugsburg.AFSCArchives.
Plate9.5. Pencilsketchoftablesetwithcrossandpoemorprayer.Box ‘Thankyoudrawings,photographs,lettersfromGermanSchool Children.1920s’,Folder ‘Thankyoudrawings,photographs,lettersfromGermanSchoolChildren.1920s,3’ .
Plate9.6. WatercolourofboybeforeandaftertheQuakerscametoGermany,andcrestofAmericanandGerman flagswithbellontop andStarofDavidbeneath.Box ‘3AFSCAlbumGermany1921–1924,1937(Thankyouletters,photographs,etc.)’,Folder ‘Zur ErinnerungandieKinderhilfs-Mission’.AFSCArchives.
