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CLASSICALPRESENCES

GeneralEditors

CLASSICALPRESENCES

Attemptstoreceivethetexts,images,andmaterialcultureofancientGreece andRomeinevitablyruntheriskofappropriatingthepastinorderto authenticatethepresent.Exploringthewaysinwhichtheclassicalpasthas beenmappedoverthecenturiesallowsustotracetheavowalanddisavowal ofvaluesandidentities,oldandnew.ClassicalPresencesbringsthelatest scholarshiptobearonthecontexts,theory,andpracticeofsuchuse,and abuse,oftheclassicalpast.

Homer ’sDaughters

Women’sResponsestoHomer

intheTwentiethCentury andBeyond

FionaCoxand

ElenaTheodorakopoulos

GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom

OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries

©Theeditorsandseveralcontributors2019

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FirstEditionpublishedin2019

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Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthe priorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress,orasexpresslypermitted bylaw,bylicenceorundertermsagreedwiththeappropriatereprographics rightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethescopeofthe aboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment,OxfordUniversityPress,atthe addressabove

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PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica

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LinkstothirdpartywebsitesareprovidedbyOxfordingoodfaithand forinformationonly.Oxforddisclaimsanyresponsibilityforthematerials containedinanythirdpartywebsitereferencedinthiswork.

ForMiranda, Peter,andPaul.

Acknowledgements

Chapter1containsexcerptsfromDoolittle,H.andMartz,L., Collected Poems (CP)(NewYork:NewDirections,1986),Doolittle,H., Helenin Egypt (NewYork:NewDirections,1961),andDoolittle,H., CompassionateFriendship (asyetunpublishedjournal,ts.NormanHolmes PearsonCollection,BeineckeRareBookandManuscriptLibrary,Yale University,NewHaven,CT).

• Excerptsfromthepoems ‘ADeadPriestessSpeaks’ (pp.372–7), ‘Calypso’ or ‘Callypsospeaks’ (pp.388–96), ‘AtIthaca’ (pp.163–4), ‘Circe’ (p.119), ‘Calypso’ (p.390), ‘Odyssey ’ (pp.93–8),and ‘Helen’ (pp.154–5),fromCOLLECTEDPOEMS,1912–1944,copyright ©1982byTheEstateofHildaDoolittle.Reprintedbypermission ofNewDirectionsPublishingCorp.

• ExcerptsfromHELENINEGYPT,byH.D.(HildaDoolittle), copyright©1961byNormanHolmesPearson.ReprintedbypermissionofNewDirectionsPublishingCorp.

• ExcerptsfromCOMPASSIONATEFRIENDSHIP(p.16)byH.D. (HildaDoolittle),copyright©2018byTheSchaffnerFamily Foundation;usedbypermissionofNewDirectionsPublishing Corporation,agents.

Chapter8containsexcerptsfromOswald,A., Memorial:AVersionof Homer’sIliad (NewYork:W.W.Norton&Co,2012)and Memorial:An Excavationofthe Iliad(London:FaberandFaberLtd,2011).Alsofrom Köhler,B., NiemandsFrau (Berlin:SuhrkampVerlag,2007).Acknowledgementsalsogiveninafootnote.

• ExcerptsfromMEMORIAL:AVERSIONOFHOMER’SILIADby AliceOswald.Copyright©2011byAliceOswald.UsedbypermissionofW.W.Norton&Company,Inc.

• ExcerptsfromMEMORIAL:ANEXCAVATIONOFTHE ILIAD byAliceOswald.Copyright©2011byAliceOswald.Usedby permissionofFaberandFaberLtd.

• ExcerptsfromNIEMANDSFRAUbyBarbaraKöhler.Copyright ©2007byBarbaraKöhler.UsedbykindpermissionofSuhrkamp Verlag©SuhrkampVerlagAGBerlin.

Chapter11containsexcerptsfromAtwood,M., SelectedPoems1965–75 (Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1976;Toronto:OxfordUniversityPress, 1976),Duffy,C.A., TheWorld’sWife (London:Picador;NewYork: Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1999),Glück,L., Meadowlands (Hopewell, NJ:Ecco,1996),Graves,R., CollectedPoems (London:Cassell,1975), Doolittle,H.andMartz,L., CollectedPoems (CP)(NewYork:New Directions,1986),andPastan,L., TheImperfectParadise (NewYork: W.W.Norton&Co,1988).Acknowledgementsforthelastofthesealso giveninafootnote.

