AbouT THe AuTHors
ALAN P. T ru JILL o Al Trujillo is a Distinguished Teaching Professor in the Earth, Space, and Aviation Sciences Department at Palomar College in San Marcos, California. He received his bachelor’s degree in geology from the University of California at Davis and his master’s degree in geology from Northern Arizona University, afterward working for several years in industry. Al began teaching at Palomar in 1990. In 1997, he was awarded Palomar’s Distinguished Faculty Award for Excellence in Teaching, and in 2005 he received Palomar’s Faculty Research Award. He has coauthored Introductory Oceanography with Hal Thurman and is a contributing author for the textbooks Earth and Earth Science . In addition to writing and teaching, Al works as a naturalist and lecturer aboard natural history expedition vessels for Lindblad Expeditions/ National Geographic in Alaska, Iceland, and the Sea of Cortez/Baja California. His research interests include beach processes, sea cliff erosion, and active teaching techniques. He enjoys photography, and he collects sand as a hobby. Al and his wife, Sandy, have two children, Karl and Eva.
HA ro LD V. TH ur MAN Hal Thurman’s interest in geology led to a bachelor’s degree from Oklahoma A&M University, followed by seven years working as a petroleum geologist, mainly in the Gulf of Mexico, where his interest in the oceans developed. He earned a master’s degree from California State University at Los Angeles. Hal began teaching at Mt. San Antonio College in Walnut, California, in 1968 as a temporary teacher and taught Physics 1 (a surveying class) and three Physical Geology labs. In 1970, he taught his first class of General Oceanography. It was from this experience that he decided to write a textbook on oceanography and received a contract with Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company in 1973. The first edition of his book Introductory Oceanography was released in 1975. Harold authored or coauthored over 20 editions of textbooks that include Introductory Oceanography, Essentials of Oceanography, Physical Geology, Marine Biology, and Oceanography Laboratory Manual , many of which are still being used today throughout the world. In addition, he contributed to the World Book Encyclopedia on the topics of “Arctic Ocean,” “Atlantic Ocean,” “Indian Ocean,” and “Pacific Ocean.” Hal Thurman retired in May 1994, after 24 years of teaching, and moved to be closer to family in Oklahoma, then to Florida. Hal passed away at the age of 78 on December 29, 2012. His writing expertise, knowledge about the ocean, and easy-going demeanor will be dearly missed.
Appendix I
Appendix II
Appendix III
Appendix
Appendix V Careers in Oceanography 563
Glossary 566
Credits and Acknowledgments 586
Index 589
Preface xi
To the Student xi
Diving Deeper Preface.1 A User’s Guide for Students: How to Read a Science Textbook xi
To the Instructor xii
Diving Deeper Preface.2 Ocean Literacy: What Should People Know about the Ocean? xii
Reorganization of What’s New in This Edition Section xiii
For the Student xiv
For the Instructor xiv
Acknowledgments xv
1 introduction to Planet “earth” 3
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 3
1.1 How Are earth’s oceans Unique? 3
Earth’s Amazing Oceans 4 • How Many Oceans Exist on Earth? 4
The Four Principal Oceans, Plus One 5 • Oceans versus Seas 6
1.2 How Was early exploration of the oceans Achieved? 9 Early History 9
Diving DEEpEr 1.1 historiCal FEaturE How Do Sailors Know Where They Are at Sea? From Stick Charts to Satellites 10
The Middle Ages 13 • The Age of Discovery in Europe 13
• The Beginning of Voyaging for Science 14 • History of Oceanography . . . To Be Continued 15
1.3 What Is oceanography? 16
1.4 What Is the nature of scientific Inquiry? 17 Observations 17 • Hypothesis 17 • Testing 18 • Theory 18
• Theories and the Truth 18
1.5 How Were earth and the solar system Formed? 19
The Nebular Hypothesis 20 • Proto-Earth 20 • Density and Density Stratification 22 • Earth’s Internal Structure 22
1.6 How Were earth’s Atmosphere and oceans Formed? 26 Origin of Earth’s Atmosphere 26 • Origin of Earth’s Oceans 26
1.7 Did Life Begin in the oceans? 27
The Importance of Oxygen to Life 27 • Stanley Miller’s Experiment 28
• Evolution and Natural Selection 29 • Plants and Animals Evolve 29
Diving DEEpEr 1.2 historiCal FEaturE The Voyage of HMS Beagle: How It Shaped Charles Darwin’s Thinking about the Theory of Evolution 30
1.8 How old Is earth? 33
Radiometric Age Dating 33 • The Geologic Time Scale 33
Essential Concepts review 35
Mountain Chains 40 • Glacial Ages and Other Climate Evidence 41
• Distribution of Organisms 41 • Objections to the Continental Drift Model 42
2.2 What evidence supports Plate tectonics? 43
Earth’s Magnetic Field and Paleomagnetism 44 • Sea Floor Spreading and Features of the Ocean Basins 46
Diving DEEpEr 2.1 rEsEarCh MEthoDs in oCEanography Using Moving Continents to Resolve an Apparent Dilemma: Did Earth Ever Have Two Wandering North Magnetic Poles? 47
Other Evidence from the Ocean Basins 49
• Detecting Plate Motion with Satellites 53
• The Acceptance of a Theory 53
2.3 What Features occur at Plate Boundaries? 54
Divergent Boundary Features 55 • Convergent Boundary Features 60 • Transform Boundary Features 65
2.4 testing the Model: How Can Plate tectonics Be Used as a Working Model? 67
Hotspots and Mantle Plumes 67 • Seamounts and Tablemounts 70
• Coral Reef Development 70
2.5 How Has earth Changed in the Past, and How Will it Look in the Future? 74
The Past: Paleogeography 74 • The Future: Some Bold Predictions 74 • A Predictive Model: The Wilson Cycle 76
Essential Concepts review 78
3 MarinE PrOvincEs 81
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 81
3.1 What Techniques Are used to Determine ocean bathymetry? 81 Soundings 82 • Echo Soundings 82 • Using Satellites to Map Ocean Properties from Space 84 • Seismic Reflection Profiles 85
3.2 What Features exist on Continental Margins? 87 Passive versus Active Continental Margins 87 • Continental Shelf 88 • Continental Slope 89 • Submarine Canyons and Turbidity Currents 89 • Continental Rise 91
3.3 What Features exist in the Deep-ocean basins? 92 Abyssal Plains 92 • Volcanic Peaks of the Abyssal Plains 93 • Ocean Trenches and Volcanic Arcs 93
