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Geopolitics AVeryShortIntroduction
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Acknowledgements
Iamindebtedtomanypeoplewho,intheirdifferentways,have assistedmeinthewritingofthisbook.MycolleaguesatRoyal Holloway,UniversityofLondonhavehelpedprovideacongenial academichomeforover12yearsandIthankinparticularPhilip BeesleyandFelixDriver.Iamalsoindebtedtomygeopoliticaland historicalcolleaguesincludingLuizaBialasiewicz,JasonDittmer, FraserMacDonald,MikeHeffernan,andFrancisRobinsonCBE fortheirsupportivecomments.Inparticular,Iwantto acknowledgemyformerdoctoralsupervisorandmentor,thelate ProfessorLeslieHepple(1947–2007).ThanksalsototheOxford UniversityPressteamincludingLucianaO’Flaherty,JaneRobson, JamesThompsonandHelenOakesfortheirsupportand enthusiasm.
TheLeverhulmeTrustthroughtheawardofthePhilip LeverhulmePrizeenabledmetoenjoyextendedresearchleave (2006–8).Iammostgratefulfortheirsupport.
Onamorepersonalnote,mymotherprovidedmanyinsightsand wordsofsupport.MywifeCarolyncontinuestobewonderfully understandingofawanderingacademicobsessedwithallthings geopolitical.OurneighboursTina,Claire,Nicola,andDan providedmuchsupportduringthedifficultprocessofwritingthis book.
Finally,Iwouldliketothankthemarvellousconsultants, doctors,andnursingstaffassociatedwiththepaediatricintensive careunitattheRoyalBromptonHospitalfortheirdedicated careofouryoungestson,Theo.Thankstotheirdedicationand professionalism,herecoveredfrommajorheartsurgeryin November2006andIwasabletocompletethisbookasa consequence.Tragically,TheolaterdiedinMay2007.Duringhis lastfewdays,hereceiveddedicatedcarefromthedoctorsand nursingstaffattachedtothepaediatricintensivecareunitatthe EvelinaChildren’sHospital.
ThisbookisdedicatedtoourwonderfulsonTheoforbringingus somuchjoy.Itwasanhonourandprivilegebeinghisfather.
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Listofillustrations
1BombingofBeirut2006 2
c GettyImagesNews/SpencerPlatt
2GeorgeW.BushontheUSS AbrahamLincoln 15
c AFP/StephenJaffe/GettyImages
3JamesBondand DieAnother Day (2002) 16
c EON/RonaldGrantArchive
4Listeningandwatching duringthecoldwar 36
5HenryKissinger: TimeLife cover,10June1974 40
c TimeLifePictures/GettyImages
6Axesofgoodandevil 43
7Formal,practical,andpopular geopolitics 46
8DutchEastIndiaCompany HQ 54
c TopFoto
9DestructionofMostar,Bosnia (1993) 58
c TopFoto
10US–Mexicanborder 61
c Corbis
11UNBuildinginNewYork 66
c UNPhoto/MarkGarten
12GuantanamoBay,Cuba 74
c GettyImagesNews/MarkWilson
13‘NewPhaseBlair’:the Anglo-Iranianhostagecrisis (2007) 81
c SteveBell2007
14Falklandsconflict(1982) 89
c PAPhoto/TopFoto
15EUsymbol 97
c EC
16Istanbulas‘thebridge’ betweenEuropeandAsia 100
c SpectrumColour Library/HIP/TopFoto
17ColonialCairoprovidedthe educationalandpolitical backdroptothelifeandworks ofSayyidQutb 111
c HultonArchive/GettyImages
18FDRandthe‘Fireside Chat’ 117
USNationalArchivesandRecords Administration
19Thegeographicalpivotof history 124
20Europein1914and1919 128
21ParisPeaceConference 130
c TopFoto
22Stillfrom TheNaziStrike 132 www.publicdomaintorrents.com
23Apolar-centredmap projection 136
24Barnett’sfunctioningcoreand non-integratinggap 141
25 United93 filmposter 161
c WorkingTitle/RonaldGrant Archive
26AlJazeerastill 163
c APF/GettyImages
27ProtestingattheWTO meetinginSeattle(1999) 168
c TopFoto
Thepublisherandtheauthorapologizeforanyerrorsoromissionsinthe abovelist.Ifcontactedtheywillbepleasedtorectifytheseattheearliest opportunity.