• Excerptsfrom ‘SirenSong’ and ‘Circe:MudPoems’,from SELECTEDPOEMS1965–1975byMargaretAtwood.Copyright ©1976,renewed2004byMargaretAtwood.Reproducedwith permissionofCurtisBrownGroupLtd,London,onbehalfof O.W.ToadLtd.ReprintedbypermissionofHoughtonMif flin HarcourtPublishingCompany.ReprintedbypermissionofOxford UniversityPress,Canada.Allrightsreserved.

• Excerptsfrom ‘Circe ’,fromTHEWORLD’SWIFEbyCarolAnn Duffy.Copyright©1999byCarolAnnDuffy.ReprintedbypermissionofFarrar,StrausandGiroux.Reprintedbypermissionof PanMacmillan.

• Excerptsfromthepoems ‘Siren’ , ‘Circe’sPower’ , ‘Circe ’sTorment’ , ‘Circe’sGrief ’,fromMEADOWLANDSbyLOUISEGLÜCK. Copyright©1996byLouiseGlück.Reprintedbypermissionof HarperCollinsPublishersandCarcanetPressLimited.

• ExcerptsfromRobertGraves’‘Ulysses’ (p.56),fromGraves,R., CollectedPoems,reprintedbypermissionofCarcanetPressLimited.

• Excerptsfrom ‘Circe’ byH.D.(HildaDoolittle),fromCOLLECTED POEMS, 1912–1944,copyright©1982byTheEstateofHildaDoolittle.ReprintedbypermissionofNewDirectionsPublishingCorp.

• Excerptsfrom ‘Circe’ and ‘TheSirens ’,fromTHEIMPERFECT PARADISEbyLindaPastan.Copyright©1988byLindaPastan. UsedbypermissionofLindaPastanincareoftheJeanV.Naggar LiteraryAgency,Inc.(permissions@jvnla.com).Usedbypermission ofW.W.Norton&Company,Inc.

Chapter12containsexcerptsfromAguirre,F., Ithaca (translatedbyAna ValverdeOsan)(Rochester,NewYork:BOAEditions,Ltd,2004)and Cavafy,C.P., C.P.CavafyCollectedPoems:BilingualEdition (trans. EdmundKeeleyandPhilipSherrard;ed.GeorgeP.Savidis)(revised edition;Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1992).

• FranciscaAguirre, ‘Ithaca/Itaca’ andexcerptsfrom ‘FromWithout/ Desdefuera’ , ‘ TheComrades/Loscamaradas’ , ‘ Orderliness/El orden ’ , ‘ Autophagy/Autofragia ’ ,and ‘ Loom/Telar’ from Ithaca . Copyright©1972byFranciscaAguirre.Translationcopyright ©2004byAnaValverdeOsan.UsedbypermissionofThePermissionsCompany,Inc.,onbehalfofBOAEditions,Ltd,www. boaeditions.org.

• Excerptsfrom ‘WaitingfortheBarbarians’ , ‘TheCity’,and ‘Ithaka’ , excerptedfromC.P.CAVAFYCOLLECTEDPOEMS:Bilingual Editiontrans.byEdmundKeeleyandPhilipSherrard,editedby GeorgeSavidis.WithanewforewordbyRobertPinsky.Published byPrincetonUniversityPress,2009.Copyright©C.P.Cavafy. Reproducedbypermissionoftheauthorc/oRogers,Coleridge& WhiteLtd,20PowisMews,LondonW111JN.Bilingualedition copyright©2009byPrincetonUniversityPress.Englishtranslation copyright©1975,1992,2009byEdmundKeeleyandPhilipSherrard. ReprintedbypermissionofPrincetonUniversityPress.

Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetosecurepermissions,wemayhave failedinafewcasestotracethecopyrightholders.Weapologizeforany apparentnegligence.Shouldthecopyrightholderswishtocontactusafter publication,wewouldbehappytoincludeanacknowledgementinsubsequentreprints.

