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OXFORDSTUDIESINANALYTICTHEOLOGY
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MichaelC.ReaOliverD.Crisp
OXFORDSTUDIESINANALYTICTHEOLOGY
AnalyticTheologyutilizesthetoolsandmethodsofcontemporaryanalytic philosophyforthepurposesofconstructiveChristiantheology,paying attentiontotheChristiantraditionanddevelopmentofdoctrine.This innovativeseriesofstudiesshowcaseshighquality,cutting-edgeresearchin thisarea,inmonographsandsymposia.
Atonement
EleonoreStump
Humility,Pride,andChristianVirtueTheory
KentDunnington
InDefenseofExtendedConciliarChristology
APhilosophicalEssay
TimothyPawl
LoveDivine
ASystematicAccountofGod’sLoveforHumanity
JordanWessling
ThePrinciplesofJudaism
SamuelLebens
VoicesfromtheEdge
CentringMarginalizedPerspectivesinAnalyticTheology
EditedbyMichellePanchukandMichaelC.Rea
EssaysinAnalyticTheology Volume1&2
MichaelC.Rea
TheContradictoryChrist JcBeall
AnalyticTheologyandtheAcademicStudyofReligion
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DivineHolinessandDivineAction
MarkC.Murphy
Fallennessand Flourishing
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Preface:InWanderingMazesLost
InBookIIofJohnMilton’sincomparableepicpoem ParadiseLost,Satan hasdepartedHellto flythroughChaoswiththeaimsofinvadingtheGarden ofEdenandwreakinghavoconGod’srecentcreationinordertogrieve Him.Thehostofrebelangels,throughdisobedienceseparatedfromGod, must findawaytopassthehoursastheyawaitSatan’striumphantreturn.
Byfalse,presumptuoushope,therangedpowers Disband,andwandering,eachhisseveralway Pursues,asinclinationorsadchoice Leadshimperplexed,wherehemaylikeliest find Trucetohisrestlessthoughts,andentertain Theirksomehours,tillhisgreatChiefreturn.
JohnMilton, ParadiseLost (II.522–527)
Employingtheirfullrangeofwondrouscapacities,artisticgifts,andsuperb intellects,therebelsseektoproducetheirownhappinessontheirown powerandtoapproximatethesplendidmodeofexistencefromwhich theyhavefallen tomakeaHeavenofHell.Somestrideintothearenaof athleticcontestsandgloryindisplaysofphysicalprowess,othersretireto silentplacestocomposepoetryandsong,afewdevotethemselvesto adventureandbraveexplorationoftheinfernalriversandburninglake whichhavebecometheirnewhome,andstillanothergroup thosewhose profileIresonatewithandknowbest receivethisdescription:
OthersapartsatonaHillretired, Inthoughtsmoreelevate,andreasonedhigh OfProvidence,Foreknowledge,WillandFate, FixedFate,freewill,foreknowledgeabsolute, Andfoundnoend,inwanderingmazeslost. Ofgoodandevilmuchtheyarguedthen, Ofhappinessand finalmisery, PassionandApathy,andgloryandshame, Vainwisdomall,andfalsePhilosophy:
Yetwithapleasingsorcerycouldcharm Painforawhileoranguish,andexcite Fallacioushope,orarmtheobduredbreast Withstubbornpatienceaswithtriplesteel.
JohnMilton, ParadiseLost (II.557–569)
Thephilosophicallyinclinedrebels willfullyunreconciledtoGod strive foralifeofexcellencewhichisrootedintheexerciseoftheirown(fallen) intellects.Althoughtheyretainenoughmagnificencetoappeartomake progressintheirinquiriesintothemysteriesofhappinessandmiseryand toexcitefallacioushopeofsuccess,intheendtheymanageonly “witha pleasingsorcery,[to]charmpainforawhile,” thusleavingthephilosopherangels(who,likeallofus,sufferfromthenoeticeffectsoftheirfallen condition)inwanderingmazeslost.
Ibelievethatthey andthoseofuswho,liketherebelangels,arewillfully unreconciledtoGod willremaininthisconditionevenifthephilosophers andtheologiansamongusshouldmanagetocorrectlyanalyzehappiness andwell-beingandtoidentifytheconditionsunderwhichwecanriseto suchastateof flourishing.
Thevanityofwisdomandthefalsenessofphilosophyheredecriedmay (butneednot)bereadastheinabilitytodiscerninwhathappinessorwellbeingultimatelyconsists.Ratherthepassage(asdoesthepoeminits entirety)expressesthemoreausterethesisthatthisactivityandtheother pursuitsjustmentionedarepowerlessontheirowntosecurehappinessand well-being,despitethefactthateachinvolvesgenuinegoodsforembodied, intellectualcreatureslikeourselves.
