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GenderandNounClassification OXFORDSTUDIESINTHEORETICALLINGUISTICS GENERALEDITORS :DavidAdgerandHagitBorer,QueenMaryUniversityofLondon
ADVISORYEDITORS :StephenAnderson,YaleUniversity;DanielBüring,University ofVienna;NomiErteschik-Shir,Ben-GurionUniversity;DonkaFarkas,Universityof California,SantaCruz;AngelikaKratzer,UniversityofMassachusetts,Amherst; AndrewNevins,UniversityCollegeLondon;ChristopherPotts,StanfordUniversity; BarrySchein,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia;PeterSvenonius,Universityof Tromsø;MoiraYip,UniversityCollegeLondon
RECENTTITLES
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GenderandNounClassification
editedby ÉricMathieu,MyriamDali,andGitaZareikar
Foracompletelistoftitlespublishedandinpreparationfortheseries,seepp.
GenderandNoun Classification Editedby ÉRICMATHIEU,MYRIAMDALI, ANDGITAZAREIKAR
GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford, OXDP, UnitedKingdom
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Contents Generalpreface x
Acknowledgements xi
Listofabbreviations xii
Thecontributors xvii
.Humans,gods,anddemons ÉricMathieu
. PartI:Genderandpartition
. PartII:Locusofgender
. PartIII:Morphosemanticnounclassi fication
Conclusion
PartI.Genderandpartition
.Partitioningthenominaldomain:Theconvergenceofmorphology, syntax,semantics,andpragmatics
Rose-MarieDéchaine
. Introduction
. Thelogicoftheproblem
. CLASS andD
.. PlainsCreeanimacyinflection
.. PlainsCree CLASS selectsD
.. PlainsCreeanimacyisdiscourseconditioned
.. Theinteractionofanimacywithobviation andbiologicalgender
. CLASS andNumber
.. Shona n-classes
.. Shona CLASS isafeatureon NUM
.. Shona CLASS isprolific
. Conclusion
.Categorizationasnounconstruction:Gender,number, andentitytypes
PaoloAcquaviva
. Introduction
. Numberandkind-levelreading
.. Twoempiricalobservations
.. Kindsandentitytypes
Numberandpartstructure
TheDPprojectionline
A finer-graineddivisionofreference
Threeempiricalanalyses
GenderasapropertyofDP
.. Genderabovethe ‘lexical’ nounlevel
.. ‘Interpreted’ genderandvariablepositioning
.. ‘Interpreted’ genderandvariablepositioning:Evidence fromItalian
. Conclusion
PartII.Locusofgender .MultiplefacetsofconstructionalArabicgenderand ‘functional universalism ’ intheDP
AbdelkaderFassiFehri
Introduction
. Classi fiermorpho-syntaxinanumberlanguage
Modesoffunctionalunitization
Groupclassi fication
‘Pseudo-partitive’ semi-functionalstructure
Functionalsingulativesandpluratives
Moreongroupsandsingulatives
Manydistinctpatternsofgenderagreement
SingularlowGenagreement
Non-humanbasedpluralGenagreement
The ‘mixed’ plurativeorwhenGenisNum(=Group)
.. Partitives,groups,andkinds
. Furthermotivationforgenderasconstructional
.. Gen asa ‘perspectiviser’
.. PerformativeGen
.. PaucalGenandpaucalnumerals
.. Is –t GenorNum?
. Conclusion
.Limitinggender
ChristopherHammerly
Introduction
GenderandnominalmorphologyinFrench
Alternationswithanimatenouns
Alternationswithinanimatenouns
Diminutive/augmentative
Singulative
AdjectiveNPs
Summary
Thestructureandrepresentationofgenderfeatures
Existingaccounts
Afeaturegeometryforgender
Pathwaystointerpretation
Thedenotationofgender
.. Presuppositionalaccountsofgender
.. Theinterpretivemechanism
.. ImplementationinFrench
.. Associatingmeaningsofsub-structures
. Limitinggender
. Conclusion
.Thedoublelifeofgenderanditsstructuralconsequences:
AcasestudyfromStandardItalian
IvonaKučerová
Introduction
Dissociatingclassmarkerandgender
Naturalgenderandtheorderofsyntacticoperations
Valuationfromthecontextvsvaluationfromthelexicon
Predictions:Categoryneutralroots
Conclusi ons
.OngenderagreementinBrazilianPortuguese
DannieldaSilvaCarvalho
. Introduction
. GenderinBrazilianPortuguese
. Outlininggenderasafeature
. Thesyntacticeffectofgender
. Relativizinggenderagreement
. On ‘non-Agreement’ structuresinBrazilianPortuguese
. Ondefinitenessandagreement:Thecaseofpredicative agreementinGerman
. Finalremarks
.Anovelkindofgendersyncretism
RuthKramer
. Introduction
. Background
.
.
. Gender,number,andsyncretism
Gender/numbersyncretisminDM
. Convergent-to-gender
.
.
.
.