Chapter1
It’ssmarttobegeopolitical!
Whilethetitleofthisopeningchaptermayappeartobealittle self-servingandowesitsoriginstoRobertStrausz-Hupe,the founderoftheright-wingForeignPolicyResearchInstituteinthe UnitedStates,Iaimtoconvinceyouthatitisnotonlysmartbut alsoessentialtobegeopolitical.Amidtheongoingbloodshedin Afghanistan,Iraq,Sudan,andlesswellreportedplacessuchasthe Congo,thecontinuedrelevanceofgeopoliticsisoverwhelming. Despitetheclaimsmadeinfavourofevermoreintenseformsof globalization,therelevanceofterritory,internationalboundaries, andclaimstosovereigntyremainaspressingasever.Afewfeet hereortherecanmeanthematteroflifeand/ordeath.The labellingofaparticularplaceas‘dangerous’and/or‘threatening’ caninvitemilitaryassaultsfromland,sea,andair,ascivilians foundtotheircostinsouthernLebanoninthesummerof2006. EvenAmerica’salliesinthemidstofaGlobalWaronTerrorsuch asPakistan,accordingtoPresidentPervezMusharraf,have occasionallyfacedtheunpleasantprospectofbeing‘bombedback tothestoneage’iftheircommitmenttorootoutterroristsand theirnetworkseverwavered.
ForthoseofuslivinginEuropeandNorthAmerica,geopolitics mightatfirstappeartohavelessrelevance–somethingtobe appliedtomoreturbulentareasoftheworld.Thisisamistaken view.Geopoliticsisalsopartofoureverydaylivesandby‘our’I
1.Beirutsuburbsslowlycomebacktolifeafterweeksofbombingin
meanthosereaderswhomightbebetterabletoinsulate themselvestothesometimesdailystrugglestocrossborders, assertownershipoverland,andpreventflowsofunwanted armedpersonneland/orsuicidebombers.WhilesomeBritish andNorthAmericancitizensmightworryatthenewbiometric securitychecksatairportsandseaports,theimpactofthe 11September2001attacksontheUnitedStateswaswide reaching.ThesubsequentsuicidebombattacksinBali, Casablanca,Istanbul,Jerusalem,London,andMadrid,in combinationwiththedeeplycontroversialAnglo-American invasionofIraq,havehighlightedhowplacesandpeopleare interconnectedwithoneanother.Citiesinparticularhaveborne thebruntofthiscollectiveassaultandnonemorethanIraqicities suchasBaghdad,Fallujah,andMosulwhosecitizensendurenear dailyassaultsbysuicidebombers,deathsquads,andcoalition forces.SinceMarch2003,over650,000Iraqishavebeenkilled, 2milliondisplacedand10millionremainwithoutaccesstoclean water,accordingtosomeestimatesbynon-governmental organizations.
Everyweek,Ireceiveleafletsinthemail,urgingmetosupport vulnerablecommunitiessuchasthoseinsouthernLebanon,Iraq, Palestine,orAfghanistan.Someplacescan,quiteliterally,be demandingofourattention,whileotherssuchasMogadishu(the capitalofSomalia)aremorelikelytobeencountered electronically–watchthemovie, BlackHawkDown (2001)and nowplaythevideogame.Ifweareenteringanewageof‘blood andiron’thenitisimportantthatwebetterunderstandthosereal andvirtualconnectionsbetweenplacesandcommunitiesandthe consequencesthatfollowtherein.Geopolitics,preciselybecauseit ispreoccupiedwithborders,resources,flows,territories,and identities,canprovideapathwayforcriticalanalysisand understanding–albeitacontroversialone.