3.4 What Features exist along the Mid-ocean ridge? 95 Volcanic Features 96 • Hydrothermal Vents 96
Diving DEEpEr 3.1 rEsEarCh MEthoDs in oCEanography Earth’s
Hypsographic Curve: Nearly Everything You Need to Know about Earth’s Oceans and Landmasses in One Graph 97
Diving DEEpEr 3.2 rEsEarCh MEthoDs in oCEanography Now You See It, Now You Don’t: Recovering Oceanographic Equipment Stuck in Lava 98 Fracture Zones and Transform Faults 100 • Oceanic Islands 101 Essential Concepts review 102
4 MarinE sEdiMEnts 105
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 105
4.1 How Are Marine sediments Collected, and What Historical events Do They reveal? 106 Collecting Marine Sediments 106 • Environmental Conditions Revealed by Marine Sediments 108 • Paleoceanography 108
4.2 What Are the Characteristics of Lithogenous sediment? 109 Origin of Lithogenous Sediment 109 • Composition of Lithogenous Sediment 109 • Sediment Texture 110 • Distribution of Lithogenous Sediment 111
4.3 What Are the Characteristics of biogenous sediment? 113 Origin of Biogenous Sediment 113 • Composition of Biogenous Sediment 114
Diving DEEpEr 4.1 oCEans anD pEoplE Diatoms: The Most Important Things You Have (Probably) Never Heard Of 115 Distribution of Biogenous Sediment 117
4.4 What Are the Characteristics of Hydrogenous sediment? 121 Origin of Hydrogenous Sediment 121 • Composition and Distribution of Hydrogenous Sediment 122
4.5 What Are the Characteristics of Cosmogenous sediment? 124 Origin, Composition, and Distribution of Cosmogenous Sediment 124
4.6 How Are Pelagic and Neritic Deposits Distributed? 125 Mixtures of Marine Sediment 125 • Neritic Deposits 126 Pelagic Deposits 126 • How Sea Floor Sediments Represent Surface Conditions 128 • Worldwide Thickness of Marine Sediments 128
4.7 What resources Do Marine sediments Provide? 129 Energy Resources 129 • Other Resources 130 Essential Concepts review 133
5
WatEr and sEaWatEr 137
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 137
5.1 Why Does Water Have such unusual Chemical Properties? 137 Atomic Structure 137 • The Water Molecule 138
5.2 What Important Physical Properties Does Water Possess? 140 Water’s Thermal Properties 140 • Water Density as a Result of Thermal Contraction 145
5.3 How salty Is seawater? 147 Salinity 147 • Determining Salinity 148
Diving DEEpEr 5.1 oCEans anD pEoplE How to Avoid Goiters 149 Comparing Pure Water and Seawater 150
5.4 Why Does seawater salinity Vary? 151 Salinity Variations 151 • Processes Affecting Seawater Salinity 152
• Dissolved Components Added to and Removed from Seawater 153
5.5 Is seawater Acidic or basic? 156
The pH Scale 156 • The Carbonate Buffering System 157
5.6 How Does seawater salinity Vary at the surface and with Depth? 158 Surface Salinity Variation 159 • Salinity Variation with Depth 159
• Halocline 160
5.7 How Does seawater Density Vary with Depth? 161 Factors Affecting Seawater Density 161 • Temperature and Density Variation with Depth 162 • Thermocline and Pycnocline 163
5.8 What Methods Are used to Desalinate seawater? 164 Distillation 165 • Membrane Processes 165 • Other Methods of Desalination 166
Essential Concepts review 167
6
air–sEa intEractiOn 171
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 171
6.1 What Causes Variations in solar radiation on earth? 172 What Causes Earth’s Seasons? 172 • How Latitude Affects the Distribution of Solar Radiation 173 • Oceanic Heat Flow 175
6.2 What Physical Properties Does the Atmosphere Possess? 175 Composition of the Atmosphere 175 • Temperature Variation in the Atmosphere 176 • Density Variation in the Atmosphere 176
• Atmospheric Water Vapor Content 176 • Atmospheric Pressure 177 • Movement of the Atmosphere 177 • An Example: A Nonspinning Earth 177
6.3 How Does the Coriolis effect Influence Moving objects? 178 Example 1: Perspectives and Frames of Reference on a Merry-Go-Round 179 • Example 2: A Tale of Two Missiles 180
• Changes in the Coriolis Effect with Latitude 181
6.4 What Global Atmospheric Circulation Patterns exist? 181 Circulation Cells 182 • Pressure 183 • Wind Belts 183
• Boundaries 183 • Circulation Cells: Idealized or Real? 184
6.5 How Does the ocean Influence Global Weather Phenomena and Climate Patterns? 185
Weather versus Climate 186 • Winds 186
Diving DEEpEr 6.1 historiCal FEaturE Why Christopher Columbus Never Set Foot on North America 187
Storms and Fronts 188 • Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes) 188
• The Ocean’s Climate Patterns 196
6.6 How Do sea Ice and Icebergs Form? 198 Formation of Sea Ice 198 • Formation of Icebergs 200
6.7 Can Power from Wind be Harnessed as a source of energy? 201
Essential Concepts review 202
7
OcEan circulatiOn 207
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 207
7.1 How Are ocean Currents Measured? 207 Surface Current Measurement 207
Diving DEEpEr 7.1 oCEans anD pEoplE Running Shoes as Drift Meters: Just Do It 209 Deep Current Measurement 210
7.2 What Creates ocean surface Currents and How Are They organized? 211
Origin of Surface Currents 211 • Main Components of Ocean Surface Circulation 212 • Other Factors Affecting Ocean Surface Circulation 214 • Ocean Currents and Climate 218
7.3 What Causes upwelling and Downwelling? 220 Diverging Surface Water 220 • Converging Surface Water 220
• Coastal Upwelling and Downwelling 220 • Other Causes of Upwelling 221
7.4 What Are the Main surface Circulation Patterns in each ocean basin? 222
Antarctic Circulation 222 • Atlantic Ocean Circulation 223
Diving DEEpEr 7.2 historiCal FEaturE Benjamin Franklin: The World’s Most Famous Physical Oceanographer 226
Indian Ocean Circulation 227 • Pacific Ocean Circulation 229
7.5 How Do Deep-ocean Currents Form? 236
Origin of Thermohaline Circulation 236 • Sources of Deep Water 236
• Worldwide Deep-Water Circulation 237
7.6 Can Power from Currents be Harnessed as a source of energy? 240
Essential Concepts review 241
8 WavEs and WatEr dynaMics 245
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 245
8.1 How Are Waves Generated, and How Do They Move? 245 Disturbances Generate Ocean Waves 245
• Wave Movement 246
8.2 What Characteristics Do Waves Possess? 248
Wave Terminology 248 • Circular Orbital Motion 248
• Deep-Water Waves 250 • Shallow-Water Waves 251
• Transitional Waves 251
8.3 How Do Wind-Generated Waves Develop? 252 Wave Development 252 • Interference Patterns 256