Maay
Amharic:Predictionconfirmed
.. Haro: Metasyncretism
Largerimplications
SyncretisminDMandPFM
Syncretismorsyntax?
Conclusion
.(Grammatical)gendertroublesandthegenderofpronouns
PhoevosPanagiotidis
. Introduction
. Grammaticalversussemanticgender
. Genderandemptynouns
. Acaseofgrammaticaltransgendering
. Conclusion
PartIII.Morphosemanticnounclassification .Number,names,andanimacy:Nominalclassesandplural interactionsinGitksan
ClarissaForbes
. Introduction
. ThebasicsofGitksanmorphosyntax
. Classi ficationinAspP:Themass/countcontrast
.. Mass/countinGitksan
.. Propertiesofstem-levelplurality
.. Thestructureofmass/countandstem-plurals
. Classi ficationinDP:Thecommon/determinatecontrast
.. Propertiesofthecommon/determinatedistinction
.. Determinatenumber
.. Thesemanticsof dip
.. Structuringdeterminacyandassociativity
. Classi ficationin φP:Theanimacycontrast
.. Theinanimate φ-system
.. Pronominalpluralityisnotstem-plurality
.. Pronominalpluralityisnotequivalenttoassociativity
. Conclusion
.Pluralmarkingonmassnouns:EvidencefromGreek
MariaKouneli
. Introduction
. Theoreticalbackground
. PluralmassnounsinGreek
. Cross-linguisticimplications
.. HalkomelemSalishandBlackfoot
.. Ojibwe
.. Persian
. Conclusion
.Productivityvspredictability:Evidenceforthesyntaxandsemantics ofAnimategenderinfourNortheastern-areaAlgonquianlanguages
ConorMcDonoughQuinn
. Introduction
. Alternativeaccounts,andthecurrentproposal
. A ‘family’-basedmodelofAnimatestatus
.. The ‘family’-basedapproach
.. Evidencefor ‘family’ effects:dualanimacyand variableanimacy
. Evidencefordynamicsynchronicproductivity: Passamaquoddy-MaliseetandMi’kmaw
. The ‘family’-basedmodel’ssynchronicprocesses inrelationtovariationand(systematic)diachronicchange
. Outstandingissues
.. Falsifiability
ModellingthesemanticsofAnimateassignment
ModellingthesyntaxofAnimateassignment
Conclusion
.Howtophraseologizenominalnumber
Solv eigaArmoskaite
. Introduction
. Pluralandsingular -yb- nominalscontrast:Evidence
.. Agreementpatternsconfirmthesplit
.. Quantifierandnumeralpatternsconfirmthesplit
.. Basecontrastsconfirmthesplit
. Theoreticalassumptions
. Proposal
. Conclusions,predictions,andfurtherquestions
References
Index
Generalpreface Thetheoreticalfocusofthisseriesisontheinterfacesbetweensubcomponentsofthe humangrammaticalsystemandthecloselyrelatedareaoftheinterfacesbetweenthe differentsubdisciplinesoflinguistics.Thenotionof ‘interface’ hasbecomecentralin grammaticaltheory(forinstance,inChomsky’sMinimalistProgram)andinlinguisticpractice:workontheinterfacesbetweensyntaxandsemantics,syntaxand morphology,phonologyandphonetics,etc.hasledtoadeeperunderstandingof particularlinguisticphenomenaandofthearchitectureofthelinguisticcomponent ofthemind/brain.
Theseriescoversinterfacesbetweencorecomponentsofgrammar,includingsyntax/ morphology,syntax/semantics,syntax/phonology,syntax/pragmatics,morphology/ phonology,phonology/phonetics,phonetics/speechprocessing,semantics/pragmatics, andintonation/discoursestructure,aswellasissuesinthewaythatthesystemsof grammarinvolvingtheseinterfaceareasareacquiredanddeployedinuse(including languageacquisition,languagedysfunction,andlanguageprocessing).Itdemonstrates, wehope,thatproperunderstandingsofparticularlinguisticphenomena,languages, languagegroups,orinter-languagevariationsallrequirereferencetointerfaces.
Theseriesisopentoworkbylinguistsofalltheoreticalpersuasionsandschoolsof thought.Amainrequirementisthatauthorsshouldwritesoastobeunderstoodby colleaguesinrelatedsubfieldsoflinguisticsandbyscholarsincognatedisciplines.
Inthecurrentvolume,theeditorshavecollectedasetofstudiesfromaverywide typologicalrangeoflanguages,exploringwhatkindsofcategoriesandfeatureslieat theheartofnounclassification,focusingongender,butextendingtosystemsthatuse number,person,animacy,anddeterminersforthisfunction.Thechaptersexplore thesesystemsviathreecentralquestions:whatisthefunctionalroleofgenderin partitioningnounsintoseparateclasses,andhowisthisbestcharacterizedin syntactictheory?Whatisthesyntacticlocationofgenderinformationinnominal structureandhowdoesthisimpactmorphologicalrealization?And finally,howare genderandrelatedsystemsofclassi ficatoryfeaturessemanticallyinterpreted?Overall thechaptersinthevolumepointtobroadlysimilarconclusionsabouttherole, position,andinterpretationofgender,andthevolumeasawholeservestoprovide areferencepointinstudiesofnounclassi ficationfromtheperspectiveofgenerative syntax.