Genuine flourishingrequirespreciselythatfeaturewhichtherebelangels ofMilton’ spoem andthoseofuswhoarewillfullyunreconciledtoGod painfullylack:thevirtueofobedience.Orsoitseemstome.Thisessayisan attempttoexpandonthislessonwhichhasbeenimpresseduponmeby studying ParadiseLost andtoofferadefenseofitstruth.
Inthe firstchapterofthisbook,Iwillarguethatthephilosophyof pessimismiswellgrounded,quiteindependentofanyparticularreligious orientation.Thecollectiveevidenceforthisviewdrawnfromtheplightof animals,thenaturaldispositionsofhumanpersons,ourcheckeredhistoryof socialandpoliticalinstitutions,theworld’sreligionsandwisdomtraditions, andhumanity’sachievementsinart,literature,music,andphilosophyis clearandcompelling.Moreover,IwillarguethatthispessimismisoverdeterminedandevenmoreausterefortheChristianwhotakesthedoctrinesof
theFallandOriginalSinseriously.YetthegoodnewsfortheChristianis thatthisphilosophyofpessimismcanbetemperedbyreasonsfor optimism reasonswhichfurnishahopeforsalvationandalsoahope thatbeforeeveryteariswipedaway,thegroansofcreationandthesufferingsofitscreatureswillhaveproperlyinspiredustocooperatewithGodin theprocessofAtonement.
Likethedemonsin ParadiseLost,however,eventhosewhoendorsethe worldviewunderlyingthisoptimismfrequentlywillfullyresisttheefforts requiredtocooperatewithGodandtorespondtothedemandsthatlove placesuponuswithrespecttoGodandneighbor,andlikethosemisguided andstubbornsouls,manyofusarebeguiledbytheprospectofpursuingour ownhappinessandwell-beingonourownpower,ofmakingaHeavenofthe Hellthatthephilosophyofpessimismhastaughtusisourcurrentabode. Thusmanyofusadopttheframeofmindinwhichwearewillingtotrustin ourownpowers,skill,artistry,intelligence,andallthemagnificentresources ofourownselves.NoneedofGod.Nolossinrebellion.Andsointhe secondchapter,afterdefendingcertainaspectsofthephilosophicalmethodologyinplay,Iwillconductacriticalstudyofthecurrentleading literatureonwell-beingandhappiness.Assumingthatwecancometo haveknowledgeofthesematters,Iwillcriticallyexamineandargueagainst hedonistic,desire-fulfillment,andperfectionistictheoriesofwell-being, advocatinginsteadforanobjective-listtheory,andIwillcriticallyexamine andargueagainsthedonisticandlife-satisfactiontheoriesofhappiness, advocatinginsteadforthePsychicAffirmationview.
Thus,themainstagewillbeset:Christiansandnon-Christiansalikecan agreeonthephilosophyofpessimism that(sotospeak)weliveinan exceedinglyroughneighborhoodandinverytryingtimes.TheChristian storyfurnishesparticularreasonsforoptimismwhichinvolvecooperating with(perhapsinitiallysimplybybeingnonresistantto)theworkofGodin theAtonement.Yet,manyChristiansandnon-Christiansalikenevertheless attempttoseekouthappinessandwell-beingontheirownpowerwithout thebenefitofreconciliationwiththedivine.Thissecondchaptersuggests (charitably)thattheattempttodosoneednotbethwartedbyskepticism abouthappinessandwell-being.
Inthethirdchapterofthisbook,Iwillofferareportfromthefrontlines wherethebattleforself-achievedhappinessandwell-beingisdecidedlynot goingwell.Afterexaminingcounter-reportsofsuccessfromthoseinthe field,Isetforththesecularreasonsforthinkingthatthosereportswerevery likelytobeunreliableandsolackthepowertotrumpthemountainof
evidencefortheviewthattherearepreciousfewwho flourishwhendrawing onlyontheresourcesoftheirownwillpower,creativity,andingenuity.But it’snotduetolackoftrying;peoplewantdesperatelytoenjoyhappinessand well-being.Therealcausesoffailure,Iwillargue,arefoundinthenoetic effectsofsin particularlyininordinateself-loveandself-deception,but also(especiallyinthosewhohavebeenfurtherharmedandhumiliatedby relentlessandsystemicoppression)ininsufficientself-loveandthelackof safety,resources,andopportunities.ThetaleIwilltrytotellwillbenot merelyachronicleoffailedbidsathappinessandwell-beingultimately groundedinoursharedconditionofsin;itwillbealsoataleofthe unhappinessthatvisitssomanyofthosewhofallintothispatternoffailure. Thisportionofthestorywillbeinformedandstructuredbythesevencapital vices(alsoknownasthesevendeadlysins)theconceptsofwhichwere employedbyChristiansforself-examination,confession,preaching,and spiritualformationforcenturies,anditwillculminateinasustainedexaminationandexplorationofthesinofsloth.Thetwomaindiscussions ofthe epidemicofunhappinessandthenearuniversalityofsloth willbeunited byasurprisingthesis:thetheoryofunhappiness(modeledonthetheoryof happinessendorsedinthesecondchapter)willturnouttobethetwinofthe analysisofsloththatemergesfromcarefulattentiontoclassicalandmodern scholarshiponthevice.