• Rogue Waves 256
8.4 How Do Waves Change in the surf Zone? 258
Physical Changes as Waves Approach Shore 258
• Breakers and Surfing 259 • Wave Refraction 260
• Wave Reflection 262
8.5 How Are Tsunami Created? 263
Coastal Effects 265 • Some Examples of Historic and Recent Tsunami 266 • Tsunami Warning System 269
Diving DEEpEr 8.1 oCEans anD pEoplE Waves of Destruction: The 2011 Japanese Tsunami 270
8.6 Can Power from Waves be Harnessed as a source of energy? 272
Wave Power Plants and Wave Farms 272 • Global Coastal Wave Energy Resources 273
Essential Concepts review 275
9 tidEs
279
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 279
9.1 What Causes ocean Tides? 279
Tide-Generating Forces 279 • Tidal Bulges: The Moon’s Effect 282
• Tidal Bulges: The Sun’s Effect 284 • Earth’s Rotation and the Tides 284
9.2 How Do Tides Vary during a Monthly Tidal Cycle? 285
The Monthly Tidal Cycle 285 • Complicating Factors 287
• Idealized Tide Prediction 289
9.3 What Do Tides Look Like in the ocean? 291
Amphidromic Points and Cotidal Lines 291 • Effect of the Continents 291 • Other Considerations 292
9.4 What Types of Tidal Patterns exist? 292
Diurnal Tidal Pattern 292 • Semidiurnal Tidal Pattern 292
• Mixed Tidal Pattern 292
9.5 What Tidal Phenomena occur in Coastal regions? 294
An Example of Tidal Extremes: The Bay of Fundy 294
Diving DEEpEr 9.1 oCEans anD pEoplE Tidal Bores: Boring Waves These Are Not! 295
Coastal Tidal Currents 296 • Whirlpools: Fact or Fiction? 297
• Grunion: Doing What Comes Naturally on the Beach 297
9.6 Can Tidal Power be Harnessed as a source of energy? 299
Tidal Power Plants 299
Essential Concepts review 301
10
BEachEs, shOrElinE PrOcEssEs, and thE cOastal OcEan 305
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 305
10.1 How Are Coastal regions Defined? 305
Beach Terminology 306 • Beach Composition 306
10.2 How Does sand Move on the beach? 307
Movement Perpendicular to the Shoreline 307 • Movement Parallel to the Shoreline 308
10.3 What Features exist along erosional and Depositional shores? 310
Features of Erosional Shores 310
Diving DEEpEr 10.1 oCEans anD pEoplE Warning: Rip Currents . . . Do You Know What to Do? 312
Features of Depositional Shores 313
10.4 How Do Changes in sea Level Produce emerging and submerging shorelines? 319
Features of Emerging Shorelines 320 • Features of Submerging Shorelines 320 • Changes in Sea Level 320
10.5 How Does Hard stabilization Affect Coastlines? 322
Groins and Groin Fields 322 • Jetties 323 • Breakwaters 324
• Seawalls 326 • Alternatives to Hard Stabilization 326
10.6 What are the Characteristics and Types of Coastal Waters? 328 Characteristics of Coastal Waters 328 • Estuaries 331 • Lagoons 335 • Marginal Seas 336
10.7 What Issues Face Coastal Wetlands? 338 Types of Coastal Wetlands 338 • Characteristics of Coastal Wetlands 340 • Serious Loss of Valuable Wetlands 340
Essential Concepts review 342
11 MarinE POllutiOn 347
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 347
11.1 What Is Pollution? 347
Marine Pollution: A Definition 348 • Environmental Bioassay 348
• The Issue of Waste Disposal in the Ocean 349
11.2 What Marine environmental Problems Are Associated with Petroleum Pollution? 349
The 1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 350 • Other Oil Spills 350
Diving DEEpEr 11.1 FoCus on thE EnvironMEnt The 2010 Gulf of Mexico Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 352
11.3 What Marine environmental Problems Are Associated with Non-Petroleum Chemical Pollution? 356 Sewage Sludge 356 • DDT and PCBs 357 • Mercury and Minamata Disease 359 • Other Types of Chemical Pollutants 360
11.4 What Marine environmental Problems Are Associated with Nonpoint source Pollution, Including Trash? 362 Non-point Source Pollution and Trash 362 • Plastics as Marine Debris 363
11.5 What Marine environmental Problems Are Associated with biological Pollution? 367
The Seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia 367 • Zebra Mussels 368
• Other Notable Examples of Marine Biological Pollution 368
11.6 What Laws Govern ocean ownership? 368 Mare Liberum and the Territorial Sea 368 • Law of the Sea 369
Essential Concepts review 371
12 MarinE liFE and thE MarinE
EnvirOnMEnt 375
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 375
12.1 What Are Living Things, and How Are They Classified? 375 A Working Definition of Life 375 • The Three Domains of Life 376 • The Six Kingdoms of Organisms 377 • Linnaeus and Taxonomic Classification 378
12.2 How Are Marine organisms Classified? 379 Plankton (Drifters) 380 • Nekton (Swimmers) 381 • Benthos (Bottom Dwellers) 382
12.3 How Many Marine species exist? 383
Why Are There So Few Marine Species? 384 • Species in Pelagic and Benthic Environments 384
12.4 How Are Marine organisms Adapted to the Physical Conditions of the ocean? 385
Need for Physical Support 385 • Water’s Viscosity 386
• Temperature 387 • Salinity 389 • Dissolved Gases 391
• Water’s High Transparency 392 • Pressure 394
Diving DEEpEr 12.1 historiCal FEaturE Diving into the Marine Environment 395
12.5 What Are the Main Divisions of the Marine environment? 395 Pelagic (Open Sea) Environment 396 • Benthic (Sea Bottom) Environment 398
Essential Concepts review 399
13 BiOlOgical PrOductivity and EnErgy transFEr 403
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 403
13.1 What Is Primary Productivity? 403 Measurement of Primary Productivity 404 • Factors Affecting Primary Productivity 404 • Light Transmission in Ocean Water 406 • Why Are the Margins of the Oceans So Rich in Life? 408
13.2 What Kinds of Photosynthetic Marine organisms exist? 411 Seed-Bearing Plants (Anthophyta) 411 • Macroscopic (Large) Algae 411 • Microscopic (Small) Algae 413 • Ocean Eutrophication and Dead Zones 416 • Photosynthetic Bacteria 418
13.3 How Does regional Primary Productivity Vary? 419 Productivity in Polar (High Latitude) Oceans: 60 to 90 degrees North and South Latitude 420 • Productivity in Tropical (Low-Latitude) Oceans: 0 to 30 degrees North and South Latitude 421 • Productivity in Temperate (Middle Latitude) Oceans: 30 to 60 degrees North and South Latitude 422 • Comparing Regional Productivity 424
13.4 How Are energy and Nutrients Passed Along in Marine ecosystems? 424 Flow of Energy in Marine Ecosystems 424 • Flow of Nutrients in Marine Ecosystems 425 • Oceanic Feeding Relationships 426