Editors’ Acknowledgements

WeareimmenselygratefultotheSeriesEditors,LornaHardwickand JamesI.Porter,fortheirsupportandhelpwithbringingthisprojectto completion.WeowefurtherthankstoLornaHardwick,whohasbeen unfailinglygenerouswithhertimeandadvicemorewidely.Wearealso gratefultoOUP’sanonymousreaders,whoseincisiveandthoughtful feedbackimprovedthevolumeandtoGeorginaLeightonforherhard workandorganization.Specialthankstoourcopyeditor,IngaloThomson,whosequalitiesofpatience,sensitivity,andattentiontodetailare unparalleled.

Wehavebeenextraordinarilyfortunatetohaveworkedwithcontributorswhohaveproducedessaysthatwehavefoundwonderfullystimulatingandenriching,butwhohavealsorespondedwithgoodhumour andforbearancetotheups-and-downsentailedbyaprojectofthissize. Ourthanksgotoallofyou.

ListofFigures xv

ListofContributors xvii

Introduction1

FionaCoxandElenaTheodorakopoulos

1. ‘Afterhis wine-darksea’:H.D.inHomer 21 GenevieveLiveley

2.RomanticEncounterswithHomerinElizabethCook’ s Achilles 39 PollyStoker

3.FemaleHomers:AFeminist nostos?57 CatherineBurke

4.ChristaWolf ’ s Cassandra:DifferentTimes,DifferentViews73 NancySorkinRabinowitz

5.FeministatSecondGlance?AliceOswald’ s Memorial as aResponsetoHomer’ s Iliad 89 CarolinHahnemann

6.KateTempest:A ‘BrandNewHomer’ foraCreativeFuture105 EmilySpiers

7.RereadingPenelope’sWeb:TheAnxietiesofFemale AuthorshipinMargaretAtwood’ s ThePenelopiad 125 JasmineRichards

8.ExcavationsinHomer:SpeculativeArchaeologiesinAlice Oswald’sandBarbaraKöhler’sResponsestothe Iliad andthe Odyssey 143 GeorginaPaul

9.BetweenNightandDay:BarbaraKöhler’sLyric Odyssey 161 ElenaTheodorakopoulos

10.MonologueandDialogue:The Odyssey inContemporary Women’sPoetry 177 IsobelHurst

11.TheForecastisHurricane:Circe ’sPowersandCirce’ s

DesiresinModernWomen’sPoetry

SheilaMurnaghanandDeborahH.Roberts

12.IberianSibyl:FranciscaAguirreonCavafyand theJourneyOutofIthaca

VictoriaReuter

13. ‘Cutdowntosize’:FemaleVoicesandAdventure inAdèleGeras’ s Ithaka

FrancescaRichards

14. ‘Healthisn’tmakingeverybodyintoaGreekideal’ : OvercomingAbjectioninGwynethLewis’ s AHospital Odyssey

RuthMacDonald

15. ‘Thinkingthroughourmothers’:CixousandHomer beyondtheThirdWave

FionaCox

16.Epilogue:TranslatingHomerasaWoman

ListofFigures

6.1.TheBatterseaArtsCentreproductionof Brand NewAncients 114

PhotographcourtesyofChristinaHardinge

6.2.Tempest’sphysicalperformancedrawsonthegestures ofhip-hopandthepulpit 115 Stilltakenfrom BrandNewAncients,KateTempest&Battersea ArtsCentreOnFilm,directedbyJoeRoberts,2014:courtesyof BatterseaArtsCentre

6.3.Co-designingpreferablecreativefuturesintheUK (FocusGroup2017)121

ListofContributors

C

 B isaPhDcandidateandpart-timeassistantlecturerat UniversityCollegeCork.

F

 C isanAssociateProfessorofFrenchandComparativeLiteratureattheUniversityofExeter.

C

 H isaProfessorofClassicsatKenyonCollegein Gambier,Ohio.

I

 H isLecturerinEnglishatGoldsmiths,Universityof London.

G

 L isReaderinClassicsattheUniversityofBristol.

R

 MD currentlyworksastheAccessandOutreachOfficer atStJohn’sCollege,UniversityofOxford.

S

 M istheAlfredReginaldAllenMemorialProfessor ofGreekattheUniversityofPennsylvania.

G

 P isAssociateProfessorofGermanattheUniversityof OxfordandFellowandTutorinGermanatStHilda’sCollege,Oxford.