DavidAdger HagitBorer
Acknowledgements ThisvolumegrewoutoftheGender,nounclassification,anddeterminationconference heldattheUniversityofOttawainSeptember .Theconferencewastheninth inaseriesdedicatedtoissuesinthesyntaxandsemanticsofthenounphrase.The conferencebroughttogetheraworkinggroupofCanadianlinguistswhoworkonthe nominalphraseandprovidedotherscholarswiththeopportunitytopresentoriginal researchandcollaborate.Thereweretwenty-threeoralpresentations(including fifteen invitedspeakers)andapostersession.Wethankalltheparticipantsforanamazing workshop.
WealsothankSSHRC(SocialSciencesandHumanitiesResearchCouncilof Canada),theFacultyofArts,andtheUniversityofOttawaforgenerousfunding.We wouldliketothankthestudentvolunteerswhohelpedusorganizesuchanexciting conference/workshop:VeselaSimeonova,BrandonFry,TharangaWeerasooriya, andNovaStarr.Fortheiradministrativeassistance:JeanneD’ArcTurpin,Maurice Bélanger,andDonnaDesbiens.Wealsothankthemanyreviewersoftheabstracts, submittedpapers,andgrantproposals.
Listofabbreviations #count
#Pcountphrase
√ root
√Prootphrase
↑ older
# younger
parallelkin
female
male
firstperson
secondperson
thirdperson
[
]cohortofgo
[+]childofego
[
[
]parentofego
]grandparentofego
*ungrammaticalphrase
ϕ agreementfeatures
☺ positiveeffect
☹ negativeeffect
ACC accusative
addraddressee advbadverbial
AI animateintransitiveverb
ANIM animate
AnimPAnimacy
AspPaspectphrase
assocassociative
attrattributive
AUG augmentative
axagentextraction
Ccomplementizer
C complementizer
ccnjClausalconjunction
CL class
CL classifier
CL clitic
clcausal
CIconceptual-intentionalinterface
ClPclassifierphrase
cmncommon
cnjconjunction
cnncommonnoundeterminer contrcontrastive
CPcomplementizerphrase ctrlcontrol
Ddeterminer(head)
DAT dative desdesiderative
DET determiner detrdetransitive
DIM diminutive Divdivision
DivPdivisionphrase dndeterminatenoundeterminer
DO doubleobject
DPdeterminerphrase
DST distaldemonstrative dtmdeterminate
dwiddomainwidener emphemphasis
eN emptynoun episepistematic
Evalevaluative
exprexperiential
EXT extensional
Ffunctional
Ffunctionalcategory
FEM feminine
FEM femalebiologicalgender
FPfunctionalphrase gengenitive
Gengender
GEN ’ N generation
GroupPgroupphrase habhabitual humhuman impersimpersonal iinterpretable
Iinterpretable
II inanimateintransitiveverbstem
IMP Imperative
INANIM inanimate incepinceptive
INCL inclusive
IND indicative
INDEF indefinite indvindividual
INF infinitive
INT intentional
IPinflectionalphrase jussjussive
LFlogicalform
LOC localspeechactparticipant
manrmanner
MASC masculine modmodal
nnoun
Nneuter
NEG negation
NMLZ nominalizer
NOM nominative
nPlittlenounphrase
NPnounphrase
Numnumber
NumPNumberphrase
Ooblique
OBJ object
OBV obviative
OX objectextraction xiv Listofabbreviations
Ppreposition
PCCperson-caseconstraint
pcnjphrasalconjunction
PFphonologicalform
pfxprefix
phraseaspAspect
PL plural
PMpredicatemodification
pncpropernounconnective
PPprepositionphrase
PRED predicate
PRES present
prospprospective
PROX proximate
prtcparticipant
PRX proximaldeixis
PST past
RECIP reciprocal
REFL reflexive
remremote
reportreportative
RootProotphrase
rstrdomainrestrictor
SAPspeechactphrase
SG singular
singsingulative
Sort.sortal
spcfspecific
specspecifier
spkrspeaker
sptspatiotemporal
stemaffaffirmative
SUB subject
suffunknownsuffix
SVsubjectverb
sxintransitivesubjectextraction
Tt-morpheme
TA transitiveanimateverbstem
Listofabbreviations
xvi Listofabbreviations
TI transitiveinanimateverbstem
TRANS transitive
uuninterpretable
u unmarked/unvalued
UnitPunitizerphrase
Vverb
valvalencyadjuster
ververumfocus
VIvocabularyitem
VPverbphrase
VSverbsubject
Xcrosskin
Yyes-noquestion
Thecontributors P AOLO A CQUAVIVA isAssociateProfessoratUniversityCollegeDublin.Heisagraduateofthe UniversityofPisaandoftheScuolaNormaleSuperioreofPisa,whereheobtainedhisPh.D.in .Hehaspublishedmainlyontherelationbetweensemanticsandmorphology,particularlyaboutthetheoryofnumberandcountability.Hiscurrentresearchinterestsarethelexical semanticsofnounsanditsinterfacewiththeconceptualsystem,names,andtheontologyof naturallanguage. LexicalPlurals,anextensivestudyofvarietiesofnon-canonicalplurality,was publishedbyOxfordUniversityPressin .