13.5 What Issues Affect Marine Fisheries? 430 Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries 430 • Overfishing 430 • Incidental Catch 432
Diving DEEpEr 13.1 FoCus on thE EnvironMEnt Fishing down the Food Web: Seeing Is Believing 433
Fisheries Management 435 • Effect of Global Climate Change on Marine Fisheries 439 • Seafood Choices 440 Essential Concepts review 441
14 aniMals OF thE PElagic EnvirOnMEnt 445
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 445
14.1 How Are Marine organisms Able to stay Above the ocean Floor? 445
Use of Gas Containers 445 • Ability to Float 446 • Ability to Swim 447 • The Diversity of Planktonic Animals 447
14.2 What Adaptations Do Pelagic organisms Possess for seeking Prey? 452
Mobility: Lungers versus Cruisers 452 • Swimming Speed 453
Diving DEEpEr 14.1 oCEans anD pEoplE Some Myths (and Facts) about Sharks 454
Adaptations of Deep-Water Nekton 455
14.3 What Adaptations Do Pelagic organisms Possess to Avoid being Prey? 456
Schooling 457 • Symbiosis 458 • Other Adaptations 458
14.4 What Characteristics Do Marine Mammals Possess? 459
Mammalian Characteristics 459 • Order Carnivora 460 • Order Sirenia 462 • Order Cetacea 462
14.5 An example of Migration: Why Do Gray Whales Migrate? 472
Migration Route 472 • Reasons for Migration 472 • Timing of Migration 473 • Are Gray Whales an Endangered Species? 473
• Whaling and the International Whaling Commission 474
Essential Concepts review 475
15 animals oF the Benthic environment 479
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 479
15.1 What Communities exist along Rocky shores? 479
Intertidal Zonation 480 • The Spray (Supratidal) Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 484 • The High Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 484 • The Middle Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 484 • The Low Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 486
15.2 What Communities exist along sediment-Covered shores? 487
Physical Environment of the Sediment 488 • Intertidal Zonation 488
• Sandy Beaches: Organisms and Their Adaptations 488 • Mud Flats: Organisms and Their Adaptations 489
15.3 What Communities exist on the shallow offshore ocean Floor? 490
Rocky Bottoms (Subtidal): Organisms and Their Adaptations 490
• Coral Reefs: Organisms and Their Adaptations 493
15.4 What Communities exist on the Deep-ocean Floor? 500 The Physical Environment 500 • Food Sources and Species Diversity 501 • Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Biocommunities: Organisms and Their Adaptations 501
Diving DEEpEr 15.1 rEsEarCh MEthoDs in oCEanography How Long Would Your Remains Remain on the Sea Floor? 502
16.2 earth’s Recent Climate Change: Is It natural or Caused by Human Influence? 516
Determining Earth’s Past Climate: Proxy Data and Paleoclimatology 516 • Natural Causes of Climate Change 516
• The IPCC: Documenting Human-Caused Climate Change 520
16.3 What Causes the Atmosphere’s Greenhouse effect? 523
Earth’s Heat Budget and Changes in Wavelength 523 • Which Gases Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect? 524
Diving DEEpEr 16.1 rEsEarCh MEthoDs in oCEanography The Iconic Keeling Curve of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and the Father–Son Team Who Created It 526
Other considerations: Aerosols 529 • What Documented Changes Are Occurring Because of Global Warming? 530
16.4 What Changes Are occurring in the oceans as a Result of Global Warming? 531
Increasing Ocean Temperatures 531 • Changes in Deep-Water Circulation 534 • Melting of Polar Ice 534 • Recent Increase in Ocean Acidity 536 • Rising Sea Level 539 • Other Predicted and Observed Changes 540
16.5 What should Be Done to Reduce Greenhouse Gases? 542
The Ocean’s Role in Reducing Global Warming 543 • Possibilities for Reducing Greenhouse Gases 543 • The Kyoto Protocol: Limiting Greenhouse Gas Emissions 546
Essential Concepts review 547
Afterword 550
Appendix I Metric and English Units Compared 554
Appendix II Geographic Locations 558
Appendix III Latitude and Longitude on Earth 560
Appendix IV A Chemical Background: Why Water Has Two Hs and One O (Online as MasteringOceanography Bonus Web Content)
Appendix V Careers in Oceanography 563
• The Deep Biosphere: A New Frontier 509
Low-Temperature Seep Biocommunities: Organisms and Their Adaptations 507
Essential Concepts review 510
16 the oceans and climate change 513
Ess E ntial lE arning Con CE pts 513
16.1 What Comprises earth’s Climate system? 513
Glossary 566
Credits and Acknowledgments 586
Index 589
“The sea, once it casts its spell, holds one in its net of wonder forever.”
—Jacques-Yves Cousteau, oceanographer, underwater videographer, and explorer (circa 1963)
To the student
Welcome! You’re about to embark on a journey that is far from ordinary. Over the course of this term, you will discover the central role the oceans play in the vast global system of which you are a part.
This book’s content was carefully developed to provide a foundation in science by examining the vast body of oceanic knowledge. This knowledge includes information from a variety of scientific disciplines—geology, chemistry, physics, and biology—as they relate to
the oceans. However, no formal background in any of these disciplines is required to successfully master the subject matter contained within this book. Our desire is to have you take away from your oceanography course much more than just a collection of facts. Instead, we want you to develop a fundamental understanding of how the oceans work and why the oceans behave the way that they do.
This book is intended to help you in your quest to know more about the oceans. Taken as a whole, the components of the ocean— its sea floor, chemical constituents, physical components, and lifeforms—comprise one of Earth’s largest interacting, interrelated, and interdependent systems. Because human activities impact Earth systems, it is important to understand not only how the oceans operate but also how the oceans interact with Earth’s other systems (such as its atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere) as part of a larger picture. Thus, this book uses a systems approach to highlight the interdisciplinary relationships among oceanographic phenomena and how those phenomena affect other Earth systems.