N

 S R isProfessorofComparativeLiteratureat HamiltonCollege,Clinton,NewYork.

V

 R isacomparativeliteraturescholarandliterarytranslatorwhoreceivedherPhDfromtheUniversityofOxford.Sheteachesat GettysburgCollegeandYorkCollegeofPennsylvania.

F

 R isResearchImpactFacilitatorfortheSocial SciencesDivision,UniversityofOxford.

J

 R isaLecturerinEnglishatGoldsmiths,Universityof London.

D

 H.R isWilliamR.KenanJr.ProfessorofClassicsand ComparativeLiteratureatHaverfordCollege,Pennsylvania.

E

 S isanAnniversaryLecturerinCreativeFuturesatthe DepartmentofLanguagesandCulturesandtheInstituteforSocial FuturesatLancasterUniversity.

P

 S completedherPhDinClassicsin2019andcurrently coordinatestheClassicsforAllSchoolsHubattheUniversityof Birmingham.

E T isSeniorLecturerinClassicsattheUniversityofBirmingham.

E

 W isaProfessorofClassicalStudiesandChairofthe PrograminComparativeLiteratureandLiteraryTheoryattheUniversityofPennsylvania.

Introduction

FionaCoxandElenaTheodorakopoulos

In Jo’sBoys (1886)JosieBrooke,thenieceof LittleWomen’sirrepressible JoMarch,railedagainstthepositionsofweaknessbestowedupon womeninthe Iliad:

‘Why,wewerepeggingawayatthe Iliad andcametowhereZeustellsJunonotto inquireintohisplansorhe’llwhipher,andJowasdisgustedbecauseJunomeekly hushedup.Isaiditwasallright,andagreedwiththeoldfellowthatwomen didn’tknowmuchandoughttoobeymen,’ explainedTed,tothegreatamusementofhishearers.

‘Goddessesmaydoastheylike,buttheseGreekandTrojanwomenwerepoorspiritedthingsiftheymindedmenwhocouldn’t fighttheirownbattlesandhad tobehustledoffbyPallas,andVenus,andJuno,whentheyweregoingtoget beaten.Theideaoftwoarmiesstoppingandsittingdownwhileapairofheroes flungstonesatoneanother!Idon’tthinkmuchofyouroldHomer.Giveme NapoleonorGrantformyhero.’

Josie’sscornwasasfunnyasifahumming-birdscoldedatanostrich,and everyonelaughedasshesniffedattheimmortalpoetandcriticizedthegods.

(Alcott2017:408)

Theepisoderepresentsfarmorethanaratherquaintincidentinthe familyhistoryofoneofthebest-lovedcharactersin fiction,however. Likeherauntbeforeher,Josierealizesataveryearlyagethatliterature carvesoutverydifferentrolesforwomenthanformen.¹Behindthe figureoftheindignant,smallgirlstandsLouisaM.Alcott,alltooaware

¹SeeGordon2017:27. ‘Mary(Shelley)hadanurgeforclassicallearning,whichwould reappearinMaryAnnEvans(beforeshebecameGeorgeEliot)andVirginiaStephen (beforeshebecameVirginiaWoolf),moppingupGreekinherbackroominherfather’ s Kensingtonhouse.Forthem,Greekepitomisedtheeducationclosedtowomen.’

FionaCoxandElenaTheodorakopoulos, Introduction In: Homer’sDaughters:Women’ s ResponsestoHomerintheTwentiethCenturyandBeyond.Editedby:FionaCoxandElena Theodorakopoulos,OxfordUniversityPress(2019).©Theeditorsandseveralcontributors. DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198802587.003.0017

ofthewaysinwhichthefoundationtextsoftheWesterntraditionhave conspiredtosilencewomen,andtomarginalizetheminbooksthat neverthelessdepicthighlyregrettablebehaviouronthepartofthemale protagonists.Ifthe ‘immortalpoet’ canbemockedandcondemnedas de ficienttowardstheendofthenineteenthcentury,itisunsurprisingto seeamyriadofwaysinwhichwomenwritersacrosstheglobehave subverted,questioned,parodied,andturnedtoHomeroverthecourseof acenturyfrom1914tothepresentday.