OnepeculiarityofthethesesIwilldefendintheforegoingdiscussionsis thattheydiagnoseaconditionwhichpredictsthatthediagnosiswillbe resistedbythoseitaccuratelydescribes.Literaturecanprovideartistic illustrationsasaccompanimentstophilosophicaltextswhichcancapture one ’sattentioninwaysacademicprosemightnot.Inparticular, fineliteraturecanelicitmanyofthesameemotionalexperiencesthatariseineveryday lifeandcanmimicthechaoticandmulti-dimensionalrealityofinterpersonalinteraction.Consequently,thereadercanbedeeplyengagedbywayof imaginativeimmersionintoarichlynuancednarrative,subjectivereactions towhichprovidebrandnewexperientialdatawithwhichtotheorize. AliterarytourofthedifferentmasksofslothwillthusoccupyChapter4 inthehopesofrenderingthereaderreceptivetothediagnosisofthe precedingthreechapterswhich,thusillustrated,hopefullywillseemless foreignthanitmightotherwiseappear.Asaresult,slothwillbeseentobea misfortunewithmanyfaces.Underitsonerousinfluence,onecanracefrom boredomintomindlessdiversions,orconvinceoneselfthattheworldisat bottomabsurd,oranguishoverwhetherlifeisworthlivingatall,orgive oneselfentirelyovertoevil,orabdicateone’sagencyandberuledbychance,
orfranticallypursuethediminishingpleasuresofsensualnovelty,orattempt toexplainone’smisfortunebyappealtosomeinventedoffensiveorindifferentfeatureofGod’s,ordespairoveraperceivedspiritualdeformityin oneselfrootedinguiltorshame.
ThepredicamentItrytodepictinthesefourchaptersandthatIbelieve Iseeplayedoutagainandagainintheworldcanbesummarized(oversimplybutsuccinctly)asfollows:
WeseparateourselvesfromGodthroughsin,andweandourworldarethe worseforit.Ourprideleadsustoattempttomakethebestofour disastroussituationonourownterms.Predictably,wefailandfailmiserably.Wetherebyforfeitwell-beingandhappiness,andthenewmodesof sufferingexpressedinthedeadlysinofslothareourearnedandunhappy wages.
Inthe fifthand finalchapter,Iwilldescribearesponsetothispredicament thatseemshopefultome.Iwillbeganbyarticulatingaparticularconception ofthevirtueofobedienceanddetailingitsfourcomponents humility, restraint, response,and love andbyshowinghowtheyworktogether bothtonurtureanabidinganddeeplyseatedpro-attitudetowardsuniting one ’swillwithGod’swillandalsotocreateandmaintainarobustandstable setofdispositionsaimedatsucceedinginthisaim.Iwillthenillustratethat virtueinactionandremarkontheroleofperseverance,thedifficultmission ofanyonewhocommitstoacquiringanddevelopingthisvirtueinlife.Thus equipped,Iwillproposeandargueonbehalfofarefinementtothe objective-listtheoriesofwell-beingthatemergedinthesecondchapteras the finestofthecompetitors.Iwillthengiveaformulationofandwhat supportIcantomynewtheorythatattemptstostatetheconditionsof receptivityinasubjectinadditiontoidentifyingtherangeofwelfaregoods intheworld.Thevirtueofobedience,Iwillargue,isnotonlyoneamong manywelfaregoods,butplaysauniquerolevis-à-vistheothergoodsonthe list,insofarasitservesastheprimingconditionunderwhichtheycanrealize thefullextentoftheirvalueinthesubjectinwhichtheymanifest.Thevirtue ofobedience,onmyview,thusplaysacrucialroleonthesubjectivesideof theequationwhenthesubjectiveconditionsofreadinessto flourishmeetthe objectiveingredientsfor flourishing.
Finally,IwillcallexplicitattentiontowhatIbelievearethemost worrisomeaspectsoftheviewsdefendedinthebook.Oneworryisthat
theresultingaccountsofhappinessandwell-beingaretooexclusive. Anotherworryiswhetherthoseverynoeticeffectsofsintowhichthe argumentofthebookcruciallyappealsinestablishingthepredicament summarizedabovearethemselvessufficientforderailingitsprimarystrategyforcombattingtheevilsofthatpredicament.A finalworryiswhetherin pursuingthesortofprojectrecommendedinthebookonerunsariskof generatingharmstothemostvulnerableamongus.Iwilldomybestto formulatethoseworrieswithfairnessandforce,andIwillclosebyoffering responsesthatseempromisingtomewithrespecttoeachconcern.