S OLVEIGA A RMOSKAITE isAssistantProfessoratUniversityofRochester.Sheiscurrently consumedbythestudyandcomparisonsofsoundsymbolicexpressionsinLithuanian, Finnish,andTurkish.
D ANNIELDA S ILVA C ARVALHO completedhisPh.D.inLinguisticsin andisnowAssociate ProfessorinLinguisticsattheDepartmentofFoundationsfortheStudyofLanguages,Federal UniversityofBahia,Brazil.Hisresearchinterestsinclude φ-features,theirintra-linguisticand cross-linguistictypologyaswellastheirsyntaxandmorphosyntaxtogetherwiththeirrelation withsemanticstructures,withaspecialfocusonthepronominalsystemofBrazilian Portuguese.
M YRIAM D ALI isaPh.D.candidateattheUniversityofOttawa.Herresearchinterestsinclude thesyntaxandsemanticsofnumberandgender,thestructureoftheDP,thesingulativeaswell asthediachronicevolutionofnumbermarkingsystems.Shehasrecentlyworkedonthe competitionbetweenpluralformsinTunisianArabic.Shehaspublishedanarticlein LinguisticaeInvestigationes andhasabookinpreparationonpluralswithJohnBenjamins.
R OSE -M ARIE D ÉCHAINE isafacultymemberintheDepartmentofLinguisticsattheUniversity ofBritishColumbia.Drawingondatasetsfromawiderangeoflanguages(butmostespecially fromAlgonquian,Na-Dene,andNiger-Congo)herresearchprogrammefocusesonsyntaxat theinterface.Sheinvestigatestheinteractionofsyntaxwithphonology,morphology,syntax, andpragmatics,andthechallengesthattheseinterfaceissuespresentforthedevelopmentofa formalsyntactictypologyofmicro-parametricandmacro-parametricvariation.
A BDELKADER F ASSI F EHRI isProfessorofArabicandComparativeLinguistics,Presidentofthe LinguisticSocietyofMorocco(MohammedVUniversity,Rabat),andanactiveMemberofa numberofArabicInitiatives,Prizes,andAcademies.HereceivedaDoctoratd’ÉtatfromParis IIISorbonneforhisthesison Complémentationetanaphoreenarabemoderne in ,held thepositionofDirectoroftheInstitutefortheStudyandResearchonArabization,and receivedtheKingFaisalPrizeforModernArabicLinguistics(),andtheHighestMerit PrizeforScienceandCulture(Rabat, ).Hehaspublishednumerousbooksandarticlesin Arabic,English,andFrenchonArabicgrammarandlinguistictheory.Titlesinclude Issues intheStructureofArabicClausesandWords (Kluwer ),and KeyFeaturesandParameters
inArabicGrammar (JohnBenjamins ).Heiscurrently finishingabookongender,number, numeral,andquantifierextensionsinArabicvarieties.
C LARISSA F ORBES isaPh.D.candidateattheUniversityofToronto.Shecompletedher undergraduatestudiesattheUniversityofBritishColumbiain ,andhasbeenworking sincethenontheGitksanlanguageincollaborationwiththeUBCGitksanResearchLab.Sheis currentlywritingherdissertationonthetopicofergativeagreementpatternsinGitksanand neighbouringTsimshianiclanguages,andisfurtherworkingonprojectsregardingmorphologicallyconditionedstressandA’-extractionmorphology.
C HRISTOPHER H AMMERLY isaPh.D.candidateintheDepartmentofLinguisticsatthe UniversityofMassachusettsAmherst,whereheissupportedbytheGraduateResearch FellowshipfromtheNationalScienceFoundation.HeholdsaB.A.inLinguisticsandaBS inPsychologyfromtheUniversityofMinnesota,andwasaBaggettFellowattheUniversityof MarylandDepartmentofLinguistics.Hisresearchspansawidevarietyofmethodsincluding formalsyntax,psycholinguistics,and fieldwork,whichheusestoexaminetheinterpretationof morphosyntacticfeatures,theformationofsyntacticdependencies,andtheinteractionof memoryandlanguagecomprehension.
M ARIA K OUNELI isaPh.D.candidateatNewYorkUniversity.Herresearchinterestsinclude themorphosyntaxofnumberandgender,thestructureoftheDPmoregenerally,aswellas Caseandagreement.Shehasrecentlyworkedonthecomplexnumbermorphologyofthe Kalenjinlanguage.