A user’s GuIDe For sTuDeNTs: HoW To reAD A sCIeNCe TexTbooK
Have you known someone who could scan a reading assignment or sleep with it under their pillow and somehow absorb all the information? studies have shown that those people haven’t really committed anything to long-term memory. f or most of us, it takes a focused, concentrated effort to gain knowledge through reading. i nterestingly, if you have the proper motivation and reading techniques, you can develop excellent reading comprehension. what is the best way to read a science textbook such as this one that contains many new and unfamiliar terms?
one common mistake is to approach reading a science textbook as one would read a newspaper, magazine, or novel. instead, many reading instructors suggest using the s Q 4 r reading technique, which is based on research about how the brain learns. The s Q4 r technique includes these steps:
1. survey: read the title, introduction, major headings, first sentences, concept statements, review questions, summary, and study aids to become familiar with the content in advance.
2. Question: have questions in mind when you read. if you can’t think of any good questions, use the chapter questions as a guide.
3. read: read flexibly through the chapter, using short time periods to accomplish the task one section at a time (not all in one sitting).
4. recite: answer the chapter questions. Take notes after each section and review your notes before you move on.
5. (w)rite: write summaries and/or reflections on what you’ve read. write answers to the questions in step 2.
6. review: review the text using the strategy in the survey step. Take the time to review your end-of-section notes as well as your summaries.
To help you study most effectively, this textbook includes many study aids that are designed to be used with the s Q4 r technique. f or example, each chapter includes a word cloud of key terms, a list of learning objectives that are tied to the e s sential c on cepts
throughout the chapter, review concept check questions embedded at the end of each section, and an e ssential c oncepts r eview that includes a chapter summary, study resources, and critical thinking questions. here are some additional reading tips that may seem like common sense but are often overlooked:
• don’t attempt to do your reading when you are tired, distracted, or agitated.
• Break up your reading into manageable sections. don’t save it all until the last minute.
• Take a short break if your concentration begins to fade. listen to music, call a friend, have a snack, or drink some water. Then return to your reading.
remember that every person is different, so experiment with new study techniques to discover what works best for you. in addition, being a successful student is hard work; it is not something one does in his/her spare time. with a little effort in applying the sQ4r reading technique, you will begin to see a difference in what you remember from your reading.
To that end—and to help you make the most of your study time— we focused the presentation in this book by organizing the material around three essential components:
1. ConCEpts: General ideas derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences (for instance, the concept of density can be used to explain why the oceans are layered)
2. proCEssEs: Actions or occurrences that bring about a result (for instance, the process of waves breaking at an angle to the shore results in the movement of sediment along the shoreline)
3. prinCiplEs: Rules or laws concerning the functioning of natural phenomena or mechanical processes (for instance, the principle of sea floor spreading suggests that the geographic positions of the continents have changed through time)
Interwoven within these concepts, processes, and principles are hundreds of photographs, illustrations, real-world examples, and applications that make the material relevant and accessible (and maybe sometimes even entertaining) by bringing science to life.
Ultimately, it is our hope that by understanding how the oceans work, you will develop a new awareness and appreciation of all aspects of the marine environment and its role in Earth systems. To this end, the book has been written for you, a student of the oceans. So enjoy and immerse yourself! You’re in for an exciting ride.
Al Trujillo
To the Instructor
This twelfth edition of Essentials of Oceanography is designed to accompany an introductory college-level course in oceanography taught to students who have no formal background in mathematics or science. As in previous editions, the goal of this edition of the textbook is to clearly present the relationships of scientific principles to ocean phenomena in an engaging and meaningful way.
DIVING DeePer Preface.2
The ocean is the defining feature of our planet. accordingly, there is great interest in developing ocean literacy, which means understanding the ocean’s influence on humans as well as humans’ influence on the ocean. for example, scientists and educators agree that an ocean-literate person:
• understands the essential principles and fundamental concepts about the functioning of the ocean.
• can communicate about the ocean in a meaningful way.
• is able to make informed and responsible decisions regarding the ocean and its resources.
This edition has greatly benefited from being thoroughly reviewed by hundreds of students who made numerous suggestions for improvement. Comments by former students about the book include, “I have really enjoyed the oceanography book we’ve used this semester. It had just the right mix of graphics, text, and user-friendliness that really held my interest,” and “What I really liked about the book is that it’s a welcoming textbook—open and airy. You could almost read it at bedtime like a story because of all the interesting pictures.”
This edition has been reviewed in detail by a host of instructors from leading institutions across the country. Reviewers of the eleventh edition described the text as follows: “Clean, sleek, easy-to-read text with engaging photos, figures, text features, and animations/videos that will “hook” students in and get them excited about the material,” and “ I think the text is very well put together. It does a nice job presenting the material and supporting it with many pictures, illustrations, and graphs. The text is well-organized and laid out in an easy-touse fashion. I would recommend this text to a colleague for teaching Introductory Oceanography.”
In 2012, the tenth edition of Essentials of Oceanography received a Textbook Excellence Award, called a “Texty,” from the Text and Academic Authors Association (TAA). The Texty award recognizes written works for their excellence in the areas of content, presentation, appeal, and teachability. The publisher, Pearson Education, nominated the book for the award, and the textbook was critically reviewed by a panel of expert judges.
The 16-chapter format of this textbook is designed for easy coverage of the material in a 15- or 16-week semester. For courses taught on a 10-week quarter system, instructors may need to select those chapters that cover the topics and concepts of primary relevance to their course. Chapters are self-contained and can thus be covered in any order. Following the introductory chapter (Chapter 1, which covers the general geography of the oceans; a historical perspective of oceanography; the reasoning behind the scientific method; and a discussion of the origin of Earth, the atmosphere, the oceans, and life itself), the
To achieve this goal, ocean educators and experts have developed the seven principles of ocean literacy. The following ideas are what everyone—especially those who successfully pass a college course in oceanography or marine science—should understand about the ocean:
1. earth has one big ocean with many features.