Webeginourenquiryin1914,sincetheexperienceofthetwoworld warsplaysadecisiveroleinwomen’sresponsestoHomericepic.In1914 theyoungVeraBrittain,newlyarrivedatOxford,painstakinglyworkedher waythroughpassagesfromthe Iliad: ‘thelovelylinesfromthe Iliad which describeAndromacheholdingoutthechildAstyanaxtoHectorbefore Troyand “smilingthroughhertears”,willbeforeverassociatedformewith thosepoignantearlydaysofthewar.’²Justoverahundredyearslater CarolineAlexander,intheIntroductiontohertranslationofthe Iliad (the firstcompletetranslationintoEnglishbyawoman),observesbleakly: ‘Ifwe weretotakeanyrandomhundred-year-periodwithinthelast fivethousand years,ithasbeencalculated,wewould findonaverageninety-fourofthat hundredtohavebeenoccupiedwithlarge-scaleconflictsinoneormore regionsoftheglobe.’³Brittainlaterlooksbacktothatearlierperiodof readinginordertodrawcomfortfromitandtoestablishsolidaritywithall thosewhohavesufferedcalamitouslossesthroughwar.Shespeaksofthe wayinwhichthe ‘loveliness’ oftheGreeklines ‘camebacktomeinquieter days,morepotentthanlife,morepermanentthanwar’ . ⁴ Itisnotablethat Brittainfocusesupononeofthefewepisodesinthe Iliad whereawomanis thecentreofattention;inthis,shesetsapatterntobefollowedbythe womenwritersunderdiscussioninthisbook,ofslantingtheworksof Homer,sothattheyspeakoftheexperiencesandconcernsofwomen, ratherthanremainingthepreserveofaselect,malereadership.

AveryrecentreworkingofHomer,PatBarker’ s TheSilenceoftheGirls (2018),isanexampleofthistrend,sinceitisaretellingofthe Iliad from thealternatingviewpointsofAchillesandBriseis.Here,Barkerfollows EmilyHauserwhosenovel FortheMostBeautiful (2016)exploresthe waysinwhichBriseisandKrisayis(Hauser’sversionofHomer’sChryseis)

²Brittain2014:129.³Alexander2015:xxxi–xxxii. ⁴ Brittain2014:138.

experiencetheTrojanWar.Barkeropensherbookwithacorrectivetothe presentationofthewarasanepisodeofgloryandheroism: ‘GreatAchilles. BrilliantAchilles,shiningAchilles,godlikeAchilles Howtheepithets pileup.Wenevercalledhimanyofthosethings;wecalledhim “the butcher” . ’ (3)Thewomen’snameforAchillesoverlaystheTrojanwar withthehorrorsofsubsequentatrocities,byechoingthelanguageusedfor warcriminalssuchasthe ‘butcherofBosnia’ orfortheHolocaustcriminal KlausBarbie, ‘thebutcherofLyon’ . ⁵ Itis,however,theFirstWorldWar thatabovealloverlaysBarker’spresentationoftheTrojanwar.Thisis,in part,duetoheruseofanachronism charactersspeakofneeding ‘halfa crown ’ (104),andtheribald,jauntysingingofthesoldiershasa flavourof well-knownFirstWorldWarsongs butisalsoduetotheechoesofher ownFirstWorldWar Regeneration trilogy.⁶ Thiswasthe firstwartobe commemoratedbyRemembranceSunday,whenthenamesofthefallen arehonouredbybeingreadoutinalist,posingacontemporaryversionof theproblemthatBarker’sBriseisarticulates: ‘Butyouseetheproblem, don’tyou?Howonearthcanyoufeelanypityorconcernconfrontedby thislistofintolerablynamelessnames?’ (217)WeshallseehowAlice Oswaldfoundoneanswertothequestionthroughwhatshereferstoas the ‘biographies’ ofsomeoftheminorcharactersofthe Iliad.Working fromtheshortbutoftentenderandtouchingdetailsgiveninthe Iliad itself whenyoungmenfallinbattle,Oswald’sbiographiesmakeroomforthe worldoffamilyanddomesticity,ofwhichthe Iliad occasionallyallowsa glimpse.⁷ Barkeradoptsacomparableapproach,buthersoldiersare humanizedbythedetailsoftheirearlylivesrememberedbythosewho broughtthemup.Hercatalogueofsoldiersacheswiththesorrowcontainedwithinthesestoriestoldbymothers,offeringdomesticdetailsthat oughttohavenoplaceonthebattleplains,amongtheheapsofdyingmen:

AndthentherewasMulius,theonewithAchilles’ spearpointstickingoutofhis ear. ‘Sixmonthsoldhewaswhenhewalked nevercrawled,nevershuffled

⁵ InChristaWolf ’snovel Kassandra (firstpublished1983)Achillesisgiventheepithet ‘dasVieh’ (translatedasbeast,orbrute),usedalmosteverytimehisnameismentioned. Wolf ’snarrator,Cassandra,alsodescribesAchillesasa ‘butcher’ andspeaksofhowhe ‘butchered’ thetwelvecaptivesatPatroclus’ funeral.

⁶ SeeWilson(2018).

⁷ SeeforinstanceOswald’streatment(p.38)ofyoungIphidamas(Iliad 11.221–47)who iseagertotakeuparmsanddies,withoutyethavingtakenpleasureinhisyoungwife.See Minchin2015:207–8.

aroundonhisbumoranythinglikethat,hejuststraightstoodup.Iusedtowalk himaround,holdingontohishands,bentdouble hours, hours andthe minutehesatdownhewantedtobeupagain.Mebackwasbroke.’⁸

OrIphition’smother,rememberingthe firsttimehisdadtookhim fishing,the frownofconcentrationonhisfaceashetriedtogetthewormontothe hook ‘Oh,andtheminutehestoodup,itfelloffagain.Ididn’tdarelaugh. Poorlittlesoul.Butgivehimhisdue,hewentontrying.Hewaslikethat he wouldn’tgivein.(218)

Barker’sdecisiontoforegroundtheexperiencesofwomeninheraccount ofthe Iliad leadshertorewriteinthemostbrutallygraphictermsoneof themostmovingscenesinWesternliterature:⁹

Idowhatnomanbeforemehaseverdone,Ikissthehandsofthemanwhokilled myson.

Thosewordsechoedaroundme,asIstoodinthestoragehut,surroundedon allsidesbythewealthAchilleshadplunderedfromburningcities.Ithought: And Idowhatcountlesswomenbeforemehavebeenforcedtodo.Ispreadmylegsfor themanwhokilledmyhusbandandmybrothers. (267)

ThepowerofPriam’sfamousgestureofsupplicationstemstoagreat extentfromthewayinwhichthesceneevokesthepowerfulbonds betweenfathersandsons(andBarkerhighlightsthisbyhavingher AchillesmistakePriamforhisfather,Peleus,whenhe firstbecomes awareofhispresenceinthetent).Barker’sBriseisproblematizesthe universal ‘humanity’ ofthisscenebyforcingustoacknowledgethe horrorofsexualviolenceasaweaponofwar.Briseisbreaksthe ‘silence ofthegirls’ toofferadistinctiveandunbearablymovingaccountofhow warisexperiencedbywomen bythemothers,andwives,andslavesof thewarringmen.ButifwelookcarefullyatthereceptionsofHomer sincetheFirstWorldWarbywomenwriters,itbecomesapparentthat Barkerisworkingwithinawell-establishedtradition.

Femaleconsciousnessisatthecentreof Jacob’sRoom, firstpublished in1922.Throughthevoiceofafemalenarratorandarangeoffemale charactersVirginiaWoolfchallengesthevaluesandideologywhich assimilateheroicepicgloryor kleos withthe ‘glory’ promisedtothe youngmenwhoseliveswerelostinthewar.JacobFlanders,thecentral

⁸ Thephrase ‘bent-double’ glancesatitsmostfamoususeinWilfredOwen’sdepictionin ‘Dulceetdecorumest’ ofFirstWorldWarsoldiers: ‘Bentdouble,likeoldbeggarsunder sacks.’

⁹ SeeWilson(2018).

characterinthenovel,isonesuchyoungman.Thenovelarticulatesthe thoughtsandanxietiesofarangeofwomen,allofwhomhaveJacobon theirmindwhilehe firsttravelstoGreeceandthenenliststo fight.Ina particularlypoignantscene,oneofthewomen,Clara,iswalkingherdog, Troy,inHydeParkandapproachingthestatueofAchillesknownasthe WellingtonMemorial.Themonumentiscomicallygarlandedwith everydayobjects,inamarkedjuxtapositionwiththeimmense,tomoderneyesrathercrass,masculinityofthestatue:

TheloopoftherailingbeneaththestatueofAchilleswasfullofparasolsand waistcoats;chainsandbangles;ofladiesandgentlemen,loungingelegantly, lightlyobservant.