R UTH K RAMER isAssociateProfessorofLinguisticsatGeorgetownUniversity.Sheconducts researchonthemorphology-syntaxinterfacewithaparticularinterestinnominalfeatureslike gender,number,anddefiniteness.SheworksmostlyonAfroasiaticlanguages,withspecial focusontheEthiosemiticlanguageAmharic.Hermonograph TheMorphosyntaxofGender waspublishedin byOxfordUniversityPress,andshehaspublishedpapersinjournals suchas NaturalLanguageandLinguisticTheory, LinguisticInquiry, Syntax,Languageand LinguisticsCompass,andthe JournalofAfroasiaticLanguages,amongothers.
I VONA K U Č EROVÁ isAssociateProfessorofLinguisticsatMcMasterUniversity.Shespecializes intheoreticalsyntaxandsemantics,andtheirinterface.Herworkexploresinformation structureanditsmorphosyntacticcorrelates,definitenesssystemsandtheirrelationtoaspect, themorphosyntaxandmorphosemanticsofcase,agreement,andcasesplits,thesyntaxofnull languages,andthesyntaxofcopularclauses.SheworksmainlyonSlavic,Germanic,and Romancelanguages.
É RIC M ATHIEU isProfessorattheUniversityofOttawa.HecompletedhisPh.D.in at UniversityCollegeLondon.HisresearchfocusesonFrench(ModernandOld)andOjibwe(an Algonquianlanguage).Hehaspublishedin LinguisticInquiry, NaturalLanguageandLinguisticTheory, Syntax, InternationalJournalofAmericanLinguistics, JournalofLinguistics, Lingua, Probus, StudiaLinguistica,and LinguisticVariation.Heisalsotheauthorofnumerous chaptersinbooks(withOxfordUniversityPress,CambridgeUniversityPress,JohnBenjamins,Routledge,andSpringer,amongothers)andco-authorofseveralbooks;amonograph onislandeffectsentitled ‘Thesyntaxandsemanticsofsplitconstructions’,aspecialeditionof
Lingua onnounincorporation,aneditedvolumeonRomancelanguages ‘Variationacrossand withinlanguages’,andaforthcomingbookonplurals.
C ONOR M C D ONOUGH Q UINN isadocumentaryandrevitalization/reclamationlinguist withtheoreticalinterestscentringprimarilyaroundmorphosyntax,morphosemantics, andrevitalization/reclamationpedagogy.Sincethemid-shehasworkedextensively withtheAlgonquianlanguagesofnorth-easternNorthAmerica,particularlyPenobscot, Passamaquoddy-Maliseet,Mi’kmaw,andWesternAbenaki,aswellasthoseofmainland southernNewEnglandandLongIsland.Hisanalyticaleffortsfocusmainlyonthemore distinctivegrammaticalfeaturesofAlgonquianlanguages:animacy,obviation,pronominalargumentconfiguration,nominaltense,verbalshapeclassifiers,andpolysyntheticstemstructure,amongothers,payingspecialattentiontohowformal/scholarlymodelscanbeusefulin directdialoguewithsecond-languagepedagogicalapproaches.
P HOEVOS P ANAGIOTIDIS isProfessorofTheoreticalLinguisticsandVice-ChairofEnglish StudiesattheUniversityofCyprus.In hewasawardedaPh.D.inLinguisticsforhis thesis ‘Pronominalsandemptynounheads: “pronominality” andlicensinginSyntax’ bythe UniversityofEssex,publishedasamonographin as Pronouns,Cliticsandempty nouns (Benjamins ).Healsoeditedthe ComplementizerPhase:subjectsandoperators volumepublishedin byOxfordUniversityPress.Hehaspublishedarticlesinjournalssuch as LinguisticInquiry, Lingua, NaturalLanguageandLinguisticTheory,Syntax,TheLinguistic Review,TheoreticalLinguistics, StudiaLinguistica, JournalofLinguistics, Morphology,and LingueeLinguaggio.Hisresearchinterestsincludelexicalcategories,adjectives,roots,pronouns,thenominaldomain,mixedprojections,compounding,thenatureoffunctional categories,andthesyntaxofGreekandBalkanlanguages.
G ITA Z AREIKAR isapost-doctoralresearcherattheUniversityofOttawa.Herresearchinterests includethesyntaxandsemanticsofbarenominalsandnumberinterpretationingeneral numberlanguages.Shefocusesonthesyntaxofnounphrasesandmorespecificallyonthe evolutionofclassifiersinnon-numeral-classifierlanguages.Shehasrecentlybeenworkingon theinteractionbetweentelicityandviewpointaspectwithnumberandspecificity.
1 Humans,gods,anddemons ÉRICMATHIEU Humansliketocategorizethings.Thisismostprevalentinthewayweuselanguage toplacenounsinspeci ficgroupsandinthewaylinguisticstructurereflectsthis cataloguing.Forexample,inTamil,nounscomeintwosuper-classes:the ‘rational’ andthe ‘irrational’ . ‘Rational’ nounsincludehumans,gods,andmonsterswhile ‘irrational’ nounscompriseanimals,objects,aswellasabstractnouns(Asher : ;Aikhenvald : ). ‘Rational’ nounsarefurtherdividedintothreecategories: masculinesingular,femininesingular,andrationalplural,while ‘irrational’ nounsare furthersplitintotwoclasses:irrationalsingularandirrationalplural(neuterforms).