Butwhatexactlyisgeopolitics?IfyouweretoGoogletheterm ‘geopolitics’atanyonetime,youmightreceiveapproximatelysix
tosevenmillionhits.Anyonebraveorperhapsfoolishenoughto wadethroughevenafractionofthosepotentialreferenceswould notnecessarilyemergeanythewiserwithregardstoadefinitionof geopolitics.ToparaphrasethesocialtheoristMichaelMann, geopolitics,likemosttermsthathaveattractedacademic attention,isslippery.Moreoftenthannot,itisusedbyjournalists andpunditssuchasThomasBarnettofthe Esquire magazine, ThomasFriedmanofthe NewYorkTimes, ortheformerUS SecretaryofStateHenryKissingerasashorthandterm,intended toconveyarobustattitudetowardspoliticalactionusing taken-for-grantedgeographicaltemplatessuchasthe‘axisofevil’ and‘outpostsoftyranny’.Ratherthantakethosetermsforgranted (orsimplymockthem),itisvitalthatweexplorethesortsof consequencesthatfollowfromdividingtheworldintoparticular zones.
Towardsanunderstandingofgeopolitics
Geopoliticsprovideswaysoflookingattheworldandishighly visualasaconsequence,readilyembracingmaps,tables,and photographs.Whilethereisreallylittlepointintryingtoestablish adefinitionofthetermthatwouldbeabletoholdaconsensusof opinionamongstpundits,twodistinctunderstandingsof geopoliticswillsufficeforthepurposeofthisveryshort introduction.First,geopoliticsoffersformanyareliableguideof thegloballandscapeusinggeographicaldescriptions,metaphors, andtemplatessuchas‘ironcurtain’,‘ThirdWorld’,and/or‘rogue state’.Eachofthesetermsisinherentlygeographicalbecause placesareidentifiedandlabelledassuch.Itthenhelpstogenerate asimplemodeloftheworld,whichcanthenbeusedtoadviseand informforeignandsecuritypolicymaking.Thisideaofgeopolitics isbyfarthemostimportantintermsofeverydayusagein newspapers,radio,magazines,andtelevisionnews,whichalso tendstoreducegovernmentsandcountriestosimpledescriptors suchas‘London’,‘Washington’,or‘Moscow’.
Second,wecouldfocusourattentiononhowgeopoliticsactually worksasanacademicandpopularpractice.Soratherthansimply assumethatlabelssuchas‘ironcurtain’and‘axisofevil’havea certainheuristicvalue,weproceedtoquestionhowtheygenerate particularunderstandingsofplaces,communities,and accompanyingidentities.Theterm‘ThirdWorld’,forexample,not onlyservedasageographicaldescriptionofmanyplacesinAfrica, Asia,andLatinAmerica,italsohelpedtotriangulatethepolitical geographiesofthecoldwarinvolvingtheUnitedStatesandthe ‘FirstWorld’andtheSovietUnionandthe‘SecondWorld’ina globalcompetition.Whilesomehavecriticizedthetermfor assumingthatthe‘ThirdWorld’wastheopenspaceforfurther expressionsofsuperpowerrivalry,othersincludingleadersand intellectualslocatedinAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmericaembraced thetermasameansofregisteringtheirpoliticalandgeographical differencefromtheGlobalNorth.
Thisbookinherentlyfavoursthesecondapproachoverthefirst andthusdoesnotseektoprovideageopoliticalguidetoWestern foreignpolicymaking.Itmakesnopretencetobeingalliedtothe ongoingendeavoursoftheCambridge-basedHenryJackson Society,whichhasrecentlyproposedanewformof‘democratic geopolitics’forBritishforeignpolicy.Whiletheyhaveusedthe termgeopolitics,theyshownointerestinexploringthenatureof theterm.Rather,theaimhereistoshowhowgeopoliticsgetsused andwithwhatconsequencesespeciallyineverydaylife.Inthe main,geopoliticalwriterstaketheglobalstageastheirstarting point.Theappealofa‘god’seyeviewofworld’canoftenprove irresistibletoleadersandpunditsofallpoliticalpersuasionsand backgrounds.Attimesofglobalcrisesandwar,itis understandablethatsuchaglobalviewoftheworldmightneedto prevail.Consider,forinstance,someofthespeechesmadeby PrimeMinisterWinstonChurchillandPresidentHarryTruman inthemidtolate1940s.Politicalandgeographicalcontextwas criticalasbothsoughttointerpretaworldthathadbeenravaged byconflict.Alliedvictoryhadnotbroughtglobalstability.Within
threeyearsoftheendingoftheSecondWorldWar,thevictorious powerswereembroiledinacrisisoveraccesstothedividedcityof Berlin.Bythetimefiveyearshadelapsed,thosesamewartime alliesalongsideChinawereconfrontingoneanotherintheKorean Peninsula.Overtwomillionpeoplediedasaconsequenceand mostofthevictimswerecivilian.ThePeninsularemainsdivided tothisdayalongthe38thParallel.