Acknowledgments
Inwritingthismanuscript,Ihavebecomeindebtedtoseveralpersonsandto someinstitutions.IextendmythankstoWesternWashingtonUniversity forprofessionalleave(inthe2019–2020academicyear),tothephilosophy departmentsatBaylorUniversity,theUniversityofNotreDame,the UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,theUniversityofStAndrews,andthe UniversityofVirginia,andtotheSchoolofDivinityattheUniversityof StAndrewsfor financialsupportandforopportunitiestogivecolloquium andconferencepresentationsrelatedtothisproject.Iamalsogratefultothe CenterforPhilosophyofReligionattheUniversityofNotreDame,the LogosInstituteattheUniversityofStAndrews,theOfficeofResearchand SponsoredProgramsatWesternWashingtonUniversity,andtheSocietyof ChristianPhilosophersfor financialsupportandforopportunitiestogive colloquiumandconferencepresentationsrelatedtothisproject.Finally,my partnershipwithCLL/SLLdiminishedmyteachingloadinthespringand summerof2019,andIdeeplyappreciatethesubstantialgiftoftimeIthus receivedforreading,research,andearlydraftingofthebook.
IamhappytoacknowledgeOxfordUniversityPressforpermissionto incorporateportionsofmyessay “FelixCulpa!” in TwoDozen(orso)Theistic Arguments,TrentDoughertyandJerryWalls,eds(Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press,2018),277–289,whichnowoccupiesmuchofsection9ofChapter1. IamalsopleasedtoacknowledgeWm.B.EerdmansPublishingforpermissiontoquotefrommynovel AGrotesqueintheGarden,secondedition (GrandRapids:Eerdmans,2020).
Iamdelightedtohavetheopportunitytothankcolleagues,friends,and familywhohaveofferedcomments,friendship,love,andencouragement: ElizabethBarnes,OrionBautista-Hepker,MatthewBenton,Mike Bergmann,JeffBrower,RossCameron,RebeccaChan,NevinClimenhaga, AndrewCortens,JesseCouenhoven,JanCover,OliverCrisp,Dustin Crummett,PaulDunn,RobertGarcia,TyronGoldschmidt,CheriHepker, DanielHoward-Snyder,FrancesHoward-Snyder,ArisHudson,Jonathan Jacobs,LindaJacobs,ShievaKleinschmidt,JonathanKvanvig,SamLebens, ChristianLee,BrianLeftow,KrisMcDaniel,DanielMcKaughan,Hans Madueme,TrentonMerricks,SeanNalty,SamNewlands,FaithPawl,
TimothyPawl,DeePayton,AlvinPlantinga,AlexanderPruss,Theron Pummer,MikeRea,BradleyRettler,EliSchille-Hudson,AmySeymour, BeartheShihTzu,JeffSnapper,JoshuaSpencer,EleonoreStump,Neal Tognazzini,AlanTorrance,AndrewTorrance,ChristinavanDyke,Peter vanInwagen,JerryWalls,RyanWasserman,DennisWhitcomb,BillWood, SameerYadav,andespeciallyCathiHepker.
Finally,letmeendontwofurthernotesofgratitude:The firsttoDaniel Howard-Snyder myfriendandoneofthebestphilosophicalcriticsI’ ve everknown whoforthirtyyearsnowhasgraciouslyprovidedmewith tremendouslyvaluable(andlengthyandharsh)criticalevaluationsofmy work.ThesecondtoMichaelBergmann,JeffBrower,OliverCrisp,and MichaelReafortheirfellowship,theirwisdom,theiraffection,andour philosophicalinteractionoverthesemanyyears.
1.SomeFalseStep1
1.ItWastheBestofWorlds,ItWastheWorstofTimes1
2.TheKingdomofAnimals3
3.ThisQuintessenceofDust6
4.SocietyandtheInstitutionsofCruelty8
5.WorldReligions SevenStoriesforEveryone11
6.Art,Literature,Music,Philosophy,andtheWisdomTraditions18
7.TheFallandOriginalSin21
8.TheDoctrineof(Optimistic)Pessimism27
9.FelixCulpa32
2.ThusMammonSpake44
1.CannotWeHisLightImitateWhenWePlease?44
2.AnalyticMethodology48
3.Happiness,Well-Being,andInterpretingMammon’sAdvice52
4.TheQuestionofWell-Being,ThreeKindsofSkepticism,and Mammon’sRestriction53
5.HedonismandDesire-FulfillmentTheories57
6.PerfectionismandObjective-ListTheories62
7.TheQuestionofHappiness,TwoKindsofSkepticism, andMammon’sRestriction71
8.Hedonism,LifeSatisfaction,andPsychicAffirmation72
9.ACuriosityaboutTheoriesofWell-BeingandHappiness80
3.LibidoSentiendi,LibidoSciendi,LibidoDominandi82
1.SecularSuspicions82
2.NoeticEffectsofSin:Self-LoveandSelf-Deception89
3.ASecondBattleLost99
4.ThePathfromHappinesstoUnhappiness100
5.SteepedinSin SixStoriesforEveryone103
6.Sloth,theSinofSadness112
7.TakingStock116
4.TheMasksofSloth120
1.CellarDwellers120
2.BoredomandDiversion122
3.TheAbsurd Tragedy,Meaning-Making,andDefiance129
4.ThatSleepofDeath136
5.LawfulEvilandtheDemonic143
6.TheLopsidedAesthete147
7.MostRespectfullyReturnHimtheTicket150
8.Guilt,Shame,Mediocrity154
5.YeCannotServeGodandMammon158
1.RecoveredParadise158
2.TheVirtueofObedience,Christ’sTemptations, andPerseverance160
3.ObedienceandWell-Being AStoryforEveryone169
4.TheProblemofIgnorance177
5.TheProblemofExclusivity180
6.TheObstacleofSinandCaringfortheVulnerable184
7.InSummary193
libidosentiendi,libidosciendi,libidodominandi Wretchedisthecursedlandwhichthesethreeriversof fire enflameratherthanwater!