Thenatureofsuper-classesvariescross-linguistically:feminineversusmasculine formsinIndo-Europeanlanguages(withathirdneutertypeinsomelanguages)or inanimateversusanimateformsinAlgonquianlanguages.Anounmayalsosimply belongtoagivenclassbecauseitsharesasimilarmorphologicalformwithothernouns.
Despitethevariationincontent,suchacategorizingprocessisauniversalfeature ofhumanlanguages.Itiscallednounclassificationorsimplygender,andtheterms areoftenusedinterchangeably(Corbett ).
Theaimofthisvolumeistoestablishwhatfunctionalorlexicalcategoriesare responsibleforthistypeofclassification,especiallyalongthenominalsyntacticspine, inatheoreticalcontextstartedwiththeadventofthePrincipleandParameters framework(Jackendoff ;Szabolcsi , ;Abney ;Ritter , , ;amongothers)andfurtherdevelopedwithinMinimalismandDistributed Morphology.Weaimtoshowwhere,inthenominalstructure,genderisableto functionasaclassifyingdeviceandhow,intheabsenceofgenderasaclassifying device,determinersandotherfunctionalelementsinthenominalspinecometo fill thatgap.
Muchdiscussionwillalsocentreonhowgenderparticipatesingrammatical concordandagreementphenomena.Thisisonlynaturalsinceitisoftenproposed thatgenderreferstoclassesofnounswithinalanguagethatare ‘ reflectedinthe behaviourofassociatedwords’ (Hockett : ).Thefeature ‘gender’ isoften referredtoas ‘gender ’ inalanguageifitconcernstheclassi ficationofthenominal inventoryofthelanguage,butonlyiftheinherentlyassignedgendervaluesfoundon
GenderandNounClassification.Firstedition.ÉricMathieu,MyriamDali,andGitaZareikar(eds). Thischapter©ÉricMathieu .Firstpublished byOxfordUniversityPress.
nounsarematchedbycontextuallyassignedgendervaluesfoundontargetsof agreementingender.Ifalanguagehasasystemofnominalclassi ficationexpressed throughinflectionalmorphology,butthefeatureofnominalclassi ficationdoesnot participateinagreement,itdoesnotqualifyas ‘gender’ (KibortandCorbett ). Insum,genderisexclusivelyafeatureofagreement.
Ingenerativegrammar,genderfeaturesmakeup,withnumberandperson features,thesetof φ-featuresthatparticipateinagreement(atopicthathasspawned alotofresearch,Chomsky , ;BéjarandRezac ;Harbour,Adger,and Béjar ;Rezac ;Preminger ).AProbecarryinganuninterpretable featureentersintoanagreementrelationshipwithaGoalcarryinganinterpretable feature(Chomsky , ).Thisisrelevantnotonlyfornumberandperson butalsoforgenderfeatures,exceptthatforgrammaticalgender,theagreementpair isoftencharacterizedasuninterpretable(Probe)–uninterpretable(Goal)ratherthan interpretable(Probe)–uninterpretable(Goal).
Semanticagreement,incontrast,involvesaprioriastandardagreementpair uninterpretable(Probe)–interpretable(Goal).Semanticornaturalagreement,asit issometimescalled,isaphenomenonthathasmanyimplicationsforsyntactic theoryandtheoriesofinterpretation,anditisalsodiscussedatlengthinthisvolume. Casesofhybridagreement(Landau ;Smith ;deVries )thatarisedue toadistinctiongrammarssometimesencodebetweennatural(orsemantic)gender, ontheonehand,andgrammaticalgender,ontheother,arealsodiscussed,since thisisparticularlyrelevantforanydiscussionfocusingongenderandsinceithas generatedsomuchinterestrecentlyintheliterature.
Oneimportantconclusionreachedfromthearticlesincludedinthisvolumeis thatgender,moreoftenthannot,dependsonsomethingelse:number,person, determination,etc.Bydiscussinggenderinthecontextofarticulatedtheoriesof themorphology,syntax,semantics,orpragmaticsofnouns,weobtaininteresting resultsthatcontributetoabetterunderstandingofpartitionandnominalstructure. Genderusedtobestudiedindependentlyfromother φ-featuresorfeaturesof thenominaldomainandthisledtospuriousgeneralizationsandproblematic proposals.Wearenowbetterequippedtheoreticallyandmoreinclinedtostudy genderfromamultifacetedapproach.Ourcollectionofarticlesonthetopic contributestothisinmanyways.
ThevolumeisdividedintoPartsI,II,andIII,eachaddressingaparticular theoreticalquestionthatariseswhenwestudygenderandnounclassificationin context(a–c).Weshowhoweachchapterspeakstothesetheoreticalquestions.