InMarch1946,beforethecrisesinBerlinandKorea,Churchill addressedanaudienceinFultoninthestateofMissouri.Taking stockoftheworld,andEuropeinparticular,Churchillevoked(but didnotcoin)oneofthemostmemorableexpressionsofthe20th century:
FromStettinintheBaltictoTriesteintheAdriatic anironcurtain hasdescendedacrosstheContinent.Behindthatlinelieallthe capitalsoftheancientstatesofCentralandEasternEurope. Warsaw,Berlin,Prague,Vienna,Budapest,Belgrade,Bucharestand Sofia;allthesefamouscitiesandthepopulationsaroundthemliein whatImustcalltheSovietsphere,andallaresubject,inoneform oranother,notonlytoSovietinfluencebuttoaveryhighandin somecasesincreasingmeasureofcontrolfromMoscow.
TwicetheUnitedStateshashadtosendseveralmillionsofitsyoung menacrosstheAtlantictofightthewars.Butnowweallcanfind anynation,whereveritmaydwell,betweenduskanddawn.Surely weshouldworkwithconsciouspurposeforagrandpacificationof EuropewithinthestructureoftheUnitedNationsandin accordancewithourCharter.
Theterm‘ironcurtain’attractedmuchpublicattentioninthe immediateaftermath.Asananalogy,thephraseconveyedavery realsenseofageographicalbarriercuttingacrossavastswatheof continentalEurope.Critically,acurtainmadeofironnotonly preventslightfromfilteringthroughitbutalsofoilsanyother flowssuchaspeopleand/orgoods.Churchilloftenmadereference
tolightanddarknessinhiswartimeandcoldwarspeechesin ordertoconveyafurthersenseofhowEuropewasdivided betweenliberaldemocraciesintheWestandfascismandlater communistregimesintheEast.The‘ironcurtain’stuckinthe geographicalimaginationsofpeoplebothsidesoftheAtlanticand waslatertobesupplementedbyPresidentReagan’sdescriptionof theSovietUnionasan‘evilempire’in1982.Bywayofcontrast,the SovietmedianeverpublishedChurchill’sspeechandtheSoviet leaderJosephStalinlaterused‘thespeech’topersuadehisfellow citizensthatthecountrywasbeingthreatenedbyanaggressive groupingcomprisedoftheUnitedStatesanditsWestern EuropeanalliesincludingBritain.
PresidentTruman,acontemporaryofChurchillandStalin,also usedhisspeechestorepresentandinterpretaworldthatwas changinginthelate1940s.Inanaddresson12March1947toa jointsessionofCongress,Trumanpresentedastarkviewofthe world: Atthepresentmomentinworldhistorynearlyeverynationmust choosebetweenalternative waysoflife.Thechoiceistoooftennota freeone.
Onewayoflifeisbaseduponthewillofthemajority,andis distinguishedbyfreeinstitutions,representativegovernment,free elections,[and]guaranteesofindividualliberty,freedomofspeech andreligion,andfreedomfrompoliticaloppression.
Thesecondwayoflifeisbaseduponthewillofaminorityforcibly imposeduponthemajority.Itreliesuponterrorandoppression,a controlledpressandradio;fixedelections,andthesuppressionof personalfreedoms.
IbelievethatitmustbethepolicyoftheUnitedStatestosupport freepeopleswhoareresistingattemptedsubjugationbyarmed minoritiesorbyoutsidepressures.
Ibelievethatwemustassistfreepeoplestoworkouttheirown destiniesintheirownway.