‘“ThisstatuewaserectedbythewomenofEngland ”’ Clarareadoutwitha foolishlittlelaugh. ‘Oh,Mr.Bowley!Oh!’ Gallop gallop gallop ahorse gallopedpastwithoutarider.Thestirrupsswung;thepebblesspurted.

‘Oh,stop!Stopit,Mr.Bowley!’ shecried,white,trembling,grippinghisarm, utterlyunconscious,thetearscoming.(Woolf2008:232)

Thestatue,anenormousbronze(thirty-sixfeethigh),waserectedinmemory ofWellington’svictoriesintheNapoleonicwarandisaperfectexampleof theroleplayedbyclassicalantiquityinarticulatingthenationalself-imageof imperialistBritain.¹⁰ Clara’sembarrassedlaughterattheideaofthemonumenthavingbeenfundedentirelybywomenwishingtorememberthe heroismoftheirmenisusuallysaidto alludetothescandaloverthestatue’ s (fig-leaved)nudity.ItseemstousthatthisisalsothelaughterofWoolf herself,evokingthekindofhumourwithwhichshemocks ‘greatmen’ in ThreeGuineas,forinstance(seeStoker2019:108–17).Butlaughterisnotfar fromtears,hereasinVeraBrittain’sfavouritescenefromthe Iliad:the riderlesshorseshocksandfrightensClara,whohasbeenanxiouslythinking aboutJacoballthistime.ThusthesceneanticipatesthedeathofJacob Flanderswithwhichthebookends,andpointsoutthehollowandbombastic ideology andthemisreadingofHomericepic thatareresponsibleforit. Weknowfromherdiaries,andfromherfamousessay OnNot KnowingGreek,thatWoolflovedthe Odyssey.In Jacob’sRoom itis alludedto,likethe Iliad,throughastatue.Thedifferencesareinstructive: whiletheAchillesstatue,whichstandsforthe Iliad,isaneoclassical

¹⁰ SeeTurner1981.SeealsoHoberman1997:15–24ontheimplicationsoftheanthropologicalturnoftheendofthenineteenthcenturyforwomen’sinterpretationsofancient Greececulture.

construct,madeonlyahundredyearsbeforethepublicationof Jacob’ s Room itself,the Odyssey isalludedtoviaamarbleheadintheBritish MuseumreferredtobyWoolfas ‘thebatteredUlysses’.Thisheadofa (perhaps)middle-agedmanwearingakindofconicalcapisindeedvery battered,itsnoseandmouthprettymuchdestroyed.Itisasfarfromthe muscularheroismoftheWellingtonmonument’sAchillesasitispossibletobe,andprovidesagoodexampleoftheshifttowardsthe OdysseanmodelofheroismthattendedtoreplacetheAchilleanin thewakeofthetraumaoftheFirstWorldWar.¹¹ForFannyin Jacob’ s Room,thebatteredUlyssesisanidealrepresentationofthepoordoomed youngman:

Sustainedentirelyuponpicturepostcardsforthepasttwomonths,Fanny’sidea ofJacobwasmorestatuesque,noble,andeyelessthanever.Toreinforceher visionshehadtakentovisitingtheBritishMuseum,where,keepinghereyes downcastuntilshewasalongsideofthebatteredUlysses,sheopenedthemand gotafreshshockofJacob’spresence,enoughtolastherhalfaday.