()a.Whatistheroleofgender?
b.Whereisgenderlocatedinthenominalspine?
c.Howisgenderinterpreted?
Thenumberoflanguagescoveredinthisvolumeisvast.Wementioninparticular:Greek,English,French,Arabic,Italian,Persian,Gitksan,Italian,Brazilian Portuguese,Amharic,Lithuanian,Serbo-Croatian,Slovenian,Japanese,German, Cree,Maay,Haro,Penobscot,Shona,Mi’kmaw,Passamaquoddy-Malisset.
. PartI:Genderandpartition PartIconsistsoftwochaptersaddressingthequestionin(a) ‘Whatistheroleof gender?’ Bothchaptersareseminalinnatureandofferinsights,notonlyforthe languagesdescribedinthosechaptersbutalsoformanyotherlanguages,sincestrong cross-linguisticpredictionsaremade.Alltheotherchaptersofthisbookdealoneway oranotherwiththecoreissuesintroducedbythesetwointroductorychaptersand constantreferenceismadetothemthroughoutthevolume.
Chapters and arguethatgenderisamechanismforintroducingapartition:its functionistoclassifyorcategorize.Thisproposalmeansthatnounsaresubstructures ofDPsandthatnominallexicalknowledgecanbemodelledasasyntacticstructure thatdistributesthecontentofanounalongtheDPprojectionline.Thisisincontrast withthetraditional,lexicalistviewaccordingtowhichthemeaningofanounis independentfromthesyntacticcontext.
Toillustratehowpartitionemergesinnaturallanguages,considerthecaseofnoun classesinBantulanguages.Forexample,Ndalihas differentnounclasses;inother words,thereare differentwaysnounsarepartitioned(Aikhenvald : ).The classesrefertonounsasfollows:
(
)a.Classes and topersonsandkinshipterms( isforsingularswhile isfor plurals)
b.Classes and toinanimatesandnaturalphenomena(alsousedfor augmentativeandpejorativedescriptions)
c.Classes and tonaturalphenomena,bodyparts,plantnames,etc
d.Classes and tomiscellaneousreferentsandtoimpersonalthings
e.Classes and forimpersonal,animals,tools,etc
f.Class toimpersonalobjects,bodyparts,plants,insects,abstractconcepts
g.Classes and tobodyparts,mannersofaction
h.Class toabstractnouns,namesofgeographicalareas
i.Class toverbalnouns
j.Class tonounswithlocativemeaningthatinvolvesproximitytosomeone orsomethingnearthespeaker
k.Class tonounswithlocativemeaningthatinvolvesproximitytosomeone orsomethingfarfromthespeaker
l.Class toasituationinsidesomething
m.Class fornounswithaugmentativeorpejorativemeaning.
Anothergoodillustrationoftheideathatgendercreatespartitionscomesfrom singulativelanguagesthatusegendershift.¹AninterestingexamplecomesfromArabic, inparticulartheTunisiandialect,whichistakenasapointofreferenceforthesakeof
¹Gendershiftcanalsohaveanevaluative/expressivevalue.SeeGoddard()andDéchaine(this volume),forAlgonquian;Panagiotidis(thisvolume)forGreekandPortuguese;andFassiFehri(this volume)forStandardArabic.Cross-linguistically,evaluativemorphologyisnotuncommon.SeeMaho onBantu;Steriopolo onRussian;WiltschkoandSteriopolo onGerman;andKramer onmultiplelanguages.Itappearstobehighinthenounphrase,above#,andpossiblyevenaboveD.
discussion.Inthislanguage,gendershift(frommasculinetofeminine)cancreateaunit outofacollectiveoramassnoun(Ojeda ;Zabbal ;FassiFehri –, ).Collectivenounstypicallyrefertomassesandaggregates,anddenotekinds (Ojeda ;Zabbal ;FassiFehri –, ;Mathieu a, b, a, b).Singulativenounsdenotesingleunitsorpartitionsofakind(Ojeda ).Individuationisachievedwithoutadeterminer,genderbeingthesolemarkerof categorization(orrecategorizationinthiscase).²Example(a)involvesacollective noun,grammaticallysingular,butsemanticallyplural,thatbecomessingulativizedby wayofthefemininesuffix –a togive ‘ oneorange ’.Example(b)involvesamassnoun thatalsogetssingulativizedbywayofthefemininemarker –a togivethistimea measure/portionreading, ‘onegrainofsand’.³
()a.bordgen ! bordgen-a[TunisianArabic] orange.masc.collorange-fem.sing ‘ oranges ’‘ oneorange ’ b.rmal ! raml-a sand.masc.collsand-fem.sing ‘sand’‘onegrainofsand’
Theuseofgendershifttocreateanindividualverymuchdependsonthenoun beingused.Ifthenounisacollectiveormassnoun,genderiscapableofcreatingan atomoutofsomethingthatisnotatomized(thecollectiveormasstermcanbeseen aspluralsemantically,Chierchia ,orsimplyundivided,Borer a,thusakin togeneralnumbernouns,Corbett ).