BlaisePascal, Pensées
SomeFalseStep
Accordingly,thesolethingthatreconcilesmetotheOld TestamentisthestoryoftheFall.Inmyeyesitistheonly metaphysicaltruthinthatbook,eventhoughitappearsinthe formofanallegory.Thereseemstomenobetterexplanationof ourexistencethanthatitistheresultofsomefalsestep,somesin ofwhichwearepayingthepenalty.
ArthurSchopenhauer, OntheSufferingsoftheWorld
1.ItWastheBestofWorlds,ItWastheWorstofTimes
Panglossiandefensesofoursbeingthebestofallpossibleworlds,or(ifnot best)unsurpassable,or(ifnotunsurpassable)atleastoneofthe finestwithin God’spowertocreatehavefallenoutoffashion,buttheycanstillbefound.¹ Yetifourworldreallydoesmanifestoneoftheseadmirablefeatures,one couldbeexcusedfornottakingnoteofthefact.Thehistoryofsentienceand thetragedyoftheanimalkingdom,theriseofrationalityandthoseindividual,social,andpoliticalcrueltieswhichareitschildren,theworld’ s religions,itsart,literature,andwisdomtraditions,andtheall-too-frequently unhappylivesofitsinhabitantsacrosstheagesseemtopointratherdramaticallytoadifferentthesis athesisofpessimism.²
Thephilosophyofpessimismneednotbeconstruedastheclaimthatthe worldisunrelentinglyawfulandallofitscreaturesirredeemablemiscreants,althoughsomeofhistory’spessimists(e.g.,thatmagnificentcriticof humanity,Schopenhauer)canoccasionallymakeamemorablecasefor suchaview.Moreover,despitethewell-entrenchedstereotype,a
¹Seechapter7ofHudson2006forsuchanargumentwhichappealstothehypothesisof hyperspaceandchapter8ofHudson2014aforadefensewhichappealstothehypothesisof hypertime.
²Ishallreturntothethoughtthatthisworstoftimesmaywellbeembeddedinthisbestof worldsinthe finaltwosectionsofthisopeningchapter,andtothreedifferentsensesinwhich theviewtobedevelopedbelowmayyetearnthetitle “anoptimisticpessimism.”
FallennessandFlourishing.HudHudson,OxfordUniversityPress(2021).©HudHudson. DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198849094.003.0001
philosopherofpessimismneednotwalkaroundindespairallthefour seasonsandneednotbesomecurmudgeonlymisanthropedampening everyone ’sdayandchasingchildrenofflawns.Thepessimismhypothesis doesnothavetoengenderanyparticularpsychologicalprofileinits adherents.Rather,atitscore,thephilosophyofpessimismsimplyoffers (onthewhole)dismalpredictionsaboutwhatnearlyallofuscanexpectto experienceinourprivatelivesandinterpersonalrelationships,aboutthe welfareofourfellowcreatures,aboutthecharacterofoursocialinstitutions andglobalpolitics,andaboutourprospectsforprogressonthesematters inthefuture.Thephilosopherofpessimismarticulatesandadvances reasonsinfavoroforrefutesreasonsopposedtothisgeneralworldview.
Occasionally,thesereasonsextendtoprovidingapsychologyoftheselfor apoliticaltheoryofthestateorareligioustakeonthepurpose(orlack thereof)ofourlivesoragrandspeculativemetaphysicsofthecosmosbyway ofprovidingsupportforthepessimisticpredictionsjustnoted.Othertimes theevidenceisofthesimpleinductive,look-and-seevariety.Bothkindscan becompelling surprisinglycompelling,especiallywhenonehasnotprejudgedtheissuefromdesperatelywantingitnottobesoandisnot scramblingaboutforawaytoopposethosepredictionsatallcosts.