2. The ocean and life in the ocean shape the features of earth.
3. The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate.
4. The ocean makes earth habitable.
5. The ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems.
6. The ocean and humans are inextricably interconnected.
7. The ocean is largely unexplored.
This book is intended to help all people achieve ocean literacy. f or more information about the seven Principles of ocean literacy, see http://oceanliteracy.wp2.coexploration.org/ https://goo.gl/emPlXd
four major academic disciplines of oceanography are represented in the following chapters:
• Geological oceanography (Chapters 2–4 and Chapter 10)
• Chemical oceanography (Chapter 5 and Chapter 11)
• Physical oceanography (Chapters 6–9)
• Biological oceanography (Chapters 12–15)
• Interdisciplinary oceanography: Climate change (Chapter 16)
We strongly believe that oceanography is at its best when it links together several scientific disciplines and shows how they are interrelated in the oceans. Therefore, this interdisciplinary approach is a key element of every chapter, particularly Chapter 16, “The Oceans and Climate Change.”
reorganization of What’s New in This edition section
Changes in this edition are designed to increase the readability, relevance, and appeal of this book. Major changes include the following:
1. NEW! Hybridization of the Textbook
• Inclusion of more than 70 Web Animations from Pearson’s Geoscience Animations Library, which include state-of-the-art computer animations that have been created by Al Trujillo and a panel of geoscience educators
• Addition of seven new Geoscience Animations that have been specifically designed for this edition to help students visualize some of the most challenging oceanographic concepts:
• Formation of Earth’s Oceans (Chapter 1)
• How Salt Dissolves in Water (Chapter 5)
• Three Types of Breakers (Chapter 8)
• Effects of Elliptical Orbits (Chapter 9)
• Osmosis (Chapter 12)
• Feeding in Baleen Whales (Chapter 14)
• Latitude and Longitude on Earth (Appendix III)
• Inclusion of links to more than 50 hand-picked Web videos that show important oceanographic processes in action
• Addition of QR codes embedded in the text that allow students to use their mobile devices to link directly to MasteringOceanography Animations, SmartFigures, SmartTables, and Web Videos
• Select Diving Deeper features have been migrated online to MasteringOceanography as Bonus Web Content in an effort to reduce the length of the text
• The addition in each chapter of a series of new SmartFigures and SmartTables which provide a video explanation of difficultto-understand oceanographic concepts and numerical data by an oceanography teaching expert
2. NEW! Content/Art Revisions
• A thoroughly updated Chapter 16 “The Oceans and Climate Change,” including new information about ocean acidification, the
most recent findings of the IPCC, five new “Students Sometimes Ask … ” features that address student misconceptions and concerns regarding climate change, a new Diving Deeper Box about the father-son team of Charles David and Ralph Keeling who created and maintain the Keeling curve of atmospheric carbon dioxide, an expanded discussion on the role of orbital parameters in creating natural cycles of climate change, and a new section on the effect of aerosols on global warming
• A redesigned and updated Chapter 13, “Biological Productivity and Energy Transfer,” including contributions by Dr. Angel Rodriguez of Broward College in Florida highlighting issues of fisheries sustainability
• A new name and focus for Chapter 11 “Marine Pollution,” which reframes the chapter discussion along environmental themes
• Reorganization of Chapter 10, adding content about the properties of the coastal ocean from Chapter 11 and renaming the chapter “Beaches, Shoreline Processes, and the Coastal Ocean”
• Greater emphasis on the ocean’s role in Earth systems
• Addition of a revised word cloud at the beginning of each chapter that uses different font sizes to show the most important vocabulary terms within the chapter and directs students to the glossary at the end of the book to discover the meaning of any terms they don’t already know
• A detailed list of specific chapter-by-chapter changes is available at www2.palomar.edu/users/atrujillo
3. NEW! Pedagogical Enhancements
• A stronger learning path that directly links the learning objectives listed at the beginning of each chapter to the end-of-section “Concept Checks,” which allow and encourage students to pause and test their knowledge as they proceed through the chapter
• Addition of a new “Recap” feature that summarizes key points throughout the text that making studying easier
• A new active learning pedagogy that divides chapter material into easily digestible chunks, which makes studying easier and assists student learning (cognitive science research shows that the ability to “chunk” information is essential to enhancing learning and memory)
• The addition of one or more “Give It Some Thought” assessment questions to each “Diving Deeper” boxed feature
• The addition of a new “Climate Connection” icon that alerts students to topics that are related to the overarching theme of the ocean’s importance to global climate change
• A new multidisciplinary icon that flags content related to two or more of the sub-disciplines in oceanography: geological oceanography, chemical oceanography, physical oceanography, and biological oceanography
• In all Essential Concept Review (end-of-chapter) materials, the revision of existing “Critical Thinking Questions” and the addition of new “Active Learning Exercise” questions that can be used for in-class group activities
• Updating of information throughout the text to include some of the most recent and critical developments in oceanography
• Addition of an array of new “Students Sometimes Ask … ” questions throughout the book
• Diving Deeper features appearing in the book are organized around the following four themes:
• Historical Features, which focus on historical developments in oceanography that tie into chapter topics
• researcH MetHods in oceanograpHy, which highlight how oceanographic knowledge is obtained
• oceans and people, which illustrate the interaction of humans and the ocean environment
• Focus on tHe environMent, which emphasizes environmental issues that are an increasingly important component of ocean studies
• All text in the chapters has been thoroughly reviewed and edited by students and oceanography instructors in a continued effort to refine the style and clarity of the writing
• In addition, this edition continues to offer some of the previous edition’s most popular features, including the following:
• Scientifically accurate and thorough coverage of oceanography topics
• “Students Sometimes Ask … ” questions, which present actual student questions along with the authors’ answers
• Use of the international metric system (Système International [SI] units), with comparable English system units in parentheses
• Explanation of word etymons (etumon = sense of a word) as new terms are introduced, in an effort to demystify scientific terms by showing what the terms actually mean
• Use of bold print on key terms, which are defined when they are introduced and are described in the glossary
• A reorganized “Essential Concepts Review” summary at the end of each chapter
• Masteringoceanography , which features chapter-specific Essential Concepts, eText, Bonus Web Content, Geoscience Animations, Web Videos, Web Destinations, and two Test Yourself quiz modules
4. NEW! Squidtoons
• A new, comic-styled Squidtoons cartoon in each chapter; created by a team of graduate students at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in California, each Squidtoons highlights an important marine organism relevant to the chapter’s content; the cartoon links to a poster-like presentation that uses engaging graphics and humor to discuss interesting aspects of each creature
For the student
• MastEringoCEanography delivers engaging, dynamic learning opportunities—focused on course objectives and responsive to each student’s progress—that are proven to help students absorb course material and understand difficult concepts. MasteringOceanography and MyLab & Mastering are customized learning resources that include:
• student study area, which is designed to be a one-stop resource for students to acquire study help and serve as a launching pad
for further exploration. Content for the site was written by author Al Trujillo and is tied, chapter-by-chapter, to the text. The Student Study Area is organized around a four-step learning pathway:
1. Review, which contains Essential Concepts as learning objectives
2. Read, which contains the eText and Bonus Web Content
3. Visualize, which contains Geoscience Animations, Web Videos, and Web Destinations Geoscience Animations were created by a team of geoscience educators and include an array of more than 70 visualizations that help students understand complex oceanographic concepts and processes by allowing the user to control the action. For example, students can fully examine how an animation develops by replaying it, controlling its pace, and stopping and starting the animation anywhere in its sequence. In order to facilitate effective study, Al Trujillo has written an accompanying narration and assessment quiz questions including hints and specific wrong-answer feedback for each animation. Web Videos include more than 50 hand-selected short video clips of oceanographic processes in action. Web Destinations include links to some of the best oceanography sites on the Web.