(Woolf2008:238)

ThisisagoodremindertousofthefactthatbothHomericepicshave appealed,indifferentways,towomenwritersofthelasthundredyears. Duringthetimeweareconsideringitseemsthattheassumedmasculinityandnationalismofepichavebecomeincreasinglycomplicated. EzraPoundhimselffoundhisowndefinitionofepicas ‘thespeechofa nation,throughthemouthofoneman’ tobeincompatiblewiththe realitiesofthetwentiethcentury.¹²Today,nationhoodisitselfnotwhatit wasbeforetheFirstWorldWar,andthemouthmaynowbeawoman’ s asmuchasaman’s.¹³Indeed,VandaZajkohaspointedoutthat,while themodernistsingenerallooktothe Odyssey fortheirHomer,female modernistssuchasH.D.andLauraRidingappeartohavebypreference lookedtothe Iliad.¹⁴ InLauraRiding ’snovel ATrojanEnding,published in1937,weseeanearlyprecursorofthe ‘revisionistmythmaking’ espousedbysecond-wavefeminists,asRidingsetsouttodemolish Homer’sauthorityandreplaceitwithamultitudeofothervoices,mainly Trojansandwomen,whosemeanderingandwide-rangingtalkabout

¹¹Zajko2004:311–12.SeeGraziosiandGreenwood2007:14onmodernismandHomer.

¹²Flack2015:30.ThequotationisfromalettertoPound’smother,inRachewiltz, Moody,andMoody2010:175.

¹³SeeFriedman1986.¹⁴ SeeZajko2004:313.

mythology,ritual,andreligion,takingplaceinthedomesticquarters behindthewallsofTroy,makesupthesubstanceofthenovel.The ‘mouth ’,tousePound’sterminologyagain,isreplacedbymanymouths, andtheyaremainlythemouthsofwomen.¹ ⁵

ResponsestoHomerbywomenwritersformapartofthewider phenomenonofcontemporarywomenshapingthe fieldofclassical receptioninnewanddistinctiveways.¹⁶ ButtoexaminethecircumstancesthatenabledwriterssuchasMargaretAtwood,CarolAnnDuffy, AliceOswald,andFranciscaAguirretoproducesuchpoignantand powerfulresponsesistobecomeawareofthepioneeringworkdoneby lesswell-knownauthors,whosetreatmentofsimilarthemesandconcernsalteredtheZeitgeist,enablingsomeoftheradicalrereadingsthat wearecurrentlyenjoying.In2001theFrenchfeministAnnieLeclerc (perhapsbestknownforher1974work Paroledefemme)offeredusa

PenelopewhoresemblesCarolAnnDuffy’sself-containedandconfident Penelope,whohasnoneedforthereturnofherhusbandindicatedbythe distinctivefootfalloutsideherdoor.¹⁷ Leclerc’sPenelopegloriesinher owncreativity:

Dissimulern’étaitpassansrisque.Maisenmêmetempsparlaruseetlesecret s ’ouvraitunespaceinsoupçonnédeliberté.Tudécouvraisqu’onpouvaitvoler commelesoiseaux,nagercommelespoissons,passerau-dessus,s’insinuer au-dessous,sefaufilerentrelesmaillesdescontraintes.¹⁸ (Therewassomeriskinvolvedwithdissimulation.Butatthesametimeaspaceof freedom,unimagined,wasopenedupbyguileandsecrecy.Youdiscoveredthat onecould flylikeabird,swimlikea fish,soarabove,slinkbelow,wormyourway insidethechinksofconstraints.)

¹⁵ SeeHoberman1997:57–72forasubstantialdiscussionof ATrojanEnding

¹⁶ SeeCoxandTheodorakopoulos2013aand2013candTheodorakopoulos2012for women ’swritingasanunder-researchedtrendinclassicalreception.SeeCox2011for contemporarywomen’swritingandVirgilandnowCox2018forOvidandwomen’ s writing.

¹⁷ ThismomentrecallsDuffy’ spoem ‘Eurydice’,whereEurydice’sbloodrunscoldwith horrorwhenshehearsOrpheus’ distinctive ‘knock-knock-knock’ atthedoor,andrealizes thathehaspursuedherevenasfarastheunderworld.Duffy1999:58–9.

¹⁸ Leclerc2001:34.SeealsoLeclerc’sIntroductiontothisbook,whereshecommentson thelinksbetweenthewords ‘tounravel’ and ‘toanalyse’ inancientGreek: ‘Jenesuisni éruditeni finelettrée,maiscapabledefouillerlàoùsecachentlestrésors.Ainsij’aiappris queleverbeutiliséparHomèrepour “détisser” latoileestuneformede analuô, analyser’ (15)(I’mnoteruditeorespeciallywellread,butIamcapableofscoutingouttreasures.And soIlearnedthattheverbHomerusesfor ‘tounravel’ thewebisaformof analuô to analyse’).