Thephilosophyofpessimismisveryold,indeed,and findsitschampions ineveryage.³And,althoughtheyareoftenamongthemosteloquentpoets andphilosophers,tragediansandtheologians,aphoristsandpoliticaltheorists,theydonotallspeakwithonevoice.Idonotintendtoattemptanessay inthehistoryofideas,andneitherdoIwishtoproduceahaphazardcatalog offamouspessimistsandtheirdifferences.Rather,inthe firstseveral sectionsofthepresentchapter,Isimplyhopetoinstillasympatheticfeel inthereaderforwhatIhavecalledthecoreofthephilosophyofpessimism andtoidentifyandpresentwhatItaketobethecentralandpersuasivelines ofitsdefense.
Iendorsethispessimisticworldview,yetItakeittobeseriouslyunderrepresentedandunderappreciated.Ihavecometosuspectthatthereasons foritsunpopularityinvolveunflatteringclaimsabouthumannature,andin myexperiencetheseclaimsarenearlyalwayssuccessfullyresistedwhenthey appearatthebeginningofadiscussion.So,onceagain,Iwillbecontentif, withthisopeningchapter,Icanmerelyinstillasympatheticfeelinthe
³Letmerecommendinparticularatwenty-first-centuryadditiontothislistofchampions, JoshuaFoaDienstagandhisbook-lengthtreatmentofourthemedividedintoitssocial, metaphysical,andexistentialforms(Dienstag2006).
readerforthephilosophyofpessimismthatwillformthebackdroptothe argumentofthisbook.Asthelineofreasoningdevelops,perhaps,acumulativecaseforthebackdropthesiswillemergethathasabetterchanceof competingwithournaturaltendenciesandlearnedtalentsforkeepingitata distance.
2.TheKingdomofAnimals
Thestoryofthenon-personanimalsisatragedyfromstartto finish.
Ibeginwiththatmodernhorrorknownasthefactoryfarmingindustry, whichranksamongthegreatestmoralcrimesofourage.Theconditionsof conception,birth,rearing,andslaughterofthe33millioncattle,125million pigs,and9billionchickensprocessedannuallyintheUnitedStatesalone makesfor unforgettable reading.Notonlyaremanycomponentsofthese incrediblyhigh-volumeindustriesmorallygrotesqueandclearlyimpermissible,itiscommonplaceforpeoplewhosimplylistentoorwatchrecordings oftheirroutine,day-in-and-day-outactivitiestobephysicallyunableto continueaswitnesses,despitebeingthusseveralstepsremovedfromthe action.Thefullanduncensoredstoryisinfactsoterrible,Ipredictthatthis istheaspectofourcontemporaryworldmostlikelytobelookedbackupon byourdescendantswithnauseaandincomprehensionathowsomany millionsofotherwisemoderatelydecenthumanbeingsturnedastoneear tothecriesandsufferingsofbillionsuponbillionsofsentientcreatureswith unspeakablymiserablelivesanddeaths.⁴
Unfortunately,naturedoesn’tneedanylessonsfromusinhowtobepoor stewards.Thebiosphereisanaestheticwonderland,tobesure,andthe complexityofbiologicalorganisms,theinterconnections(synchronicand diachronic)betweenthespecies,andthehistoryanddiversityoflifeare nothingshortofawe-inspiringandsublime.Yettheanimalswhoarethe playersinthistalearenotautomatons,andthroughouttheirlivestheyare subjectedtoavarietyofpains.Ofcourse,therearepleasurestobehadinthe forestandthedesertandthetundraandthebog,aswell,butwhichmental
⁴ Itis,inmyopinion,unfortunatethatsomuchofthephilosophicalattentiontothisindustry servesprimarilyasanintroductiontoquestionsaboutmoralrestrictionsonourfoodchoices. Thereis,ofcourse,anaturalconnectionbetweentheissues,andIdon’tmeantoimpugnthe significanceofmoraldebatesthatfocusondiet,butourattentionshouldberivetedonwhatis happeningtothelegionofmanufacturedanimals,whetherornotconsumingtheproductsof thosepracticesinvolvesfurthermoralwrongdoing.