Ibelievethatourhelpshouldbeprimarilythrougheconomicand financialaid,whichisessentialtoeconomicstabilityandorderly politicalprocesses.
Theworldisnotstatic,andthestatusquoisnotsacred.Butwe cannotallowchangesinthestatusquoinviolationoftheCharterof theUnitedNationsbysuchmethodsascoercion,orbysuch subterfugesaspoliticalinfiltration.Inhelpingfreeandindependent nationstomaintaintheirfreedom,theUnitedStateswillbegiving effecttotheprinciplesoftheCharteroftheUnitedNations.Itis necessaryonlytoglanceatamaptorealizethatthesurvivaland integrityoftheGreeknationareofgraveimportanceinamuch widersituation.IfGreeceshouldfallunderthecontrolofanarmed minority,theeffectuponitsneighbor,Turkey,wouldbeimmediate andserious.Confusionanddisordermightwellspreadthroughout theentireMiddleEast.
AswithChurchill’saddress,thespeechwasinstrumentalin shapingthepost-1945geographicalimaginationoftheUnited Statesandthewiderworld.Afterexaminingthefragilesituation inGreeceandTurkey,thePresidentofferedasimplebut politicallyeffectivedivision(‘waysoflife’)betweenthosecountries thatsupportedliberty,freedom,anddemocracyandthosewho didnot.Whileitwasclearthatheintendedthedivisiontofavour theUnitedStatesanditsalliesattheexpenseoftheSovietUnion, italsocommittedthecountrytoupholdingthenewgeopolitical architectureofthepost-1945era.Americansupportinthe 1940sand1950swascriticalevenifmorecontemporary administrationshavebeenpronetodisplaysofambivalence andeventhinlydisguisedmalfeasancetowardstheUnited Nations.
Termssuchas‘ironcurtain’andlatergeographicalmanifestations suchas‘evilempire’underPresidentReaganinthe1980sor‘axis
ofevil’underPresidentGeorgeW.Bushin2002mattergreatly becausetheyfrequentlyhelptolegitimate(andjustify)subsequent expressionsofstatesmanshipandforeignpolicydecisionmaking. Geographicaldescriptionscontinuetoprovideanessential elementintheimplementationofforeignandsecuritypolicies. Thosedescriptionsofplacesandregionscanalsobedramatically overturnedbyevents.ThedestructionoftheBerlinWall inNovember1989ledtoaradicalre-evaluationofEasternand CentralEuropebyAmericanandRussiangovernmentsalike.The term‘ironcurtain’nolongermadepoliticaland/orgeographical senseasdemocraticmovementsbrushedformercommunist regimesaside.Twoyearslater,theso-called‘evilempire’ofthe SovietUniondisintegratedandthecoldwarsecurityorganization, theNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO,createdin1949), expandedtoincludeformerEasternBlocstatessuchasPoland, CzechRepublic,andHungary.TheRussiangovernmenthaslooked onwithmountingconcernatthisgeopoliticalencroachment.
Geopolitics,asInotedearlier,canalsoconcernitselfwiththe implicitgeographicalunderstandingsofworldpoliticsmobilized everydaybypoliticalleaders,journalists,andlearnedexperts. Termssuchas‘ThirdWorld’notonlyservedtoidentifyparticular regionsoftheworldbutalsoaidedandabettedtheproduction andcirculationofcoldwaridentities.Recentlyindependent countriesinAfricaandAsiausedexpressionssuchas ‘non-alignment’todepictadesirefordifferentsetsofgeographical andideologicalrelationships–oneswhichwerenottiedtothetwo superpowers.Whileitmaybeperfectlyreasonabletofocusonthe speechesandsubsequentbehaviourofpowerfulpoliticalleaders, geopoliticalactivitiesarenotthesolepreserveofstatesand governments.Individuals,non-governmentalorganizations, privatecompanies,internationalandregionalinstitutionssuchas theUnitedNationsandtheEuropeanUnionengagein geopolitics.Newmediatechnologiessuchastheinternethavealso enablednon-stateorganizations,suchasanti-globalizationgroups andterrornetworksamongstothers,touseittocampaignand