4. Test Yourself, which contains three Test Yourself modules, including multiple-choice and true/false, multiple-answer, and image-labeling exercises. Answers, once submitted, are automatically graded for instant feedback.
• rss Feeds, which allow students to subscribe and stay up-todate on oceanographic discoveries
• study tools such as flashcards and a searchable online glossary to help make the most of students’ study time
• thE pEarson etEXt gives students complete access to a digital version of the text whenever and wherever you have access to the Internet. eText pages look exactly like the printed text, offering powerful new portability and functionality.
For the Instructor
• MastEringoCEanography: Continuous lEarning BEForE, During, anD aFtEr Class MasteringOceanography is an online homework, tutorials, and assessments program designed to improve results by helping students quickly master oceanography concepts. Students will benefit from self-paced tutorials that feature immediate wrong-answer feedback and hints that emulate the office-hour experience to help keep them on track. With a wide range of interactive, engaging, and assignable activities, students will be encouraged to actively learn and retain tough course concepts:
• smartFigures and smarttables , which are short instructional videos that examine and explain the most important concepts illustrated by the figure or data table. With nearly 100 of these SmartFigures/SmartTables inside the text, students can stop, pause, and replay the videos multiple times to help them learn about important concepts and real oceanographic data.
• Mobile interactive geoscience animations, which include more than 70 Geoscience Animations of difficult-to-understand concepts that are embedded throughout the text using mobilefriendly QR codes
• geotutors, which coach students through difficult concepts
• Encounter oceans activities, which provide interactive explorations of oceanography concepts using Google Earth™. Students work through the activities in Google Earth and then test their knowledge by answering the assessment questions, which include hints and specific wrong-answer feedback.
• geoscience animations, which illuminate the most difficult-tounderstand topics in oceanography and were created by an expert team of geoscience educators. The animation activities include audio narration, a text transcript, and assignable multiple-choice questions with specific wrong-answer feedback.
• Dynamic study Modules, which help students study effectively on their own by continuously assessing their activity and performance in real time. Here’s how it works: Students complete a set of questions with a unique answer format that also asks them to indicate their confidence level. Questions repeat until the student can answer them all correctly and confidently. Once completed, Dynamic Study Modules explain the concept using materials from the text. These are available as graded assignments prior to class, and accessible on smartphones, tablets, and computers.
• learning Catalytics™, which are an interactive student response tool that uses students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in more sophisticated tasks and thinking. Now included with MyLab & Mastering and eText, Learning Catalytics™ enables you to generate classroom discussion, guide your lecture, and promote peer-to-peer learning with real-time analytics.
• stuDEnt pErForManCE analytiCs MasteringOceanography allows an instructor to gain easy access to information about student performance and their ability to meet student learning outcomes. Instructors can quickly add their own learning outcomes, or use publisher-provided ones, to track student performance.
• instruCtor Manual (DoWnloaD only) This resource contains learning objectives, chapter outlines, answers to embedded end-of-section questions, and suggested teaching tips to spice up your lectures.
• tEstgEn® CoMputEriZED tEst BanK (DoWnloaD only) This resource is a computerized test generator that lets instructors view and edit Test Bank questions, transfer questions to tests, and print the test in a variety of customized formats. The Test Bank includes over 1200 multiple-choice, matching, and short-answer/essay questions. All questions are tied to the chapter’s learning outcomes, include a rating based on Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains (Bloom’s 1–6) and contain the section number in which each question’s answer can be found.
• instruCtor poWErpoint® prEsEntations (DoWnloaD only) Instructor Resource Materials include the following three PowerPoint® files for each chapter so that you can cut down on your preparation time, no matter what your lecture needs:
1. EXClusivEly art: This file provides all the photos, art, and tables from the text, in order, loaded into PowerPoint® slides.
2. lECturE outlinE: This file averages 50 PowerPoint® slides per chapter and includes customizable lecture outlines with supporting art.
3. ClassrooM rEsponsE systEM (Crs) QuEstions: Authored for use in conjunction with classroom response systems, this PowerPoint® file allows you to electronically poll your class for responses to questions, pop quizzes, attendance, and more.
For more information about these instructor resources, contact your Pearson textbook representative.
Acknowledgments
I am indebted to many individuals for their helpful comments and suggestions during the revision of this book. I am particularly indebted to Development Editor Dr. Barbara Price of Pearson Education for her encouragement, ideas, and tireless advocacy that she provided to improve the book. It was a pleasure working with you, Barbara! Laura Faye Tenenbaum did an outstanding job of creating and narrating the SmartFigure and SmartTable videos that are found as QR code links throughout this book. Jenny Duncan did an excellent job of updating all the study area questions in MasteringOceanography. Thanks also go to Dr. Angel Rodriquez of Broward College in Florida for his ideas and contributions to Chapter 13. In addition, Garfield Kwan did a superb job of bringing scientific information to life through his Squidtoons infographic comics, some of which are included as links in each chapter of this book.
Many people were instrumental in helping the text evolve from its manuscript stage. My chief liaison at Pearson Education, Senior Geoscience Editor Andrew Dunaway, suggested many of the new ideas in the book to make it more student-friendly and expertly guided the project. The copy editors at Lumina Datamatics did a superb job of editing the manuscript, catching many English and other grammar errors, including obscure errors that had persisted throughout several previous editions. Program Manager Sarah Shefveland worked behind the scenes to manage the quality of this text in terms of accuracy, budget, and the achievement of program goals. Project Manager Connie Long kept the book on track by making sure deadlines were met along the way and facilitated the distribution of various versions of the manuscripts. Media Producer Mia Sullivan helped create the electronic supplements that accompany this book, including MasteringOceanography and all of its outstanding features. The animations studio Thought Café - http://thoughtcafe.ca/#sthash. TQCfCo9V.dpbs crafted the new animations and added additional ideas, which led to great improvements. International Mapping Associates and Peter Bull Art Studio did a beautiful job of modernizing and updating all maps and most of the figures to add annotations that help tell the story of the content through the art. Art Development Editor Jay McElroy reviewed every single piece of art throughout the text and suggested many improvements to make the figures more clear. Marine biologist and talented Digital Graphic Artist Justin Hofman supplied a host of new figures featuring realistic marine organisms that greatly enhanced the art program. The artful design elements of
the text, including its color scheme, text wrapping, and end-of-chapter features, was developed by Layout Designer Gary Hespenheide in conjunction with Pearson’s Design Manager Derek Bacchus. New photos were researched and secured by Photo Researcher Kristin Piljay. Last but not least, Senior Production Manager Lindsay Bethoney of Lumina Datamatics deserves special recognition for her persistence and encouragement during the many long hours of turning the manuscript into the book you see today.