statespredominate?Schopenhauerofferedasoberingobservationonthe matter:
Thepleasureintheworld,ithasbeensaid,outweighsthepain;or,atany rate,thereisanevenbalancebetweenthetwo.Ifthereaderwishestosee shortlywhetherthisstatementistrue,lethimcomparetherespective feelingsoftwoanimals,oneofwhichisengagedineatingtheother.⁵
Fornumbinglylongstretchesoftime inthehundredsofmillionsof years generationsandgenerationsofconfusedandterrifiedandinnocent creatureshavetornoneanotherlimbfromlimbinadailystruggleto minimize,butonlymomentarily,theacutepainofhunger,earningnature herdescriptionofbeingredintoothandclaw.Inadditiontothiscycleof carnivoresandcarnage disease,malnutrition,andstarvationdecimate herdsandpacks.Infectionsthatfesterandbrokenbonesthatdon’tmend awaitthosewhoslidedownravines,stumbleinarivercrossing,orlose contestsformatingopportunities.Inthekingdomofanimals,thecoinofthe realmissuffering.IhastentonotethatIdonotusethegenericterm “suffering ” inawaythatpresupposesanysophisticatedreflectivecapacities inthesufferer;theimmediatesensationsofhavingone’sjawtornfromone’ s bodyorone’slegsnappedinhalfissufferingenough.(Iwillremarkon distinctivelycognitivelyenabledformsofsufferingatsomelengthinthe followingsection.)Andthosewhosuspectthatthepainsinquestioncannot beofrealsignificance,giventhattheyareneitherforeseenanddreadedin advancenorrevivedandrelivedinmemory,needonlyaccidentallyburn themselveswithamatchtorecallhowunnecessaryanticipationandreflectionaretosufferingthathassignificance.
Moreover,sinceweareheredealingingeologicaltimescales,itisonly fairtoacknowledgetheincalculablenumberofpanickedcreatureswhose deathsresultedfromnature’ssteadystreamofavalanches,blizzards, droughts,earthquakes, floods,hurricanes,tsunamis,viruses,volcanoes,and wildfires nottomentiontheworldwidedevastationfollowinganasteroidor cometstrike.
⁵ Schopenhauer “OntheSufferingsoftheWorld” (2007,5–18).Thisshortpieceandits companion, “OntheVanityofExistence” (19–23),areamongthebestmood-settersforthe philosophyofpessimismyouarelikelyto find.IextendmylongoverdueappreciationtoKelly Jolleyforintroducingmetotheseessayssoverymanyyearsago.
Still,perhapsIwillbeaccusedofcherry-pickingmyconsiderations.After all,perhapsIamunfairlytuggingatheartstringsbyinvokingimagesoflarge mammalsattheirworstmomentsandmaskingallthepleasureswithwhich naturemightbeteemingandwhichcouldoffsetthesepains.Well,perhaps. Itwouldbeaninterestingexercise,however,toseejusthowpowerfulthe caseforoffsettingcouldreallybe.Whatwouldacherry-pickedcaseforthe supremacyofanimalpleasuresthatcouldlegitimatelyrivaltheprevious paragraphsevenlooklike?
Still,thepointiswelltaken,anditisworthpausingbrieflytoreflecton thoseanimalsthatrarelytendtocometomindinthesecontextsandwhose sufferingnearlyalwaysgoesunremarked.Theliteratureontheproblemof evilofteninvokessocallednaturalevilanditsspeciallypositioned(because innocentofmoralwrongdoing)victims,thenon-personanimals.This literaturesimilarlyseemstobepreoccupiedwithlargeandfamiliarmammals(e.g.,afawnsubjectedtoanagonizingdeathinaforest fire),butthere areexceptions.DustinCrummett’sstudyofthesufferingofcreepingthings isacaseinpoint.Crummettspeaksforthearthropods theinsects,spiders, millipedes,mites,andcrustaceans,amongotheranimals andremindsus thatwhereasthereissomecontroversyconcerningwhetherandhowthese lessadorablecreaturessuffer,itcannotbetakenasgiventhattheydonot suffer.Andiftheydo,anycritiqueofthediscussionabovethatsuggeststhe focusonthehigheranimalsistoonarrowwillonlyresultinrecognizingan increaseinanimalsuffering “bymany,manyordersofmagnitude ” on accountoftheirvastlylargernumbersandoftheirliveswhichareuniformly “nasty,brutish,andshort.”⁶
Ofcourse,evenifthecaseforthedisvalueofthementallivesofnon-person animalsvastlyoutweighsthecaseforanycompensatingpleasures,perhaps theaestheticpropertiesearlieridentified thesheerbeautyofthebiosphere andthesublimityofitscomplexandinterconnectedcomponents mightbe thoughttoshifttheneedlebackinfavorofoverallvalue.
Tworesponsestothislineofthought:First,everyoneshouldagreethat somepainandsufferingcanbecompensatedforbyaestheticvalueandits appreciation;butbeforesuchanaestheticdefensestrikesyouasacomprehensiveandadequatereplytotheproblemofanimalsuffering,soberlyrecall thetimescaleinplayandthetrillionsupontrillionsoflivesthathavecometoa violentendinthejawsofnaturaldisastersandpredators.Isuspectthe
⁶ Crummett2017.
compensatingbeautyofitallwillbeadifficultsell.Second,eveniftheaesthetic defenseorsomeotherreplycitingathusfarunidentifiedfeatureofthe biospheresomehowmakesthesufferingofitsanimalcomponentworththe trade,thatdoesn’tcontestthethesiswhichopenedthissection,namely,that thestoryofthenon-person animals isatragedyfromstartto finish,regardless ofwhetherornotitisembeddedinalargertalethatislesstroubling.