Nounsotherthancollectiveormasstermsareindividuateddifferently.Indefinite nounsarebare(withapossiblenullindefinitedeterminer,dependingonthetheory) andarenotindividuatedbythefemininemarker(a–b).Theyaresingularsalready (addingthefemininemarkerisnotimpossible,butdenotesagroup(seeZabbal ; FassiFehri,thisvolume;DaliandMathieu ).Definitenounsappearwiththe determiner el ‘the’,usedforbothmasculine(a ’)andfeminine(b’)nouns.
()a.kalba’.elkalb[TunisianArabic] dogThedog.mas.sg
‘adog’‘thedog’
b.souriyab’.elsouriya shirttheshirt
‘ashirt’‘theshirt’
²ItisalsopossibleinsomedialectsofArabicforgendertocreateindividualsthatrefertogroups(see Zabbal ;DaliandMathieu ).
³Singulativesystemsarenotalwaysostensible.Whileitmightbetemptingtoarguethatthisorthat languagelacksacount/massdistinctionbecausetheylackcertainpropertiesseeninIndo-European languages(ashasbeendonebyDavisandMatthewson forSt’át’imcets;DalrympleandMofu forIndonesian;andWiltschko , forHalkomelemandBlackfoot),severallanguagesappearto haveunderlyingsingulativesystems(seeMathieu, a, bforOjibwe;Gillon forInnutut;and Deal forNezPerce)suggestingthatalllanguagesmakecountabilitydistinctionsandthatthecount/ massdistinctionisgrammaticalizedineverylanguage(Deal ).
Insum,thesingulativefunctionslikeaclassi fier(Greenberg ):itpartitions collectiveandmasstermstoreturnindividuals.
Chapter ,by Rose-MarieDéchaine (UniversityofBritishColumbia,Vancouver, Canada),entitled ‘Partitioningthenominaldomain:Theconvergenceofmorphology,syntax,semantics,andpragmatics’ discussesShona,aBantulanguage,which likeNdali,hasmanynounclasses.InadditiontoShona,thischapterfocuseson PlainsCree(anAlgonquianlanguage),alanguagewithananimate–inanimate contrastfornouns.Déchaineproposesthatgenderisresponsibleforintroducing nominalclassesintothenominaldomain.Functionalcategoriesinduceanounclass fromrootsandeachsuccessiveF-categoryintroducesanothernounclass.CLASS(or gender)isproposedtobeeitherthefeatureofsomefunctionalheadoritheadsits ownprojection.Itcanappearhigh(inassociationwithD)orinthemiddle(in associationwithNum)orlow(inassociationwith n)inthenominalspine.This combinationofmodeandlocationpredictssixdistincttypologicalpossibilitiesfor CLASStoappearwithinthenominalspine.
UsingexamplesfromEnglishandItalian, PaoloAcquaviva (UniversityCollege Dublin,Ireland)inChapter entitled ‘Categorizationasnounconstruction:Gender, number,andentitytypes ’ alsoarguesthatgender,likenumber,canbedistributed acrossvariousfunctionalheadsonthenominalspine.Hisconstructionist approachtotheingredientsofnominalitycross-linguisticallyinvolvesanominalizedrootthatiseitherarootcate gorizedbyanominalizingmorpheme n,orasa ‘self-merged’ rootwithanominallabel(onself-merge,seeAdger ).Whilethe informationsignalledbygenderisgene rallyexpressedverylowinDP,itdoesnot represent ‘ lexical ’ informationcontrastingwithhigher ‘grammatical ’ determinations.Rather,whatdefi nesnominalityisacertainsyntacticstructure,witha sequenceoffunctorsthatbetweenthemde fi nearangeofpossibleinterpretations. Onthisview,thestructureandthesemanticrangeitcanexpressareanything butarbitrary.
BothChapters and setthescenefortheremainderofthebookanddiscuss issuesthatcomebackregularlythroughout.Inaddressingtheroleofgenderin creatingpartitions,theyprovideseminalworkonnominalstructurewithinaneoconstructionistapproach,offeringtremendousinsightsintothevariousissuesrelated tonominalclassi fication.
PartII:Locusofgender ThesixchaptersofPartIIaddressthequestionin(b): ‘Whereisgenderlocatedin thenominalspine?’ Anarrayoflanguagesarediscussed(Arabic,French,Italian, BrazilianPortuguese,Amharic,Greek)andcasestudiesareprovided.TheintroductionofmorelanguagesallowsustotestDéchaine’spredictionofsixdistinct typologicalpossibilitiesforCLASSaswellasAcquaviva’sproposednominalarchitectureforgender.
Assumingastructurealongthelinesof(),itisproposedhistoricallyinthe literaturethatgenderoccupies n,Gen,Num,orD,oracombinationofthese, dependingonthelanguage(butalsoontheauthor).Earliersyntacticaccountsof