I thank my students, whose questions provided the material for the “Students Sometimes Ask … ” sections and whose continued input has proved invaluable for improving the text. Because scientists (and all good teachers) are always experimenting, thanks also for allowing yourselves to be a captive audience with which to conduct my experiments.
I also thank my patient and understanding family for putting up with my absence during the long hours of preparing “The Book.” Finally, appreciation is extended to the chocolate manufacturers Hershey, See’s, and Ghirardelli, for providing inspiration. A heartfelt thanks to all of you!
Many other individuals (including dozens of anonymous reviewers) have provided valuable technical reviews for this and previous works. The following reviewers are gratefully acknowledged:
Patty Anderson, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Shirley Baker, University of Florida
William Balsam, University of Texas at Arlington
Tsing Bardin, City College of San Francisco
Tony Barros, Miami-Dade Community College
Steven Benham, Pacific Lutheran University
Lori Bettison-Varga, College of Wooster
Thomas Bianchi, Tulane University
David Black, University of Akron
Mark Boryta, Consumnes River College
Laurie Brown, University of Massachusetts
Kathleen Browne, Rider University
Aurora Burd, Green River Community College
Nancy Bushell, Kauai Community College
Chatham Callan, Hawaii Pacific University
Mark Chiappone, Miami-Dade College–Homestead Campus
Chris Cirmo, State University of New York, Cortland
G. Kent Colbath, Cerritos Community College
Thomas Cramer, Brookdale Community College
Richard Crooker, Kutztown University
Cynthia Cudaback, North Carolina State University
Warren Currie, Ohio University
Hans Dam, University of Connecticut
Dan Deocampo, California State University, Sacramento
Richard Dixon, Texas State University
Holly Dodson, Sierra College
Joachim Dorsch, St. Louis Community College
Wallace Drexler, Shippensburg University
Walter Dudley, University of Hawaii
Iver Duedall, Florida Institute of Technology
Jessica Dutton, Adelphi University
Charles Ebert, State University of New York, Buffalo
Ted Eckmann, University of Portland
Charles Epifanio, University of Delaware
Jiasong Fang, Hawaii Pacific University
Diego Figueroa, Florida State University
Kenneth Finger, Irvine Valley College
Catrina Frey, Broward College
Jessica Garza, MiraCosta College
Benjamin Giese, Texas A&M University
Cari Gomes, MiraCosta College
Dave Gosse, University of Virginia
Carla Grandy, City College of San Francisco
John Griffin, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Elizabeth Griffith, University of Texas at Arlington
Gary Griggs, University of California, Santa Cruz
Joseph Holliday, El Camino Community College
Mary Anne Holmes, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Timothy Horner, California State University, Sacramento
Alan Jacobs, Youngstown State University
Ron Johnson, Old Dominion University
Uwe Richard Kackstaetter, Metropolitan State University of Denver
Charlotte Kelchner, Oakton Community College
Matthew Kleban, New York University
Eryn Klosko, State University of New York, Westchester Community College
M. John Kocurko, Midwestern State University
Lawrence Krissek, Ohio State University
Jason Krumholz, NOAA/University of Rhode Island
Paul LaRock, Louisiana State University
Gary Lash, State University of New York, Fredonia
Richard Laws, University of North Carolina
Richard Little, Greenfield Community College
Stephen Macko, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
Chris Marone, Pennsylvania State University
Jonathan McKenzie, Edison State College–Lee Campus
Matthew McMackin, San Jose State University
James McWhorter, Miami-Dade Community College
Gregory Mead, University of Florida
Keith Meldahl, MiraCosta College
Nancy Mesner, Utah State University
Chris Metzler, MiraCosta College
Johnnie Moore, University of Montana
P. Graham Mortyn, California State University, Fresno
Andrew Muller, Millersville University
Andrew Muller, Utah State University
Daniel Murphy, Eastfield College
Jay Muza, Florida Atlantic University
Jennifer Nelson, Indiana University–Purdue University at Indianapolis
Jim Noyes, El Camino Community College
Sarah O’Malley, Maine Maritime Academy
B. L. Oostdam, Millersville University
William Orr, University of Oregon
Joseph Osborn, Century College
Donald Palmer, Kent State University
Nancy Penncavage, Suffolk County Community College
Curt Peterson, Portland State University
Adam Petrusek, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
Edward Ponto, Onondaga Community College
Donald Reed, San Jose State University
Randal Reed, Shasta College
M. Hassan Rezaie Boroon, California State University, Los Angeles
Cathryn Rhodes, University of California, Davis
James Rine, University of South Carolina
Felix Rizk, Manatee Community College
Angel Rodriguez, Broward College
Diane Shepherd, Shepherd Veterinary Clinic, Hawaii
Beth Simmons, Metropolitan State College of Denver
Jill Singer, State University of New York, Buffalo
Arthur Snoke, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Pamela Stephens, Midwestern State University
Dean Stockwell, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Scott Stone, Fairfax High School, Virginia
Lenore Tedesco, Indiana University–Purdue University at Indianapolis
Shelly Thompson, West High School
Craig Tobias, University of North Carolina, Wilmington
M. Craig VanBoskirk, Florida Community College at Jacksonville
Paul Vincent, Oregon State University
George Voulgaris, University of South Carolina
Bess Ward, Princeton University
Jackie Watkins, Midwestern State University
Jamieson Webb, Gulf Coast State College
Arthur Wegweiser, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
Diana Wenzel, Seminole State College of Florida
John White, Louisiana State University
Katryn Wiese, City College of San Francisco
Raymond Wiggers, College of Lake County
John Wormuth, Texas A&M University
Memorie Yasuda, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Although this book has benefited from careful review by many individuals, the accuracy of the information rests with the authors. If you find errors or have comments about the text, please contact me.
Al Trujillo
Department of Earth, Space, and Aviation Sciences
Palomar College 1140 W. Mission Rd. San Marcos, CA 92069 atrujillo@palomar.edu www2.palomar.edu/users/atrujillo
“If there is magic on this planet, it is contained in water.”
—Loren Eiseley, American educator and natural science writer (1907–1977)