3.ThisQuintessenceofDust
Atsomepointinthistale onceuponacouplehundredthousandyears ago someanimalscrossedtherationalitylineandwerethe firstofour parentstobecomepersons.Whetherthiswasanoutcomeofaprocessof naturalevolutionoraraisingtorationalitybyspecialdivineactioninthe worldorsomethingelse,thesebeingsbecamemoralagentspossessedof freedom,co-creatorsoftheirenvironment,andinanewandsignificantway responsibleforthemselvesandoneanother.
Yettheriseofprimatestopersonhood,theirachievementofmoral freedom,andtheirnewfoundresponsibilitiesintheworldhardlymanifested itselfinautopiancommunityofmoralself-improvementandloveof neighbor.Inmanyways,ofcourse,theirlivesbecamebotheasierandfree ofmanyofthedangersandpainsthatplaguedtheirlessintelligentcousins, andtheirproductivecuriosityandenhancedabilitytocommunicatefacilitatedcoordinated,cooperativeactivitythatpermittednewcommunitiesto formandsocialbondstostrengthen.Yettheseweretheanimalswhose instinctsforpowerandcontrolintheirsocialgroupsandwhosehabitsof self-preservationandactingintheirownself-interest instinctsandhabits cementedintotheirnaturesbymillenniaofgeneticadaptations werenow coupledwiththeunmatchedpowerandguidanceofrationality.Thepessimistviewsthisconditionasoneinwhichthenewperson-animalsareborn intoastateinwhichtheynaturallyinclinetowardevil bywhichIhere meannaturalinclinationstowardsselfishandself-absorbedactionsand endswhich(asthepredominantmoderntheorieswouldteachus)are oftenmorallyimpermissibleandshotthroughwithdisvalue,respectively. Consequently,rationalanimals,deludedbydisordereddesires,compounded themisfortuneslimitedtothepre-personerainprofoundlysignificantways bybringingacombinationofintelligenceandcrueltytothetable,dominatingoneanother,andinventingastonishingandrevoltingwaystoreveal newdepthsofsuffering.
Moreover,thepessimistislikelytoseethecontinualadvanceofmaterial comforts,increasedimmunityfrompainanddisease,technological improvements,andopportunitiesforindividualexcellenceand flourishing morethanoffsetbyotherfeaturesofmodernity forexample,bythesteady increaseofnewandeasilyaccessedmaterialmeansforharmingourselves andothers,bydeeplyentrenchedsocialoppressionandsocialinjusticeona trulymonumentalscale,bypoliticalinstabilitywiththechillingcapacityto placeatrisktheentireworld,andbymissedopportunitiestolivelivesof excellenceduetoourpenchantforperpetuallydistractingourselvesfrom activitiesthatwouldfoster flourishinginfavoroftinkeringwithanendless streamoftechnologicalnoveltiesandmood-alteringsubstancesthatinvite ustowasteourleisuretimeandamuseourselvestodeath.
Whenpersonsjoinedtheworld’spopulation,advancedcognitivefaculties ofmemory,anticipation,artificiallyenhancedsenseperception,reflective introspection,imagination,commonsense,understanding,rationalintuition,inferencedrawing,systematizing ...thelot,allcameintoplay.And muchofwhatisgoodintheworld(againexceptingtheaestheticgoodstobe foundinnearlyanydirectionandatanyscaleonelooks)canbechalkedup tothebrilliantemploymentofthesefacultiesandtocertaindesiresfor individualandcollectivegoodsthatsomehowrosetothesurfaceinthesea ofnarrowandbaseself-interestinwhichtheirsubjectswereconceived.Itis nopartofthephilosophyofpessimismtoarguethattherearenotgenuine goodsorthatwearehelplesstoproducethem,dependentonthewindsof chancetooccasionallyblowtheminourdirection.Rather,thephilosopher ofpessimismsimplymaintainsthatthequantityandqualityofdisvaluethat comesintobeingregularlyoutpacestheproductionofgoods(whichwetend toexaggerateandmagnify),thatasignificantshareofthisisourfaultand theresultofpoorchoices,andthattherearescarcereasonstothinkour descendantswillfareconsiderablybetterthanourancestorsonthisscore, althoughthewaysinwhichtheywillfallshortwillbemediatedbyadifferent assortmentofglitteringphenomenathatpersonhoodmakespossible.
Moreover,thesesamecognitivefacultiesbywhichanimalpersonsare separatedandelevatedabovethemerebrutesalsoworkinconcertto providearangeofreflectivepainsfromwhichthenon-personanimalsare largelyexempt.Livesriddledwithfeelingsofguilt,regret,andshame, vaingloriousmistakesstemmingfromunbridledambitionorfromslaving afterhonorandprestigefromothers,anunshakeablemelancholythatfeeds onmemoriesthatstingandexpectationsofunmetneeds,theangstthat accompaniestherecognitionofagency,freedom,andcapacityfor
